"dataclasses" --- データクラス
******************************

**ソースコード:** Lib/dataclasses.py

======================================================================

このモジュールは、"__init__()" や "__repr__()" のような *特殊メソッド*
を生成し、ユーザー定義のクラスに自動的に追加するデコレーターや関数を提
供します。このモジュールは元々、 **PEP 557** で説明されていました。

これらの生成されたメソッドで利用されるメンバー変数は **PEP 526** 型ア
ノテーションを用いて定義されます。例えば、このコードでは:

   from dataclasses import dataclass

   @dataclass
   class InventoryItem:
       """Class for keeping track of an item in inventory."""
       name: str
       unit_price: float
       quantity_on_hand: int = 0

       def total_cost(self) -> float:
           return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand

とりわけ、以下のような "__init__()" が追加されます:

   def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int = 0):
       self.name = name
       self.unit_price = unit_price
       self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand

このメソッドは自動的にクラスに追加される点に留意して下さい。上記の
"InventoryItem" クラスの定義中にこのメソッドが直接明記されるわけではあ
りません。

Added in version 3.7.


モジュールの内容
================

@dataclasses.dataclass(*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)

   この関数は、後述する *特殊メソッド* を生成し、クラスに追加する
   *decorator* です。

   "@dataclass" デコレータは、"field" を探すためにクラスを検査します。
   "field" は *型アノテーション* を持つクラス変数として定義されます。
   後述する２つの例外を除き、 "@dataclass" は変数アノテーションで指定
   した型を検査しません。

   生成されるすべてのメソッドの中でのフィールドの順序は、それらのフィ
   ールドがクラス定義に現れた順序です。

   "@dataclass" デコレータは、後述する様々な "ダンダー" メソッド (訳注
   ：dunderはdouble underscoreの略で、メソッド名の前後にアンダースコア
   が2つ付いているメソッド) をクラスに追加します。クラスに既にこれらの
   メソッドが存在する場合の動作は、後述する引数によって異なります。デ
   コレータは呼び出した際に指定したクラスと同じクラスを返します。新し
   いクラスは生成されません。

   If "@dataclass" is used just as a simple decorator with no
   parameters, it acts as if it has the default values documented in
   this signature.  That is, these three uses of "@dataclass" are
   equivalent:

      @dataclass
      class C:
          ...

      @dataclass()
      class C:
          ...

      @dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False,
                 match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False)
      class C:
          ...

   The parameters to "@dataclass" are:

   * *init*: If true (the default), a "__init__()" method will be
     generated.

     If the class already defines "__init__()", this parameter is
     ignored.

   * *repr*: If true (the default), a "__repr__()" method will be
     generated.  The generated repr string will have the class name
     and the name and repr of each field, in the order they are
     defined in the class.  Fields that are marked as being excluded
     from the repr are not included.  For example:
     "InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0,
     quantity_on_hand=10)".

     If the class already defines "__repr__()", this parameter is
     ignored.

   * *eq*: If true (the default), an "__eq__()" method will be
     generated.

     This method compares the class by comparing each field in order.
     Both instances in the comparison must be of the identical type.

     If the class already defines "__eq__()", this parameter is
     ignored.

     バージョン 3.13 で変更: The generated "__eq__" method now
     compares each field individually (for example, "self.a == other.a
     and self.b == other.b"), rather than comparing tuples of fields
     as in previous versions.This change makes the comparison faster
     but it may alter results in cases where attributes compare equal
     by identity but not by value (such as "float('nan')").In Python
     3.12 and earlier, the comparison was performed by creating tuples
     of the fields and comparing them (for example, "(self.a, self.b)
     == (other.a, other.b)").

   * *order*: If true (the default is "False"), "__lt__()",
     "__le__()", "__gt__()", and "__ge__()" methods will be generated.
     These compare the class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in
     order.  Both instances in the comparison must be of the identical
     type.  If *order* is true and *eq* is false, a "ValueError" is
     raised.

     If the class already defines any of "__lt__()", "__le__()",
     "__gt__()", or "__ge__()", then "TypeError" is raised.

   * *unsafe_hash*: If true, force "dataclasses" to create a
     "__hash__()" method, even though it may not be safe to do so.
     Otherwise, generate a "__hash__()" method according to how *eq*
     and *frozen* are set. The default value is "False".

     "__hash__()" is used by built-in "hash()", and when objects are
     added to hashed collections such as dictionaries and sets.
     Having a "__hash__()" implies that instances of the class are
     immutable. Mutability is a complicated property that depends on
     the programmer's intent, the existence and behavior of
     "__eq__()", and the values of the *eq* and *frozen* flags in the
     "@dataclass" decorator.

     By default, "@dataclass" will not implicitly add a "__hash__()"
     method unless it is safe to do so.  Neither will it add or change
     an existing explicitly defined "__hash__()" method.  Setting the
     class attribute "__hash__ = None" has a specific meaning to
     Python, as described in the "__hash__()" documentation.

     If "__hash__()" is not explicitly defined, or if it is set to
     "None", then "@dataclass" *may* add an implicit "__hash__()"
     method. Although not recommended, you can force "@dataclass" to
     create a "__hash__()" method with "unsafe_hash=True". This might
     be the case if your class is logically immutable but can still be
     mutated. This is a specialized use case and should be considered
     carefully.

     Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a "__hash__()"
     method.  Note that you cannot both have an explicit "__hash__()"
     method in your dataclass and set "unsafe_hash=True"; this will
     result in a "TypeError".

     If *eq* and *frozen* are both true, by default "@dataclass" will
     generate a "__hash__()" method for you.  If *eq* is true and
     *frozen* is false, "__hash__()" will be set to "None", marking it
     unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable).  If *eq* is false,
     "__hash__()" will be left untouched meaning the "__hash__()"
     method of the superclass will be used (if the superclass is
     "object", this means it will fall back to id-based hashing).

   * *frozen*: If true (the default is "False"), assigning to fields
     will generate an exception.  This emulates read-only frozen
     instances. See the discussion below.

     If "__setattr__()" or "__delattr__()" is defined in the class and
     *frozen* is true, then "TypeError" is raised.

   * *match_args*: If true (the default is "True"), the
     "__match_args__" tuple will be created from the list of non
     keyword-only parameters to the generated "__init__()" method
     (even if "__init__()" is not generated, see above).  If false, or
     if "__match_args__" is already defined in the class, then
     "__match_args__" will not be generated.

      Added in version 3.10.

   * *kw_only*: If true (the default value is "False"), then all
     fields will be marked as keyword-only.  If a field is marked as
     keyword-only, then the only effect is that the "__init__()"
     parameter generated from a keyword-only field must be specified
     with a keyword when "__init__()" is called. See the *parameter*
     glossary entry for details.  Also see the "KW_ONLY" section.

     Keyword-only fields are not included in "__match_args__".

      Added in version 3.10.

   * *slots*: If true (the default is "False"), "__slots__" attribute
     will be generated and new class will be returned instead of the
     original one. If "__slots__" is already defined in the class,
     then "TypeError" is raised.

      警告:

        Passing parameters to a base class "__init_subclass__()" when
        using "slots=True" will result in a "TypeError". Either use
        "__init_subclass__" with no parameters or use default values
        as a workaround. See gh-91126 for full details.

      Added in version 3.10.

      バージョン 3.11 で変更: If a field name is already included in
      the "__slots__" of a base class, it will not be included in the
      generated "__slots__" to prevent overriding them. Therefore, do
      not use "__slots__" to retrieve the field names of a dataclass.
      Use "fields()" instead. To be able to determine inherited slots,
      base class "__slots__" may be any iterable, but *not* an
      iterator.

   * *weakref_slot*: If true (the default is "False"), add a slot
     named "__weakref__", which is required to make an instance
     "weakref-able". It is an error to specify "weakref_slot=True"
     without also specifying "slots=True".

      Added in version 3.11.

   "フィールド" には、通常の Python の文法でデフォルト値を指定できます
   。

      @dataclass
      class C:
          a: int       # 'a' has no default value
          b: int = 0   # assign a default value for 'b'

   In this example, both "a" and "b" will be included in the added
   "__init__()" method, which will be defined as:

      def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0):

   デフォルト値を指定しないフィールドを、デフォルト値を指定したフィー
   ルドの後ろに定義すると、 "TypeError" が送出されます。これは、単一の
   クラスであっても、クラス継承の結果でも起きえます。

dataclasses.field(*, default=MISSING, default_factory=MISSING, init=True, repr=True, hash=None, compare=True, metadata=None, kw_only=MISSING, doc=None)

   For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is
   required.  There are, however, some dataclass features that require
   additional per-field information.  To satisfy this need for
   additional information, you can replace the default field value
   with a call to the provided "field()" function.  For example:

      @dataclass
      class C:
          mylist: list[int] = field(default_factory=list)

      c = C()
      c.mylist += [1, 2, 3]

   As shown above, the "MISSING" value is a sentinel object used to
   detect if some parameters are provided by the user. This sentinel
   is used because "None" is a valid value for some parameters with a
   distinct meaning.  No code should directly use the "MISSING" value.

   The parameters to "field()" are:

   * *default*: If provided, this will be the default value for this
     field.  This is needed because the "field()" call itself replaces
     the normal position of the default value.

   * *default_factory*: If provided, it must be a zero-argument
     callable that will be called when a default value is needed for
     this field.  Among other purposes, this can be used to specify
     fields with mutable default values, as discussed below.  It is an
     error to specify both *default* and *default_factory*.

   * *init*: If true (the default), this field is included as a
     parameter to the generated "__init__()" method.

   * *repr*: If true (the default), this field is included in the
     string returned by the generated "__repr__()" method.

   * *hash*: This can be a bool or "None".  If true, this field is
     included in the generated "__hash__()" method.  If false, this
     field is excluded from the generated "__hash__()". If "None" (the
     default), use the value of *compare*: this would normally be the
     expected behavior, since a field should be included in the hash
     if it's used for comparisons.  Setting this value to anything
     other than "None" is discouraged.

     フィールドのハッシュ値を計算するコストが高い場合に、 "hash=False"
     だが "compare=True" と設定する理由が 1 つあるとすれば、フィールド
     が等価検査に必要かつ、その型のハッシュ値を計算するのに他のフィー
     ルドも使われることです。 フィールドがハッシュから除外されていたと
     しても、比較には使えます。

   * *compare*: If true (the default), this field is included in the
     generated equality and comparison methods ("__eq__()",
     "__gt__()", et al.).

   * *metadata*: This can be a mapping or "None". "None" is treated as
     an empty dict.  This value is wrapped in "MappingProxyType()" to
     make it read-only, and exposed on the "Field" object. It is not
     used at all by Data Classes, and is provided as a third-party
     extension mechanism. Multiple third-parties can each have their
     own key, to use as a namespace in the metadata.

   * *kw_only*: If true, this field will be marked as keyword-only.
     This is used when the generated "__init__()" method's parameters
     are computed.

     Keyword-only fields are also not included in "__match_args__".

      Added in version 3.10.

   * *doc*: optional docstring for this field.

      Added in version 3.14.

   If the default value of a field is specified by a call to
   "field()", then the class attribute for this field will be replaced
   by the specified *default* value.  If *default* is not provided,
   then the class attribute will be deleted.  The intent is that after
   the "@dataclass" decorator runs, the class attributes will all
   contain the default values for the fields, just as if the default
   value itself were specified.  For example, after:

      @dataclass
      class C:
          x: int
          y: int = field(repr=False)
          z: int = field(repr=False, default=10)
          t: int = 20

   The class attribute "C.z" will be "10", the class attribute "C.t"
   will be "20", and the class attributes "C.x" and "C.y" will not be
   set.

class dataclasses.Field

   "Field" objects describe each defined field. These objects are
   created internally, and are returned by the "fields()" module-level
   method (see below).  Users should never instantiate a "Field"
   object directly.  Its documented attributes are:

   * "name": The name of the field.

   * "type": The type of the field.

   * "default", "default_factory", "init", "repr", "hash", "compare",
     "metadata", and "kw_only" have the identical meaning and values
     as they do in the "field()" function.

   他の属性があることもありますが、それらはプライベートであり、調べた
   り、依存したりしてはなりません。

class dataclasses.InitVar

   "InitVar[T]" type annotations describe variables that are init-
   only. Fields annotated with "InitVar" are considered pseudo-fields,
   and thus are neither returned by the "fields()" function nor used
   in any way except adding them as parameters to "__init__()" and an
   optional "__post_init__()".

dataclasses.fields(class_or_instance)

   このデータクラスのフィールドを定義する "Field" オブジェクトをタプル
   で返します。 データクラスあるいはデータクラスのインスタンスを受け付
   けます。 データクラスやデータクラスのインスタンスが渡されなかった場
   合は、 "TypeError" を送出します。 "ClassVar" や "InitVar" といった
   疑似フィールドは返しません。

dataclasses.asdict(obj, *, dict_factory=dict)

   Converts the dataclass *obj* to a dict (by using the factory
   function *dict_factory*).  Each dataclass is converted to a dict of
   its fields, as "name: value" pairs.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and
   tuples are recursed into.  Other objects are copied with
   "copy.deepcopy()".

   Example of using "asdict()" on nested dataclasses:

      @dataclass
      class Point:
           x: int
           y: int

      @dataclass
      class C:
           mylist: list[Point]

      p = Point(10, 20)
      assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20}

      c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)])
      assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]}

   To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

      {field.name: getattr(obj, field.name) for field in fields(obj)}

   "asdict()" raises "TypeError" if *obj* is not a dataclass instance.

dataclasses.astuple(obj, *, tuple_factory=tuple)

   Converts the dataclass *obj* to a tuple (by using the factory
   function *tuple_factory*).  Each dataclass is converted to a tuple
   of its field values.  dataclasses, dicts, lists, and tuples are
   recursed into. Other objects are copied with "copy.deepcopy()".

   1つ前の例の続きです:

      assert astuple(p) == (10, 20)
      assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],)

   To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used:

      tuple(getattr(obj, field.name) for field in dataclasses.fields(obj))

   "astuple()" raises "TypeError" if *obj* is not a dataclass
   instance.

dataclasses.make_dataclass(cls_name, fields, *, bases=(), namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False, module=None, decorator=dataclass)

   Creates a new dataclass with name *cls_name*, fields as defined in
   *fields*, base classes as given in *bases*, and initialized with a
   namespace as given in *namespace*.  *fields* is an iterable whose
   elements are each either "name", "(name, type)", or "(name, type,
   Field)".  If just "name" is supplied, "typing.Any" is used for
   "type".  The values of *init*, *repr*, *eq*, *order*,
   *unsafe_hash*, *frozen*, *match_args*, *kw_only*, *slots*, and
   *weakref_slot* have the same meaning as they do in "@dataclass".

   If *module* is defined, the "__module__" attribute of the dataclass
   is set to that value. By default, it is set to the module name of
   the caller.

   The *decorator* parameter is a callable that will be used to create
   the dataclass. It should take the class object as a first argument
   and the same keyword arguments as "@dataclass". By default, the
   "@dataclass" function is used.

   This function is not strictly required, because any Python
   mechanism for creating a new class with "__annotations__" can then
   apply the "@dataclass" function to convert that class to a
   dataclass.  This function is provided as a convenience.  For
   example:

      C = make_dataclass('C',
                         [('x', int),
                           'y',
                          ('z', int, field(default=5))],
                         namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1})

   は、次のコードと等しいです:

      @dataclass
      class C:
          x: int
          y: 'typing.Any'
          z: int = 5

          def add_one(self):
              return self.x + 1

   Added in version 3.14: Added the *decorator* parameter.

dataclasses.replace(obj, /, **changes)

   Creates a new object of the same type as *obj*, replacing fields
   with values from *changes*.  If *obj* is not a Data Class, raises
   "TypeError".  If keys in *changes* are not field names of the given
   dataclass, raises "TypeError".

   The newly returned object is created by calling the "__init__()"
   method of the dataclass.  This ensures that "__post_init__()", if
   present, is also called.

   Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be
   specified on the call to "replace()" so that they can be passed to
   "__init__()" and "__post_init__()".

   It is an error for *changes* to contain any fields that are defined
   as having "init=False".  A "ValueError" will be raised in this
   case.

   Be forewarned about how "init=False" fields work during a call to
   "replace()".  They are not copied from the source object, but
   rather are initialized in "__post_init__()", if they're initialized
   at all.  It is expected that "init=False" fields will be rarely and
   judiciously used.  If they are used, it might be wise to have
   alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom "replace()" (or
   similarly named) method which handles instance copying.

   Dataclass instances are also supported by generic function
   "copy.replace()".

dataclasses.is_dataclass(obj)

   Return "True" if its parameter is a dataclass (including subclasses
   of a dataclass, but not including generic aliases) or an instance
   of one, otherwise return "False".

   引数がデータクラスのインスタンスである (そして、データクラスそのも
   のではない) かどうかを知る必要がある場合は、 "not isinstance(obj,
   type)" で追加のチェックをしてください:

      def is_dataclass_instance(obj):
          return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type)

dataclasses.MISSING

   A sentinel value signifying a missing default or default_factory.

dataclasses.KW_ONLY

   A sentinel value used as a type annotation.  Any fields after a
   pseudo-field with the type of "KW_ONLY" are marked as keyword-only
   fields.  Note that a pseudo-field of type "KW_ONLY" is otherwise
   completely ignored.  This includes the name of such a field.  By
   convention, a name of "_" is used for a "KW_ONLY" field.  Keyword-
   only fields signify "__init__()" parameters that must be specified
   as keywords when the class is instantiated.

   このサンプルでは "y" と "z" がキーワード専用フィールドとなります:

      @dataclass
      class Point:
          x: float
          _: KW_ONLY
          y: float
          z: float

      p = Point(0, y=1.5, z=2.0)

   In a single dataclass, it is an error to specify more than one
   field whose type is "KW_ONLY".

   Added in version 3.10.

exception dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError

   "frozen=True" 付きで定義されたデータクラスで、暗黙的に定義された
   "__setattr__()" または "__delattr__()" が呼び出されたときに送出され
   ます。これは "AttributeError" のサブクラスです。


初期化後の処理
==============

dataclasses.__post_init__()

   When defined on the class, it will be called by the generated
   "__init__()", normally as "self.__post_init__()". However, if any
   "InitVar" fields are defined, they will also be passed to
   "__post_init__()" in the order they were defined in the class.  If
   no "__init__()" method is generated, then "__post_init__()" will
   not automatically be called.

   他の機能と組み合わせることで、他の 1 つ以上のフィールドに依存してい
   るフィールドが初期化できます。 例えば次のようにできます:

      @dataclass
      class C:
          a: float
          b: float
          c: float = field(init=False)

          def __post_init__(self):
              self.c = self.a + self.b

The "__init__()" method generated by "@dataclass" does not call base
class "__init__()" methods. If the base class has an "__init__()"
method that has to be called, it is common to call this method in a
"__post_init__()" method:

   class Rectangle:
       def __init__(self, height, width):
           self.height = height
           self.width = width

   @dataclass
   class Square(Rectangle):
       side: float

       def __post_init__(self):
           super().__init__(self.side, self.side)

Note, however, that in general the dataclass-generated "__init__()"
methods don't need to be called, since the derived dataclass will take
care of initializing all fields of any base class that is a dataclass
itself.

下にある初期化限定変数についての節で、 "__post_init__()" にパラメータ
を渡す方法を参照してください。 "replace()" が "init=False" であるフィ
ールドをどう取り扱うかについての警告も参照してください。


クラス変数
==========

One of the few places where "@dataclass" actually inspects the type of
a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as defined in
**PEP 526**.  It does this by checking if the type of the field is
"typing.ClassVar".  If a field is a "ClassVar", it is excluded from
consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass mechanisms.
Such "ClassVar" pseudo-fields are not returned by the module-level
"fields()" function.


初期化限定変数
==============

Another place where "@dataclass" inspects a type annotation is to
determine if a field is an init-only variable.  It does this by seeing
if the type of a field is of type "InitVar".  If a field is an
"InitVar", it is considered a pseudo-field called an init-only field.
As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the module-level
"fields()" function.  Init-only fields are added as parameters to the
generated "__init__()" method, and are passed to the optional
"__post_init__()" method.  They are not otherwise used by dataclasses.

例えば、あるフィールドがデータベースから初期化されると仮定して、クラス
を作成するときには値が与えられない次の場合を考えます:

   @dataclass
   class C:
       i: int
       j: int | None = None
       database: InitVar[DatabaseType | None] = None

       def __post_init__(self, database):
           if self.j is None and database is not None:
               self.j = database.lookup('j')

   c = C(10, database=my_database)

In this case, "fields()" will return "Field" objects for "i" and "j",
but not for "database".


凍結されたインスタンス
======================

It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects.  However,
by passing "frozen=True" to the "@dataclass" decorator you can emulate
immutability.  In that case, dataclasses will add "__setattr__()" and
"__delattr__()" methods to the class.  These methods will raise a
"FrozenInstanceError" when invoked.

There is a tiny performance penalty when using "frozen=True":
"__init__()" cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and
must use "object.__setattr__()".


継承
====

When the dataclass is being created by the "@dataclass" decorator, it
looks through all of the class's base classes in reverse MRO (that is,
starting at "object") and, for each dataclass that it finds, adds the
fields from that base class to an ordered mapping of fields. After all
of the base class fields are added, it adds its own fields to the
ordered mapping.  All of the generated methods will use this combined,
calculated ordered mapping of fields.  Because the fields are in
insertion order, derived classes override base classes.  An example:

   @dataclass
   class Base:
       x: Any = 15.0
       y: int = 0

   @dataclass
   class C(Base):
       z: int = 10
       x: int = 15

The final list of fields is, in order, "x", "y", "z".  The final type
of "x" is "int", as specified in class "C".

The generated "__init__()" method for "C" will look like:

   def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):


Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in "__init__()"
======================================================

"__init__()" で必要なパラメータが算出されると、キーワード専用引数は他
の一般的な（非キーワード専用）パラメータの後に移動します。これは、すべ
てのキーワード専用引数は、非キーワード専用パラメータの末尾にこなければ
ならないという、キーワード専用パラメータのPythonの実装の都合で必要なこ
とです。

In this example, "Base.y", "Base.w", and "D.t" are keyword-only
fields, and "Base.x" and "D.z" are regular fields:

   @dataclass
   class Base:
       x: Any = 15.0
       _: KW_ONLY
       y: int = 0
       w: int = 1

   @dataclass
   class D(Base):
       z: int = 10
       t: int = field(kw_only=True, default=0)

The generated "__init__()" method for "D" will look like:

   def __init__(self, x: Any = 15.0, z: int = 10, *, y: int = 0, w: int = 1, t: int = 0):

パラメータは、フィールドのリストの表示方法によって並べ替えられます。通
常のフィールドから派生したパラメータの後に、キーワードのみのフィールド
から派生したパラメータが続きます。

The relative ordering of keyword-only parameters is maintained in the
re-ordered "__init__()" parameter list.


デフォルトファクトリ関数
========================

If a "field()" specifies a *default_factory*, it is called with zero
arguments when a default value for the field is needed.  For example,
to create a new instance of a list, use:

   mylist: list = field(default_factory=list)

If a field is excluded from "__init__()" (using "init=False") and the
field also specifies *default_factory*, then the default factory
function will always be called from the generated "__init__()"
function.  This happens because there is no other way to give the
field an initial value.


可変なデフォルト値
==================

Python はメンバ変数のデフォルト値をクラス属性に保持します。 データクラ
スを使っていない、この例を考えてみましょう:

   class C:
       x = []
       def add(self, element):
           self.x.append(element)

   o1 = C()
   o2 = C()
   o1.add(1)
   o2.add(2)
   assert o1.x == [1, 2]
   assert o1.x is o2.x

Note that the two instances of class "C" share the same class variable
"x", as expected.

データクラスを使っているこのコードが *もし仮に* 有効なものだとしたら:

   @dataclass
   class D:
       x: list = []      # This code raises ValueError
       def add(self, element):
           self.x.append(element)

データクラスは次のようなコードを生成するでしょう:

   class D:
       x = []
       def __init__(self, x=x):
           self.x = x
       def add(self, element):
           self.x.append(element)

   assert D().x is D().x

This has the same issue as the original example using class "C". That
is, two instances of class "D" that do not specify a value for "x"
when creating a class instance will share the same copy of "x".
Because dataclasses just use normal Python class creation they also
share this behavior.  There is no general way for Data Classes to
detect this condition.  Instead, the "@dataclass" decorator will raise
a "ValueError" if it detects an unhashable default parameter.  The
assumption is that if a value is unhashable, it is mutable.  This is a
partial solution, but it does protect against many common errors.

デフォルトファクトリ関数を使うのが、フィールドのデフォルト値として可変
な型の新しいインスタンスを作成する手段です:

   @dataclass
   class D:
       x: list = field(default_factory=list)

   assert D().x is not D().x

バージョン 3.11 で変更: Instead of looking for and disallowing objects
of type "list", "dict", or "set", unhashable objects are now not
allowed as default values.  Unhashability is used to approximate
mutability.


Descriptor-typed fields
=======================

Fields that are assigned descriptor objects as their default value
have the following special behaviors:

* The value for the field passed to the dataclass's "__init__()"
  method is passed to the descriptor's "__set__()" method rather than
  overwriting the descriptor object.

* Similarly, when getting or setting the field, the descriptor's
  "__get__()" or "__set__()" method is called rather than returning or
  overwriting the descriptor object.

* To determine whether a field contains a default value, "@dataclass"
  will call the descriptor's "__get__()" method using its class access
  form: "descriptor.__get__(obj=None, type=cls)".  If the descriptor
  returns a value in this case, it will be used as the field's
  default. On the other hand, if the descriptor raises
  "AttributeError" in this situation, no default value will be
  provided for the field.

   class IntConversionDescriptor:
       def __init__(self, *, default):
           self._default = default

       def __set_name__(self, owner, name):
           self._name = "_" + name

       def __get__(self, obj, type):
           if obj is None:
               return self._default

           return getattr(obj, self._name, self._default)

       def __set__(self, obj, value):
           setattr(obj, self._name, int(value))

   @dataclass
   class InventoryItem:
       quantity_on_hand: IntConversionDescriptor = IntConversionDescriptor(default=100)

   i = InventoryItem()
   print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 100
   i.quantity_on_hand = 2.5    # calls __set__ with 2.5
   print(i.quantity_on_hand)   # 2

Note that if a field is annotated with a descriptor type, but is not
assigned a descriptor object as its default value, the field will act
like a normal field.
