Abstract
Feedback is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be either positive or negative. Its power is frequently mentioned in articles about learning and teaching, but surprisingly few recent studies have systematically investigated its meaning. This article provides a conceptual analysis of feedback and reviews the evidence related to its impact on learning and achievement. This evidence shows that although feedback is among the major influences, the type of feedback and the way it is given can be differentially effective. A model of feedback is then proposed that identifies the particular properties and circumstances that make it effective, and some typically thorny issues are discussed, including the timing of feedback and the effects of positive and negative feedback. Finally, this analysis is used to suggest ways in which feedback can be used to enhance its effectiveness in classrooms.
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Figure and Tables
| Study | Context | Number of effects | Effect size |
|---|---|---|---|
| Skiba, Casey, and Center (1985–1986) | For special education students | 35 | 1.24 |
| Lysakowski and Walberg (1982) | Cues, corrective feedback | 54 | 1.13 |
| Walberg (1982) | Cues, motivational influences, and reinforcement | 19 | 0.81 |
| Tenenbaum and Goldring (1989) | Cues, participation, reinforcement, feedback, and correctives | 15 | 0.74 |
| Rummel and Feinberg (1988) | Extrinsic feedback rewards | 45 | 0.60 |
| Yeany and Miller (1983) | Diagnostic feedback in science | 49 | 0.52 |
| Kluger and De Nisi (1996) | Feedback | 470 | 0.38 |
| L’Hommedieu, Menges, and Brinko (1990) | From student ratings | 28 | 0.34 |
| Moin (1986) | Feedback | 0.29 | |
| Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, Kulik, and Morgan (1991) | From testing | 40 | 0.28 |
| Kulik and Kulik (1988) | Immediate versus delayed | 53 | 0.28 |
| Getsie, Langer, and Glass (1985) | Rewards and punishments | 89 | 0.14 |
| Wilkinson (1981) | Teacher praise | 14 | 0.12 |
| Variable | Number of meta-analyses | Number of studies | Number of effects | Effect size |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cues | 3 | 89 | 129 | 1.10 |
| Feedback | 74 | 4,157 | 5,755 | 0.95 |
| Reinforcement | 1 | 19 | 19 | 0.94 |
| Video or audio feedback | 1 | 91 | 715 | 0.64 |
| Computer-assisted instructional feedback | 4 | 161 | 129 | 0.52 |
| Goals and feedback | 8 | 640 | 121 | 0.46 |
| Student evaluation feedback | 3 | 100 | 61 | 0.42 |
| Corrective feedback | 25 | 1,149 | 1,040 | 0.37 |
| Delayed versus immediate | 5 | 178 | 83 | 0.34 |
| Reward | 3 | 223 | 508 | 0.31 |
| Immediate versus delayed | 8 | 398 | 167 | 0.24 |
| Punishment | 1 | 89 | 210 | 0.20 |
| Praise | 11 | 388 | 4,410 | 0.14 |
| Programmed instruction | 1 | 40 | 23 | −0.04 |
| Moderator | Number of effects | Effect size |
|---|---|---|
| Correct feedback | ||
| ’Tis correct | 114 | 0.43 |
| ’Tis incorrect | 197 | 0.25 |
| Task feedback about changes from previous trials | ||
| Yes | 50 | 0.55 |
| No | 380 | 0.28 |
| Task feedback designed to discourage the student | ||
| Yes | 49 | −0.14 |
| No | 388 | 0.33 |
| Praise feedback about the task | ||
| Yes | 80 | 0.09 |
| No | 358 | 0.34 |
| Feedback provided from a computer | ||
| Yes | 87 | 0.41 |
| No | 337 | 0.23 |
| Number of times feedback was provided | ||
| Lots | 97 | 0.32 |
| Little | 171 | 0.39 |
| Task complexity | ||
| Very complex | 107 | 0.03 |
| Not complex | 114 | 0.55 |
| Goal setting | ||
| Difficult goals | 37 | 0.51 |
| Easy, do your best goals | 373 | 0.30 |
| Threat to self-esteem | ||
| Much threat | 102 | 0.08 |
| Little threat | 170 | 0.47 |
Source. Kluger and DeNisi (1996).
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