Stephen hawking
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Stephen William Hawking (8 ga watan Janairun 1942 - 14 ga watan Maris na shekara ta 2018) Masanin kimiyyar taurari ne na Ingila, masanin ilimin sararin samaniya, kuma marubuci wanda ya kasance darektan bincike a Cibiyar Nazarin Cosmology a Jami'ar Cambridge . – Tsakanin 1979 da 2009, ya kasance Farfesa na Lucasian na Lissafi a Cambridge, wanda aka fi kallo a matsayin daya daga cikin manyan mukamai na ilimi a duniya. An haifi Hawking a Oxford a cikin dangin likitoci. A shekara ta 1959, yana da shekaru 17, ya fara karatun jami'a a Kwalejin Jami'ar, Oxford, inda ya sami digiri na farko na BA a fannin kimiyyar lissafi. A shekara ta 1962, ya fara aikinsa na digiri a Trinity Hall, Cambridge, inda, a shekarar 1966, ya sami digirinsa na PhD a fannin lissafi da kimiyyar lissafi, ya kware a fannin relativity da cosmology. A cikin 1963, yana da shekaru 21, an gano Hawking da wani nau'i mai saurin ci gaba na cututtukan jijiyoyin motsi wanda a hankali, sama da shekaru da yawa, ya gurgunta shi. Bayan asarar maganarsa, ya yi magana ta hanyar na'urar samar da magana, da farko ta hanyar amfani da sauyawar hannu, kuma a ƙarshe ta hanyar amfani leɓen ƙashin guda ɗaya.
Ayyukan kimiyya na Hawking sun haɗa da haɗin gwiwa tare da Roger Penrose a kan ka'idojin ƙididdigar ƙididdiga a cikin tsarin ma'auni na gaba ɗaya, da kuma tsinkaya na ka'idar cewa ramukan baƙar fata suna fitar da radiation, sau da yawa ana kiranta radiation na Hawking. Da farko, radiation na Hawking ya kasance mai kawo rigima. A ƙarshen shekarun 1970s, kuma bayan da aka buga ƙarin bincike, an yarda da binciken a matsayin babban ci gaba a cikin ilimin lissafi. Hawking shine na farko da ya kafa ka'idar ilimin sararin samaniya wanda aka bayyana ta hanyar haɗin ka'idar ma'auni da injiniyan lissafi. Ya goyi bayan Fassarar duniya da yawa na injiniyan lissafi. Ya kuma gabatar da ra'ayin micro black hole.[1]
Hawking ya sami nasarar kasuwanci tare da ayyuka da yawa na shahararrun kimiyya inda ya tattauna ka'idodinsa da ilimin sararin samaniya gabaɗaya. Littafinsa A Brief History of Time ya bayyana a cikin jerin sunayen mafi kyawun Sunday Times na makonni 237. Hawking ya kasance Fellow na Royal Society, memba na rayuwa na Kwalejin Kimiyya ta Pontifical, kuma mai karɓar lambar yabo ta Shugaban kasa ta 'Yanci, babbar lambar yabo ta farar hula a Amurka. A shekara ta 2002, an sanya Hawking a matsayi na 25 a cikin binciken BBC na 100 Greatest Britons. Ya mutu a shekara ta 2018 yana da shekaru 76, bayan ya rayu fiye da shekaru 50 bayan bincikensa na cutar neurone.
Rayuwa ta farko
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Iyali
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
An haifi Stephen William Hawking a ranar 8 ga watan Janairun 1942 a Oxford ga Frank da Isobel Eileen Hawking (née Walker). [2][3]An haifi mahaifiyar Hawking a cikin dangin likitoci a Glasgow, Scotland.[4][5] Kakan mahaifinsa mai arziki, daga Yorkshire, ya kara kansa yana sayen gonar gona sannan ya fadi a cikin babban matsalar noma a farkon karni na 20. [5] Kakar mahaifinsa ta ceci iyalin daga lalacewar kudi ta hanyar bude makaranta a gidansu.[5] Duk da matsalolin kudi na iyalansu, iyayen biyu sun halarci Jami'ar Oxford, inda Frank ya karanta magani kuma Isobel ya karanta Falsafa, Siyasa da Tattalin Arziki.[3]Isobel ya yi aiki a matsayin sakatare na cibiyar binciken kiwon lafiya, kuma Frank ya kasance mai binciken kiwon likita wanda ya kware a cikin Cututtukan wurare masu zafi. Hawking ya ce game da mahaifinsa, "Na yi koyi da kaina a kansa. Saboda shi mai bincike ne na kimiyya, na ji cewa binciken kimiyya shine abu na halitta da za a yi lokacin da mutum ya girma. Bambanci kawai shi ne cewa ban janyo hankalina ga magani ko ilmin halitta ba saboda sun yi kama da ba daidai ba kuma suna bayyanawa. Ina son wani abu mafi mahimmanci, kuma na same shi a cikin kimiyyar lissafi. "
A cikin 1950, lokacin da mahaifin Hawking ya zama shugaban sashen parasitology a Cibiyar Nazarin Kiwon Lafiya ta Kasa, iyalin suka koma St Albans, Hertfordshire.[3][2]A can, an dauki iyalin a matsayin masu basira sosai kuma suna da ɗan ban sha'awa; ana cin abinci sau da yawa tare da kowane mutum yana karanta littafi a shiru.[3][6][3]Sun rayu rayuwa mai sauƙi a cikin babban gida, mai rikice-rikice, kuma ba a kula da shi sosai ba kuma sun yi tafiya a cikin Takis na London da aka canza.[3][6]A lokacin daya daga cikin mahaifin Hawking da ke yawan aiki a Afirka, sauran dangin sun kwashe watanni hudu a Mallorca suna ziyartar abokiyar mahaifiyarsa Beryl da mijinta, mawaki Robert Graves.[6][2]
Shekaru na makarantar firamare da sakandare
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Hawking ya fara karatunsa a Makarantar Byron House da ke Highgate, London. Daga baya ya zargi "hanyar ci gaba" saboda gazawarsa na koyon karatu yayin da yake makaranta.[7][3]A St Albans, Hawking mai shekaru takwas ya halarci Makarantar Sakandare ta St Albans don 'yan mata na 'yan watanni. A wannan lokacin, ƙananan yara maza na iya halartar ɗayan gidaje.[2][3]
Hawking ya halarci makarantu masu zaman kansu guda biyu (watau biyan kuɗi), makarantar Radlett ta farko kuma daga Satumba 1952, Makarantar St Albans, Hertfordshire, [1] bayan ya wuce goma sha ɗaya da shekara guda da wuri.[3][6] Iyalin sun sanya babban darajar ilimi.[3]Mahaifin Hawking yana son ɗansa ya halarci Makarantar Westminster, amma Hawking mai shekaru 13 yana da rashin lafiya a ranar jarrabawar tallafin karatu. Iyalinsa ba za su iya biyan kuɗin makaranta ba tare da taimakon kuɗi na tallafin karatu ba, don haka Hawking ya kasance a St Albans.[6][2]Sakamakon da ya dace shi ne cewa Hawking ya kasance kusa da ƙungiyar abokai tare da su yana jin daɗin wasannin jirgi, ƙera kayan wuta, samfurin jirgin sama da jiragen ruwa, da kuma tattaunawa mai tsawo game da Kristanci da fahimta mai zurfi.[3][6]Daga 1958 zuwa gaba, tare da taimakon malamin lissafi Dikran Tahta, sun gina kwamfuta daga sassan agogo, tsohuwar allon waya da sauran abubuwan da aka sake amfani da su.[3][6]A shekara ta 1959, ya gina mai kunna rikodin daga sassan da za a iya amfani da shi: "Mahaifin zai yi la'akari da shi a matsayin mai ba da hankali, don sayen mai kunna rikodi, amma na shawo kansa cewa zan iya tara ɗaya daga sassan wanda zan iya saya mai arha. Wannan ya yi masa kira a matsayin Yorkshireman. "
Kodayake an san shi a makaranta da "Einstein", Hawking bai yi nasara ba a ilimi.[3]Tare da lokaci, ya fara nuna ƙwarewa sosai ga batutuwan kimiyya kuma, wanda Tahta ya yi wahayi zuwa gare shi, ya yanke shawarar karatun lissafi a jami'a.[6][3]Mahaifin Hawking ya shawarce shi da ya yi karatun likita, ya damu da cewa akwai ayyuka kaɗan ga masu karatun lissafi.[6]Ya kuma so ɗansa ya halarci Kwalejin Jami'ar, Oxford, alma mater nasa. Kamar yadda ba zai yiwu a karanta lissafi a can a lokacin ba, Hawking ya yanke shawarar nazarin kimiyyar lissafi da ilmin sunadarai. Duk da shawarar shugaban makarantarsa na jira har zuwa shekara mai zuwa, an ba Hawking tallafin karatu bayan ya dauki jarrabawar a watan Maris na shekara ta 1959.[3][6]
Shekaru na farko
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A watan Oktoba 1959, yana da shekaru 17, Hawking ya fara karatun jami'a a Kwalejin Jami'ar, Oxford.[3]A cikin watanni goma sha takwas na farko, ya gaji kuma ya kaɗaici - ya sami aikin ilimi "mai sauƙi".[3][6] – Malamin ilimin lissafi, Robert Berman, daga baya ya ce, "Ya zama dole ne kawai ya san cewa za a iya yin wani abu, kuma zai iya yin hakan ba tare da ya ga yadda wasu mutane suka yi ba".[3] Canji ya faru a cikin shekaru na biyu da na uku lokacin da, a cewar Berman, Hawking ya yi ƙoƙari "don zama ɗaya daga cikin yara". Ya zama sanannen, mai rai, kuma mai basira, mai sha'awar kiɗa na gargajiya da fiction kimiyya.[3]Wannan ya samo asali ne daga shawarar da ya yanke na shiga kungiyar jirgin ruwa ta Jami'ar Oxford, inda ya haɗu da ma'aikatan jirgin ruwa.[3][8]Kocin jirgin ruwa a lokacin ya lura cewa Hawking ya horar da hoton da ba shi da kyau, yana jagorantar ma'aikatansa a kan darussan haɗari waɗanda suka haifar da jiragen ruwa da suka lalace.[3][6]Hawking ya kiyasta cewa ya yi nazarin kimanin sa'o'i 1,000 a cikin shekaru uku a Oxford. Wadannan halaye masu ban sha'awa na karatu sun sanya zama ƙalubale, kuma ya yanke shawarar amsa tambayoyin kimiyyar lissafi kawai maimakon waɗanda ke buƙatar ilimin gaskiya. digiri na farko shine yanayin karɓa don shirin karatun digiri na biyu a cikin ilimin sararin samaniya a Jami'ar Cambridge.[6][3]Da Rayuwa, ya yi barci mara kyau a daren kafin jarrabawar, kuma sakamakon ya kasance a kan iyaka tsakanin girmamawa na farko da na biyu, yana yin viva (bincike na baki) tare da masu jarrabawar Oxford da suka zama dole.[3][6]
Hawking ya damu da cewa an dauke shi a matsayin dalibi mai laushi da wahala. Don haka, lokacin da aka tambaye shi a viva don bayyana shirye-shiryensa, ya ce, "Idan ka ba ni lambar yabo ta farko, zan je Cambridge. Idan na sami na biyu, zan zauna a Oxford, don haka ina tsammanin za ka ba ni ta farko. " An ɗauke shi da daraja fiye da yadda ya yi imani; kamar yadda Berman ya yi sharhi, masu jarrabawa "sun kasance masu basira don fahimtar cewa suna magana da wani da ya fi yawancin kansu wayo".[3][6][3]Bayan ya sami digiri na farko na BA a fannin kimiyyar lissafi kuma ya kammala tafiya zuwa Iran tare da aboki, [9] ya fara aikinsa na digiri a Trinity Hall, Cambridge, a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 1962. [6][3]
Shekaru na digiri
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Shekarar farko ta Hawking a matsayin dalibi na digiri ya kasance mai wahala. Da farko ya yi takaici da gano cewa an sanya shi Dennis William Sciama, daya daga cikin wadanda suka kafa ilimin sararin samaniya na zamani, a matsayin mai kula maimakon sanannen masanin taurari Fred Hoyle, kuma ya sami horo a lissafi bai dace da aiki a cikin ma'auni da ilimin sararin halitta ba.[3][6][3]Bayan an gano shi da cutar neurone, Hawking ya fada cikin baƙin ciki. Kodayake likitocinsa sun ba da shawarar cewa ya ci gaba da karatunsa, ya ji cewa babu wani abu da ya dace.[6]Cutarsa ta ci gaba da sannu a hankali fiye da yadda likitoci suka annabta. Kodayake Hawking yana da wahalar tafiya ba tare da goyon baya ba, kuma jawabinsa kusan ba a fahimta ba, binciken farko cewa yana da shekaru biyu kawai don rayuwa ya tabbatar da rashin tushe. Tare da ƙarfafawar Sciama, ya koma aikinsa.[3][6]Hawking ya fara bunkasa suna don hankali da rashin tausayi bayan lacca a watan Yunin 1964, inda ya kalubalanci aikin Hoyle da ɗalibinsa Jayant Narlikar.[3][6]
Ayyuka
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]1966–1975
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Lokacin da Hawking ya fara karatun digirinsa, akwai muhawara mai yawa a cikin al'ummar kimiyyar lissafi game da ka'idojin da suka fi dacewa game da halittar sararin samaniya: Big Bang da ka'idodin Steady-state.[3]An yi wahayi zuwa gare shi ta hanyar ka'idar Roger Penrose na sararin samaniya a tsakiyar ramukan baki, Hawking ya yi amfani da wannan tunanin ga dukan sararin samaniya; kuma, a cikin 1965, ya rubuta rubutun sa a kan wannan batu.[10][6] An amince da rubutun Hawking, Properties of Expanding Universes, a shekarar 1966. Ya kuma sami tallafin bincike a Kwalejin Gonville da Caius a Cambridge; ya sami digiri na PhD a cikin lissafi mai amfani da ilimin lissafi, ƙwarewa a cikin ma'auni na gaba ɗaya da ilimin sararin samaniya, a watan Maris na shekara ta 1966; kuma rubutunsa "Singularities da Geometry of Space-Time" ya raba manyan girmamawa tare da ɗaya daga Penrose don lashe babbar Kyautar Adams ta wannan shekarar. [3][3][2][3]A shekara ta 1969, Hawking ya yarda da wata ƙungiya ta musamman don bambanci a Kimiyya don zama a Caius.[3]
Haɗin gwiwa tare da Penrose, Hawking ya faɗaɗa ra'ayoyin ka'idojin da aka fara bincikawa a cikin Properties of Expanding Universes . Wannan ya haɗa da ba kawai kasancewar abubuwa masu ban mamaki ba, har ma da ka'idar cewa sararin samaniya na iya farawa a matsayin mutum ɗaya. Rubutun hadin gwiwar su shine wanda ya zo na biyu a gasar Gidauniyar Bincike ta 1968 . [6][3]A cikin 1970, sun buga hujja cewa idan sararin samaniya ya yi biyayya da ka'idar ma'auni na gaba ɗaya, kuma ya dace da kowane samfuran ilimin sararin samaniya na zahiri wanda Alexander Friedmann ya haɓaka, to dole ne ya fara ne a matsayin mai ban mamaki.[3][6]Ayyukan Hawking na farkon shekarun 1970 tare da Brandon Carter, Werner Isra'ila, da David C. Robinson sun goyi bayan ka'idar ba tare da gashi ba na John Archibald Wheeler, cewa ba tare da la'akari da yadda aka kafa ramin baƙar fata ba, kawai yana nuna dukiya uku: taro, cajin lantarki, da juyawa.[2]
Rubutun Hawking mai taken "Black Holes" ya lashe lambar yabo ta Gravity Research Foundation a watan Janairun shekara ta 1971.[2]Littafinsa na farko, The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time, wanda aka rubuta tare da George Ellis, an buga shi a 1973.[3]An zabi Hawking a matsayin Fellow na Royal Society (FRS) a shekara ta 1974, ya zama daya daga cikin matasa masana kimiyya da suka zama Fellow.[2][6]
A cikin 1973, [11] Hawking da James M. Bardeen sun haɓaka dokoki huɗu na injiniyan rami mai duhu, suna zana kwatanci tare da thermodynamics.[2]Dokar Hawking ta biyu ta ambaci raƙuman ruwa - raƙuman raƙuman sararin samaniya da aka warped wanda ya haifar da canjin filin da ke kewaye da ramukan baki biyu da suka haɗu.[12] Oliver Heaviside ne ya fara gabatar da su a cikin 1893, sun kasance masu ka'ida har sai an fara lura da su a shekarar 2015. [13][14] Dokar Hawking ta bayyana cewa duk da cewa ramukan baki sun rasa makamashi (ko "suna da entropy") daga raƙuman ruwa da karuwar ƙarfin kusurwa daga juyawa, wanda zai iya rage girmansa, jimlar yankin ramukan baki guda biyu dole ne su karu ko su kasance iri ɗaya.[15]A wannan lokacin, Hawking ya koma cikin nazarin nauyi mai nauyi da injiniya mai yawa.[2][3]Wannan ya samo asali ne daga ziyarar da ya kai Moscow, inda ya yi magana da Yakov Zeldovich da Alexei Starobinsky, wanda aikinsa ya nuna cewa, bisa ga Ka'idar rashin tabbas, ramukan baki masu juyawa suna fitar da barbashi.[6]Ga fushin Hawking, lissafinsa don tabbatar da aikin su ya haifar da binciken da ya saba wa dokar sa ta biyu. Ya yi, duk da haka, ya goyi bayan ka'idar Jacob Bekenstein ta 1972 cewa ramukan baki suna da entropy daidai da Yankin taron sararin samaniya.[6][2][16]Duk da haka an tabbatar da dokar Hawking a cikin 2025 ta hanyar nazarin haɗin ramin baki GW250114 .[12][17]
A shekara ta 1974, Hawking ya yi iƙirarin cewa ramukan baƙar fata suna fitar da radiation, wanda aka sani a yau da radiation na Hawking, wanda zai iya ci gaba har sai sun ƙare makamashi kuma sun bushe.[3]Da farko, radiation na Hawking ya kasance mai kawo rigima. John G. Taylor ya watsar da shi a matsayin "cikakken sharar gida" bayan lacca na Hawking. Bayan wallafa ƙarin bincike, a ƙarshen shekarun 1970, an yarda da binciken a matsayin gagarumin ci gaba a cikin ilimin lissafi.[18][19][3][2][6]Duk da yake wasu ƙungiyoyin gwaji sun yi iƙirarin gano radiation na Hawking daga acoustic da kuma kwatankwacin gani na ramukan baki, [20] wasu daga cikin waɗannan sakamakon sun kasance cikin shakku.[21][22][23][24][25] Binciken radiation na Hawking daga astrophysical ya ci gaba a karni na ashirin da daya.
An nada Hawking a matsayin Farfesa mai ziyara na Sherman Fairchild a Cibiyar Fasaha ta California (Caltech) a shekara ta 1974.[3]Ya yi aiki tare da aboki a bangaren, Kip Thorne, kuma ya shiga cikin fare na kimiyya game da ko Tushen X-ray na astrophysical Cygnus X-1 a cikin Tauraron Cygnus baƙar fata ne.[3] Ga Hawking, fare shine "tsarin inshora" game da yiwuwar cewa ramukan baki ba su wanzu ba.[3]Hawking ya yarda cewa ya rasa fare a shekarar 1990. Wannan fare shine na farko na da yawa da ya yi tare da Thorne da sauransu.[3]
Hawking ya ci gaba da alakarsa da Caltech, yana ciyar da wata daya a can kusan kowace shekara tun wannan ziyarar ta farko.[3]
1975–1990
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]Hawking ya koma Cambridge a shekara ta 1975 zuwa wani matsayi na ilimi, a matsayin mai karatu a fannin kimiyyar lissafi. Tsakanin shekarun 1970s wani lokaci ne na karuwar sha'awar jama'a game da ramukan baki da masana kimiyyar lissafi da ke nazarin su. An yi hira da Hawking akai-akai don bugawa da talabijin.[3][6]Ya kuma sami karuwar karbuwa ta ilimi game da aikinsa.[3]A shekara ta 1975, an ba shi lambar yabo ta Eddington da lambar yabo ta Pius XI, [26] kuma a shekara ta 1976 lambar yabo ta Dannie Heineman, lambar yabo ta Maxwell da Kyauta, da lambar yabo na Hughes.[6][2]An nada shi farfesa tare da kujera a fannin kimiyyar lissafi a shekarar 1977.[3]A shekara mai zuwa, ya sami lambar yabo ta Albert Einstein da kuma digirin digirin girmamawa daga Jami'ar Oxford.[2][3]
A shekara ta 1979, an zabi Hawking a matsayin Farfesa na Lucasian na Lissafi a Jami'ar Cambridge.[3]Jawabinsa na farko a cikin wannan rawar an kira shi: "Shin Ƙarshen Bayani don Physics na Ka'idoji?" kuma ya ba da shawarar <i id="mwA8A">N</i> = 8 supergravity a matsayin jagora ka'idar don warware yawancin matsalolin da masana kimiyyar lissafi ke karatu.[3]Ci gabansa ya yi daidai da matsalar kiwon lafiya wanda ya haifar da karɓarsa, duk da cewa ba da son rai, wasu ayyukan jinya a gida.[3]A lokaci guda, yana kuma yin canji a cikin tsarinsa na kimiyyar lissafi, ya zama mai fahimta da hasashe maimakon ya nace kan hujjojin lissafi. "Zan fi so in yi daidai fiye da tsauri", ya gaya wa Kip Thorne.[3]A cikin 1981, ya ba da shawarar cewa bayanai a cikin ramin baƙar fata sun ɓace ba tare da dawowa ba lokacin da ramin baƙi ya ɓace. Wannan rikice-rikice na bayanai ya saba wa ka'idar ma'auni, kuma ya haifar da shekaru na muhawara, gami da "Black Hole War" tare da Leonard Susskind da Gerard 't Hooft.[3]
Girman farashi na sararin samaniya - ka'idar da ke ba da shawarar cewa bayan Big Bang, sararin samaniya da farko ya fadada da sauri kafin ya sauka zuwa fadadawa mai jinkiri - Alan Guth ne ya ba da shawarar kuma Andrei Linde ne ya haɓaka shi.[3]Bayan wani taro a Moscow a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 1981, Hawking da Gary Gibbons sun shirya wani bita na Nuffield na makonni uku a lokacin rani na shekara ta 1982 a kan "The Very Early Universe" a Jami'ar Cambridge, wani bita wanda ya fi mayar da hankali kan ka'idar hauhawar farashi. [3]Hawking kuma ya fara sabon layin bincike na ka'idar lissafi game da asalin sararin samaniya. A cikin 1981, a taron Vatican, ya gabatar da aikin da ke ba da shawarar cewa wataƙila babu iyaka - ko farawa ko ƙare - ga sararin samaniya.[3][6]
Hawking daga baya ya haɓaka binciken tare da haɗin gwiwar Jim Hartle, kuma a cikin 1983 sun buga samfurin, wanda aka sani da Jihar Hartle-Hawking. Ya ba da shawarar cewa kafin zamanin Planck, sararin samaniya ba shi da iyaka a sararin samaniya; kafin Big Bang, lokaci bai wanzu ba kuma manufar farkon sararin samaniya mara ma'ana. An maye gurbin bambancin farko na samfuran Big Bang na gargajiya da yankin da ke kusa da Arewacin Pole. Mutum ba zai iya tafiya a arewacin Arewacin Pole ba, amma babu iyaka a can - kawai shine ma'anar da duk layin arewa ke gudana suka haɗu kuma suka ƙare.[27][6] – Da farko, shawarar da ba ta da iyaka ta yi hasashen sararin samaniya mai rufewa, wanda ke da tasiri game da wanzuwar Allah. Kamar yadda Hawking ya bayyana, "idan sararin samaniya ba shi da iyaka amma yana da kansa... to Allah ba zai sami 'yanci ya zaɓi yadda sararin samaniya ya fara ba".[3]
Ƙarin aikin da Hawking ya yi a fannin kibiyoyi na lokaci ya haifar da buga takarda a shekarar 1985 wanda ke nuna cewa idan ra'ayin da ba shi da iyaka daidai ne, to lokacin da sararin samaniya ya daina fadadawa kuma A ƙarshe ya rushe, lokaci zai koma baya.[3]Wata takarda ta Don Page da lissafi mai zaman kansa ta Raymond Laflamme sun jagoranci Hawking don janye wannan ra'ayi.[3]
A shekara ta 1982, don tallafawa ilimin yaransa da kudaden gida, Hawking ya yanke shawarar rubuta wani sanannen littafi game da sararin samaniya wanda zai kasance ga jama'a.[3][6]Maimakon bugawa tare da jaridar ilimi, ya sanya hannu kan kwangila tare da Bantam Books, mai bugawa na kasuwa, kuma ya sami babban ci gaba don littafinsa.[3][6]An kammala rubutun farko na littafin, wanda ake kira A Brief History of Time, a shekarar 1984.[3]
Ɗaya daga cikin sakonnin farko da Hawking ya samar tare da na'urar samar da magana shine buƙatar mataimakinsa don taimaka masa ya gama rubuta A Brief History of Time.[3]Peter Guzzardi, editansa a Bantam, ya tura shi ya bayyana ra'ayoyinsa a sarari a cikin harshe mara fasaha, tsari wanda ke buƙatar sake dubawa da yawa daga Hawking mai ƙara fushi.[3]An buga littafin a watan Afrilu na shekara ta 1988 a Amurka da kuma watan Yuni a Burtaniya, kuma ya zama nasara mai ban mamaki, ya tashi da sauri zuwa saman jerin sunayen mafi kyawun sayarwa a cikin ƙasashe biyu kuma ya kasance a can na watanni.[3][6]An fassara littafin cikin harsuna da yawa, kuma tun daga shekara ta 2009, an sayar da kimanin miliyan 9.[3]
Hanyoyin kafofin watsa labarai sun kasance masu ƙarfi, kuma wani mujallar Newsweek da kuma talabijin na musamman dukansu sun bayyana shi a matsayin "Master of the Universe".[3][3]Nasarar ta haifar da manyan lada na kudi, amma kuma kalubalen matsayi na shahararrun mutane.[3]Hawking ya yi tafiya sosai don inganta aikinsa, kuma ya ji daɗin yin biki har zuwa ƙarshen sa'o'i.[3]Matsalar ƙin gayyatar da baƙi ta bar shi ɗan gajeren lokaci don aiki da ɗalibansa.[3]Wasu abokan aiki sun yi fushi da kulawar da Hawking ya samu, suna jin cewa saboda nakasa ne.[3][6]
1990–2000
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]A cikin 1992, Hawking ya yi la'akari da cewa tafiya zuwa baya ba zai yiwu ba. A ranar 28 ga watan Yunin shekara ta 2009, a matsayin gwajin da ake yi na yin ba'a, ya gudanar da wata ƙungiya a buɗe ga kowa, cike da abinci da abin sha, amma ya sanar da jam'iyyar ne kawai bayan ya ƙare don kawai masu tafiya na lokaci za su san su halarta; kamar yadda ake tsammani, babu wanda ya bayyana.
Hawking ya ci gaba da aikinsa a fannin kimiyyar lissafi: a cikin 1993, ya hada hannu da wani littafi game da Ƙarfin nauyi na Euclid tare da Gary Gibbons kuma ya buga tarin tarin labaransa game da ramukan baki da Big Bang.[3]A shekara ta 1994, a Cibiyar Newton ta Cambridge, Hawking da Penrose sun gabatar da jerin laccoci shida waɗanda aka buga a 1996 a matsayin "The Nature of Space and Time".[3]
A shekara ta 1997, ya amince da fare na kimiyya na jama'a na 1991 da aka yi tare da Kip Thorne da John Preskill na Caltech. Hawking ya yi fare cewa shawarar Penrose na "tsinkaye na sararin samaniya" - cewa ba za a iya samun "masu tsirara" ba tare da sutura ba a cikin sararin samaniya - daidai ne.[3] – – Bayan gano cewa izininsa na iya zama ba tare da lokaci ba, an yi fare mai kyau, yana bayyana cewa irin waɗannan abubuwan zasu faru ba tare da ƙarin yanayi ba.[3]A wannan shekarar, Thorne, Hawking, da Preskill sun sake yin fare, a wannan lokacin game da rikitarwa game da bayanan ramin baki. Thorne da Hawking sun yi jayayya cewa tun lokacin da ma'auni na gaba ɗaya ya sa ba zai yiwu ba ga ramukan baƙar fata su haskakawa kuma su rasa bayanai, ƙarfin-makamashi da bayanin da radiation na Hawking ya ɗauka dole ne ya zama "sabon", kuma ba daga cikin sararin samaniya ba. Tun da wannan ya saba wa ma'aunin ma'auni na microcausality, [ ƙarin bayani da ake buƙata] ka'idar ma'aikatar ma'aini za a buƙaci sake rubuta ta. Preskill ya yi jayayya da akasin haka, cewa tunda injin injiniya ya nuna cewa bayanin da ramin baki ya fitar yana da alaƙa da bayanin da ya fada a baya, dole ne a canza manufar ramin baki da aka bayar ta hanyar ma'auni na gaba ɗaya.
Hawking ya kuma ci gaba da bayanin jama'a, gami da kawo kimiyya ga masu sauraro da yawa. Shirin A Brief History of Time, wanda Errol Morris ya jagoranta, ya fara ne a shekarar 1991; fim din ya ƙunshi kayan daga littafin da kuma hira da Hawking, abokansa, dangi, da abokan aiki. Hawking ya so fim din ya zama kimiyya maimakon tarihin rayuwa, amma an rinjaye shi ba haka ba. Fim din, yayin da yake da gagarumin nasara, ba a fitar da shi ba.[3]An buga tarin shahararrun litattafai, tambayoyi, da jawabai masu taken Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays a cikin 1993.[3]Jerin talabijin na kashi shida Stephen Hawking's Universe da littafin abokin tarayya sun bayyana a cikin 1997; kamar yadda Hawking ya nace, an mayar da hankali gaba ɗaya akan kimiyya.[3][2]
2000–2018
[gyara sashe | gyara masomin]
Hawking ya ci gaba da rubuce-rubucensa ga shahararrun masu sauraro, ya buga The Universe in a Nutshell a cikin shekara ta 2001, da A Briefer History of Time, wanda ya rubuta a cikin shekara da 2005 tare da Leonard Mlodinow don sabunta ayyukansa na baya tare da manufar sanya su ga masu sauraro da yawa, da kuma Allah ya halicci Integers, wanda ya bayyana a cikin shekara. [3][3]Tare da Thomas Hertog a CERN da Jim Hartle, daga shekara ta 2006 zuwa gaba, Hawking ya haɓaka ka'idar ilimin sararin samaniya, wanda ya ce sararin samaniya ba shi da wata jiha ta farko ta musamman amma daban-daban, sabili da haka bai dace ba don tsara ka'idar da ke hango yanayin sararin samaniya na yanzu daga wata jiha na farko. Ilimin sararin samaniya na sama da ƙasa ya nuna cewa halin yanzu "ya zaɓi" abubuwan da suka gabata daga haɗuwa da tarihin da yawa. [ƙarin bayani da ake buƙata] A yin haka, ka'idar ta ba da shawarar yiwuwar warware batun daidaitawa mai kyau.
A shekara ta 2003, yarjejeniya tsakanin masana kimiyyar lissafi tana ƙaruwa cewa Hawking ba daidai ba ne game da asarar bayanai a cikin ramin baki.[3]A cikin lacca na 2004 a Dublin, ya yarda da fare dinsa na 1997 tare da Preskill, amma ya bayyana nasa, wani bayani mai rikitarwa ga matsalar rikice-rikice na bayanai, wanda ya haɗa da yiwuwar cewa ramukan baki suna da fiye da ɗaya.[3]A cikin takarda ta 2005 da ya buga a kan batun, ya yi jayayya cewa an bayyana rikice-rikicen bayanai ta hanyar nazarin duk wasu tarihin sararin samaniya, tare da asarar bayanai a cikin waɗanda ke da ramukan baki waɗanda waɗanda waɗanda waɗanda ba tare da irin wannan asarar ba.[3]A watan Janairun shekara ta 2014, ya kira zargin asarar bayanai a cikin ramukan baki "mafi girman kuskuren". A watan Agustan 2015, Hawking ya ce ba duk bayanan da suka ɓace ba lokacin da wani abu ya shiga ramin baki kuma akwai yiwuwar dawo da bayanai daga ramin baki bisa ga ka'idarsa.[28]
A matsayin wani ɓangare na wata takaddama ta kimiyya mai tsawo, Hawking ya yi jayayya sosai, kuma ya yi fare, cewa ba za a taɓa samun Higgs boson ba.[3]An ba da shawarar cewa kwayar ta wanzu a matsayin wani ɓangare na ka'idar Filin Higgs ta hanyar Peter Higgs a cikin 1964. Hawking da Higgs sun shiga cikin muhawara mai zafi da jama'a game da batun a 2002 kuma a 2008, tare da Higgs yana sukar aikin Hawking kuma yana gunaguni cewa "yanayin shahararren Hawking ya ba shi amintaccen gaskiya wanda wasu ba su da shi".[3]An gano kwayar a watan Yulin 2012 a CERN bayan gina Babban Hadron Collider. Hawking da sauri ya yarda cewa ya rasa fare kuma ya ce Higgs ya kamata ya lashe kyautar Nobel ta Physics, wanda ya yi a shekarar 2013.
A cikin shekara ta 2007, Hawking da 'yarsa Lucy sun buga George's Secret Key to the Universe, littafin yara da aka tsara don bayyana ilimin kimiyyar lissafi a cikin salon da ya dace kuma yana nuna haruffa masu kama da waɗanda ke cikin iyalin Hawking.[3]Littafin ya biyo baya a cikin 2009, 2011, 2014 da 2016. Hawking ya kirkiro Stephen Hawking: Expedition New Earth, wani shirin tarihi na 2017 game da mulkin mallaka na sararin samaniya, a matsayin wani labari na Duniya ta Gobe.
A lokacin aikinsa, Hawking ya kula da daliban PhD 39 masu nasara. Kamar yadda manufofin Jami'ar Cambridge suka buƙaci ga farfesa da suka kai shekaru 67, Hawking ya yi ritaya a matsayin Farfesa na Lucasian na Lissafi a shekara ta 2009. Duk da shawarwarin da ya bayar cewa yana iya barin Burtaniya a matsayin zanga-zanga game da yanke kudaden jama'a zuwa binciken kimiyya na asali, Hawking ya yi aiki a matsayin darektan bincike a Ma'aikatar Nazarin Lissafi da Physics na Jami'ar Cambridge. [3]
A ranar 20 ga watan Yulin shekara ta 2015, Hawking ya taimaka wajen kaddamar da Breakthrough Initiatives, wani yunkuri na neman Rayuwa ta waje.
Jami'ar Cambridge ta sanya kaddarorin fadada sararin samaniya a fili a watan Oktoba 2017. Da sauri ya zama abin da aka fi nema a cikin ajiyar budewa ta jami'a. A cikin tattaunawar watsa shirye-shiryen Hawking ta ƙarshe, wanda aka ba shi a wannan watan, ya yi magana game da Muhimmancin kimiyya na GW170817, haɗin ramin baki. An watsa hira a watan Afrilu na shekara ta 2018, bayan mutuwarsa, a matsayin shirin shirin Smithsonian TV Channel Leaving Earth: Or How to Colonize a Planet .[29]
Takardar karshe ta Hawking, A smooth exit from har abada inflation?Fitarwa mai kyau daga hauhawar farashi ta har abada?, an buga shi bayan mutuwarsa a cikin Journal of High Energy Physics a ranar 27 ga Afrilu 2018. [30] A watan Oktoba na shekara ta 2018, an buga daya daga cikin binciken bincikensa na karshe, mai taken Black Hole Entropy da Soft Hair, kuma ya yi magana game da makomar bayanai da ke shiga ramukan baki. [31][32] Har ila yau a wannan watan Oktoba, an buga littafin Hawking na ƙarshe, Brief Answers to the Big Questions, wanda ke dauke da maganganunsa na ƙarshe game da abin da ya yi imanin su ne mafi mahimman tambayoyin da ke fuskantar bil'adama.[33]
- ↑ Hawking, S. (1 April 1971). "Gravitationally Collapsed Objects of Very Low Mass". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (in Turanci). 152 (1): 75–78. doi:10.1093/mnras/152.1.75. ISSN 0035-8711.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Larsen 2005.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 Ferguson 2011.
- ↑ "Mind over matter Stephen Hawking". The Herald. Archived from the original on 30 May 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
- 1 2 3 Ferguson, Kitty (6 January 2012). "Stephen Hawking, "Equal to Anything!" [Excerpt]". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 22 March 2018. Retrieved 21 March 2018.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 White & Gribbin 2002.
- ↑ Hawking, Stephen (7 December 2013). "Stephen Hawking: "I'm happy if I have added something to our understanding of the universe"". Radio Times. Archived from the original on 7 January 2017. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
- ↑ Hawking 1992.
- ↑ Reuell, Peter (29 April 2016). "My dinner with Dr. Hawking". Harvard Gazette.
- ↑ "Stephen Hawking's PhD thesis, explained simply". 30 October 2017. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 27 November 2017.
- ↑ Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973). "The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics". Communications in Mathematical Physics. 31 (2): 161–170. Retrieved 2026-02-05.
- 1 2 Abac, A.G.; et al. (September 10, 2025). "GW250114: Testing Hawking's Area Law and the Kerr Nature of Black Holes". Physical Review Letters. 135 (11). arXiv:2509.08054. doi:10.1103/kw5g-d732.
- ↑ Rothman, Tony. "The Secret History of Gravitational Waves". American Scientist. Archived from the original on 2023-05-03. Retrieved February 6, 2026.
- ↑ "Scientists make first direct detection of gravitational waves". MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology (in Turanci). 2016-02-11. Retrieved 2026-02-06.
- ↑ "Gravitational-wave detection verifies Stephen Hawking's theorem". news.northwestern.edu (in Turanci). Retrieved 2026-02-05.
- ↑ Bekenstein, A. (1972). "Black holes and the second law". Lettere al Nuovo Cimento. 4 (15): 99–104. doi:10.1007/BF02757029. S2CID 120254309.
- ↑ Mingarelli, Chiara M. F. (September 10, 2025). "Landmark Black Hole Test Marks Decade of Gravitational-Wave Discoveries". Physics. American Physical Society (APS). 18 (160).
- ↑ Hartle, James B.; Hawking, Stephen W. (April 15, 1976). "Path-Integral Derivation of Black Hole Radiance". Physical Review D. 13 (2188). doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.13.2188.
- ↑ Page, Don N. (29 September 2005). "Hawking radiation and black hole thermodynamics". New Journal of Physics. 7 (1): 203. arXiv:hep-th/0409024. doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/203.
- ↑ Steinhauer, Jeff (2016). "Observation of quantum Hawking radiation and its entanglement in an analogue black hole". Nature Physics. 12 (10): 959–965. arXiv:1510.00621. Bibcode:2016NatPh..12..959S. doi:10.1038/nphys3863. S2CID 119197166.
- ↑ Muñoz de Nova, Juan Ramón; Golubkov, Katrine; Kolobov, Victor I.; Steinhauer, Jeff (May 2019). "Observation of thermal Hawking radiation and its temperature in an analogue black hole". Nature (in Turanci). 569 (7758): 688–691. arXiv:1809.00913. Bibcode:2019Natur.569..688M. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1241-0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 31142857. S2CID 119327617.
- ↑ Kolobov, Victor I.; Golubkov, Katrine; Muñoz de Nova, Juan Ramón; Steinhauer, Jeff (March 2021). "Observation of stationary spontaneous Hawking radiation and the time evolution of an analogue black hole". Nature Physics (in Turanci). 17 (3): 362–367. arXiv:1910.09363. Bibcode:2021NatPh..17..362K. doi:10.1038/s41567-020-01076-0. ISSN 1745-2481. S2CID 230508375 Check
|s2cid=value (help). - ↑ Belgiorno, Francesco D.; Cacciatori, Sergio Luigi; Clerici, Matteo; Gorini, Vittorio; Ortenzi, Giovanni; Rizzi, Luca; Rubino, Eleonora; Sala, Vera Giulia; Faccio, Daniele (2010). "Hawking radiation from ultrashort laser pulse filaments". Physical Review Letters. 105 (20). arXiv:1009.4634. Bibcode:2010PhRvL.105t3901B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.203901. PMID 21231233. S2CID 2245320.
- ↑ Dudley, John M.; Skryabin, Dmitry (November 8, 2010). "New horizons for Hawking radiation". Physics. American Physical Society (APS). 3 (95).
- ↑ Emerging Technology from the arXiv (September 27, 2010). "First Observation of Hawking Radiation". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on March 1, 2012. Retrieved September 27, 2010.
- ↑ "Pius XI Medal". Pas.va. Retrieved 31 May 2026.
- ↑ Baird 2007.
- ↑ "Stephen Hawking says he has a way to escape from a black hole". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 8 January 2017. Retrieved 31 May 2017.
- ↑ Tasoff, Harrison (13 March 2018). "4 Smithsonian Space Documentaries You Don't Want to Miss". Space.com. Archived from the original on 25 March 2018. Retrieved 24 March 2018.
- ↑ Staff (University of Cambridge) (2 May 2018). "Taming the multiverse—Stephen Hawking's final theory about the big bang". Phys.org. Archived from the original on 2 May 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2018.
- ↑ Haco, Sasha; Hawking, Stephen W.; Perry, Malcolm J.; Strominger, Andrew (2018). "Black Hole Entropy and Soft Hair". Journal of High Energy Physics. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 2018 (12): 98. arXiv:1810.01847v2. Bibcode:2018JHEP...12..098H. doi:10.1007/jhep12(2018)098. ISSN 1029-8479.
- ↑ Nield, David (12 October 2018). "The Very Last Paper Stephen Hawking Worked on Has Just Been Published Online – He continued the quest to understand black holes until the end". ScienceAlert.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
- ↑ Staff (2018). "Brief Answers to the Big Questions – Hardcover – 16 October 2018 by Stephen Hawking". Amazon. Archived from the original on 27 May 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
