Biosystems engineering

Electric tractors operate under highly variable soil resistance conditions during tillage, which induces rapid axle torque fluctuations and increases battery energy consumption when conventional motor controllers respond rely solely on delayed feedback. This study evaluated the energy-saving performance of a filtering-algorithm-integrated proportional–integral–derivative (PID) motor speed controller for a 19 kW single-motor electric tractor during plow tillage across three gear stages (L-2500, L-2800, and M−2000). For this, a one-dimensional electric tractor simulation model was developed in AMESim, incorporating motor torque–speed–voltage characteristics, efficiency maps, drivetrain components, and field-measured tillage load datasets. A Kalman Filter Algorithm (KFA) was integrated into the PID control framework to estimate axle torque and battery state of charge (SOC) in real time, and its performance was compared with an artificial neural network (ANN)-based estimator and a conventional PID controller without predictive filtering. Simulation results revealed that the KFA-integrated controller improved torque-estimation accuracy, suppressed transient overshoot, and stabilized motor-current response under dynamically varying field loads. Relative to the ANN and conventional PID controllers, the KFA-based controller maintained motor operation closer to the high-efficiency region and reduced battery energy consumption by approximately 0.38%, 0.42%, and 0.53% at L-2500, L-2800, and M−2000, respectively. These findings affirm that KFA-based predictive workload estimation enhances control stability and energy efficiency across gear stages, supporting the applicability of the proposed controller for next-generation electric tractors under energy-intensive tillage conditions.

Accurate estimation of axle torque is essential for performance evaluation and energy management of electric tractors. However, direct torque measurement and access to motor controller data are often limited in commercial platforms. This study proposes a machine learning-based framework for predicting axle torque in a commercial electric tractor using field-measured sensor signals. The framework incorporates a horizon-aware architecture to capture the temporal dependencies of dynamic load fluctuations. Field experiments were conducted during plow tillage operation under multiple gear-speed combinations. Several machine learning models (multiple linear regression, multilayer perceptron, and CatBoost) were evaluated for axle torque prediction. The results showed that rear axle torque exhibited a stronger relationship with traction demand under two-wheel-drive operation, resulting in higher prediction accuracy than front axle torque. Among the evaluated models, CatBoost achieved the best overall performance, with an R 2 of 0.83 and an RMSE of 189.35 Nm for the rear axle prediction. The proposed framework enables real-time axle torque estimation using commonly available sensor signals and provides a practical alternative to direct torque measurement for onboard load monitoring and energy management in electric tractor systems.

This study estimates battery usable time and discharge rates, and selects a suitable battery for a single-motor electric tractor using dynamometer tests and rotary tillage at L-slow, L-fast, and M-slow gear stages. The dynamometer results were validated for rotary tillage to determine a suitable battery for full-day (8 h) operations. In dynamometer tests, battery power consumption for light, medium, and heavy-duty loads was 6.25, 8.76, and 14.51 kW, resulting in usable times of 3.00, 2.33, and 1.25 h, respectively. Rotary tillage results confirmed similar battery consumption trends, validating the dynamometer-based estimation. For continuous 8-hour operations, a 900 Ah battery (64.8 kWh) was satisfied at the gear stage of L-fast for rotary tillage. It was observed that battery mass and volume increased proportionally with energy density. Results confirmed that higher energy storage required a larger and heavier battery pack for full-day operations. The battery energy density of 64.8 kWh (900 Ah) would be suitable with practical weight and space limitations to perform full-day operations. The limitation is that traction efficiency, slip ratio, and effective field capacity were not considered for suitable gear stage selection. However, we believe that this study provides a feasible technique for battery selection in real agricultural scenarios, offering practical insights for electric tractor manufacturers.

Real-time axle-torque prediction was accomplished by integrating the Kalman filter algorithm (KFA) with a motor-speed controller using a single-motor electric-tractor dynamic model. Statistical analysis confirmed that the measured and predicted axle torques with KFA corresponded closely and linearly for both front and rear axles (at all gear stages) with accuracies of 99 and 97 %, respectively. The predicted axle torques for both axles at all gear stages, excluding the KFA, were significantly different. The prediction accuracy was approximately 58 %, and it failed to adapt to torque fluctuations and sudden loads. The battery state-of-charge (SOC) for all gear stages with KFA could significantly save the battery energy of the electric tractor compared with the battery SOC of the measured and predicted without KFA. Furthermore, traction performance analysis confirmed plow-tillage (light-duty 2500 rpm) suitability. This algorithm is suitable for real-time axle torque prediction in actual agricultural working scenarios using a single-motor electric tractor. Since the hardware of the proposed prediction algorithm was not available for real-time applications in an actual tractor, the measured input dataset was used to simulate a real-world operation scenario. The proposed algorithm can be applied to unmanned agricultural vehicles or agri-robots to predict the required operation torques. This controller can dynamically adjust the motor output power of an electric tractor, ensuring smooth operation and minimizing energy wastage.

This study investigates the effect of motor speed on traction performance of a single-motor electric tractor during plowing at different gear stages. Field experiments were conducted at L-2500, L-2800, and M-2000 gear stages to analyze their impact on axle torque, traction efficiency (TE), dynamic ratio (DR), slip ratio, and battery state of charge (SOC). Soil texture was determined as sandy loam, with varying CI at different field sections. Results indicated significant differences in traction parameters across motor speeds, except forward speeds at L-2500 and L-2800. Coefficient of Variation (CV) suggested that plowing at higher speeds might result in instability. Rear axle torque exhibited the highest CV at L-2500 due to uneven soil conditions, grass, rocks, and implement vibrations. Traction performance confirmed the highest TE at L-2500 with a higher DR compared to L-2800 but slip ratio was significantly lower, ensuring energy waste. These findings demonstrate that plowing at L-2500 is the most efficient and suitable for this tractor. However, the tillage depth was not considered, which represented a limitation in determining the optimal motor speed for plowing. Results provide practical insights for users and manufacturers in selecting efficient motor speeds, enhancing the commercialization of electric tractors based on workload.

Italian “Agricultural Engineering”, while evolving toward the broader, interdisciplinary field of “Biosystems Engineering” (which also includes the study of biomasses/biomaterials, field and forest mechanization in difficult contexts and advanced post-harvest agri-food technologies), suffers from a structural critical issue due to its historical academic placement within the Agricultural rather than the Engineering departments. This positioning limits the depth of the technical subjects proposed to the students and does not facilitate the necessary collaboration with core engineering disciplines in research and didactics activities, thereby potentially slowing innovation in crucial fields like agro-bio-energies, precision agriculture and field robotics. To address this misalignment and foster inter-departmental synergy, this study proposes adopting the Contamination Lab (C-Lab) model as the archetype of a possible framework of academic and professional networking involving and centered on Agricultural Engineering. C-Labs (transdisciplinary platforms proposed by the Italian Ministry of University and Research) function as experiential laboratories, gathering students from Engineering, Agronomy, Computer Science, and Economics to collaboratively develop solutions to real-world challenges posed by industry stakeholders. The integration of a permanent, thematic C-Lab focused on agri-forestry and food machinery, supported by methodologies for enhancing creativity in technical fields, such as design thinking, represents an effective (and necessary) strategy to give Agricultural Engineering greater visibility in the Italian (and international) scenario and, prospectively, relocate it to the center of any research involving the technological and technical aspects of agriculture, forestry and food production. It is concluded that this initiative can serve as an institutional bridge for hybrid training, which is essential for aligning academic competencies with the growing demands for innovation and multidisciplinary professionalism in the national agri-food tech sector.

A field experiment was conducted in 2021/2022 and 2022/2023 seasons to evaluate the effect of planting date and seeding rates for three cultivars of panicum. Planting was done on two planting date D1 (25/05) and D2 (25/06), seeding rate (kg/fad.) 2 kg/fed -1 (S1), 4 kg/fed -1 (S2), and 6 kg/fed -1 (S3), for three different cultivars of fodder panicum (panicum super mombasa F1 (C1), panicum zori (C2) and panicum maximum mombasa (C3). The results showed that the low seeding rate (S1) had an outperformed the leaf area index (LAI), and leaf stem ratio (LSR), while seeding rate (S3) outperformed tillers height (TH) and number of tillers (NT). While planting date (D1) outperformed (D2) in all studied traits except leaf area index (LAI), planting date (D2) outperformed (D1) and had a significant effect in the second season only. While cultivars had a different effect on the studied traits, as cultivars (C3) outperformed in tillers height (TH), the same cultivar (C1) also recorded the highest averages for the trait number of tillers (NT), cultivar (C2) outperformed and was significant in the second season only on leaf stem ratio (LSR), and the leaf stem ratio (LSR) trait cultivar (C1) recorded the highest averages among the rest of the cultivars. As for the interaction between planting date × seeding rate and planting date × cultivars, it did not have a significant effect on all the studied traits, while the interaction between seeding rate × cultivars had a significant effect (p<0.05) on all the studied traits, but cultivars and seeding rate differed from one trait to another. As for the three-way interaction between

Selection of the optimum diameter of Spikes and Shafts used on Maize sheller in Nigeria is a major problem for the local fabricators due to which they either over size those components leading to high cost of the shellers or under size them leading to failure of the shellers during operation. To determine the optimum size of the spikes and shaft to be used on Maize sheller, Finite Element Analysis (FEA) were carried out using SolidWorks Premium 2019, to determine the maximum Vonmises Stress, deflection and minimum factor of Safety of those components using the most common size of spikes and shafts used in developing Maize shellers in Bauchi State Nigeria and to recommend the most suitable sizes to be used. From the Simulation of the various sizes of the spikes, it was found that the best size of ribars to be used as the spikes for maize Shellers is either 12 or 14 mm. 12 mm will be subjected to maximum Vonmises stress of 103.092 Mpa at a factor of safety of 2.716 while 14 mm will be subjected to a Maximum stress of 76.57 Mpa at a factor of Safety of 3.66. The most suitable Size for the Shelling shaft was determined to be 20 mm which will be subjected to a maximum Vonmises Stress of 73.32 Mpa at a factor of Safety of 4.8 with a maximum deflection of 0.09 mm.

Bulk, porous oil-bearing materials acquire various degrees of densification under varying influences of equipment and process parameters with direct bearings on yield during compressive abstraction of oil from such materials. Effects of both aspect ratio and compression cycle on the course of densification were investigated. Mechanical response and oil expression indices were analysed for variances and treatment means were compared using Duncan's multiple range test. All influence factors had significant effects on mechanical response and oil yield. Significant improvements in achievable deformation and specific energy demand were obtained through repeated induction of compressive stress; compression cycle correlated positively with both deformation and energy demand. Margin for the expenditure of energy became wider as pressure ratio at the oil point became lower. This study reveals that performance of compression schemes may be significantly enhanced through careful application of the pressure ratio.

The effects of important process parameters on mechanical response during the densification of an industrial food powder were investigated and important phenomena described using the power rule. The factors studied had highly significant effects on mechanical response. The effects of the models in predicting the behaviour of the system were also highly significant. The findings are of relevance to processing and handling of food powders.

The behaviour of carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) powder relevant to its densification at low pressure was determined given different equipment aspect ratios (0.5, 1.0 and 1.5) and varying rates of deformation (5.5, 10 and 14.5 mm min-1). The effects of both parameters were examined through the analysis of variance and trends were fitted to observed mechanical responses using standard regression technique. Both aspect ratio and the time rate of deformation had highly significant effects on the material's response to load. Strain rate and specific power requirement were power functions of the equipment's aspect ratio, at all rates of deformation. These findings furnish insights on mechanical response in compressed food powders which are applicable in modelling related food handling and processing systems.

The effects of important process parameters on mechanical response during the densification of an industrial food powder were investigated and important phenomena described using the power rule. The factors studied had highly significant effects on mechanical response. The effects of the models in predicting the behaviour of the system were also highly significant. The findings are of relevance to processing and handling of food powders.

Key words: applied pressure, strain, deformation, compressibility, bulk density.

Compressive expression of oil from bulk seeds is a self-limiting process and commonly adopted techniques for optimising oil recovery result in alterations of the product and its quality. In this study, effects of select magnitudes of compressive stress and repetitive strain on mechanical response and performance during cold compressive expression of oil from sesame seeds were investigated and responses modelled using forward stepwise regression technique. Significant gains in oil yield and performance were achieved through repeated induction of strain and by increasing magnitudes of the applied stress. Cumulative improvement in the performance of the scheme over existing single cycle compression techniques ranged between 34.1 – 161.9 % over the range of treatments investigated. Corresponding improvement in mechanical response was also achieved. Specific mechanical energy demand was less with every additional compression cycle. The pressure ratio at the oil point during each compression cycle was an important indicator of recoverable oil.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
A technique for maximising the yield of oil from oilseeds and efficiency during cold compressive expression is presented which may be incorporated in the design of compression devices or similar systems which would permit repeated induction of stress with a view to optimising process efficiency without denaturing the product or altering its quality. The pressure ratio at the oil point is also presented which is a fitting indicator of requisite stress for optimising yield and performance.

KEYWORDS: Oilseeds, stress, repetitive strain, void capacity

The behaviours of constrained bulk columns of seeds of 3 important leguminous feed crops under compressive force applied at a uniform rate of 10 mm min–1 up to 100 kN at ≈ 9% moisture content (in dry basis) were studied to establish parameters which are relevant to the design of equipment for achieving product densification. Deformation varied significantly (P < 0.02) with crop type and was the highest in lupine seeds. Feed pea had the highest strain resistance value. Both deformation energy and volume energy requirements varied significantly (P < 0.0001) with crop type. Moduli of deformation of compressed feed pea, lupine, and soybean at an applied force of 100 kN were 269.7, 306.3, and 455.2 MPa, indicating the proportionate resistance of the crop materials to compressive strain. Precisely 4.43, 3.76, and 3.15 MJ m–3 are required to achieve 56.7, 77.0, and 67.7% or 461.7, 539.3, and 500.4 kg m–3 gains in bulk density in feed pea, lupine, and soybean, respectively. Deformation and volume energy demands correlated negatively (r = –0.934 and r = –0.78) with lipid presence. Crops with more oil appeared to deform more easily under compressive force. Higher deformations and lower energy demands may be possible at optimal combinations of force, product moisture, and depth.

Keywords: strain, bulk density, porosity, compression, deformation, energy

This study described the compression behaviour of bulk rapeseed using the universal compression testing machine and vessel diameter of 60 mm with a plunger. The pressing factors, namely the heat treatment temperature, speed, and force, were varied between 45 and 105°C, 5 and 25mm min-1 then 40 and 120 kN, respectively. The bulk rapeseed samples were measured at pressing heights between 20 and 100 mm. The parameters determined were maximum deformation (mm), deformation energy (J), oil yield (%), oil point strain (-), oil point force (kN), and oil point energy (J). Clearly, maximum deformation, deformation energy, and oil yield increased with the increase in force and heat treatment temperature, while that of speed showed a downward trend. A plot of the amounts of force and deformation displayed a smooth and serration curve characteristic. The area under the smooth curve behaviour described the compression process where the maximum rapeseed oil was obtained, while the serration pattern represented the ejection of the rapeseed cake through the holes of the pressing vessel as a result of the higher force and speed. The lower and upper oil points of rapeseed were detected at pressing heights 80 mm and 100 mm with corresponding strain values of 0.38 and 0.49 (-). This study provided vital information on rapeseed in axial pressing which can be applied in the industrial technology for optimizing the mechanical screw press oil production.

The study described the oil point and mechanical properties of roasted and unroasted bulk oil palm kernels under compression loading. The literature information available is very limited. A universal compression testing machine and vessel diameter of 60 mm with a plunger were used by applying maximum force of 100 kN and speed ranging from 5 to 25 mm min-1. The initial pressing height of the bulk kernels was measured at 40 mm. The oil point was determined by a litmus test for each deformation level of 5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 mm at a minimum speed of 5 mm min-1. The measured parameters were the deformation, deformation energy, oil yield, oil point strain and oil point pressure. Clearly, the roasted bulk kernels required less deformation energy compared to the unroasted kernels for recovering the kernel oil. However, both kernels were not permanently deformed. The average oil point strain was determined at 0.57. The study is an essential contribution to pursuing innovative methods for processing palm kernel oil in rural areas of developing countries.

K e y w o r d s: bulk palm kernels, compression loading, deformation energy, oil point, percentage kernel oil

A device is reported for the acquisition of the effects of friction between compressed biomaterials along the interface between the material and the wall, parallel to the axis of compression. Results of equipment calibration test as well as uniaxial compression tests on a selected food powder are report-ed. Wall friction had highly significant effect on transmissibility of pressure in the compressed materi-al and significantly affected effective utilisation of the input energy. The results are of importance with respect to the densification, handling and storage of food materials of the type described.

This article follows the previously published study on the mechanical behaviour of oil palm kernels under compression loading. A slight change in deformation of the heat-treated kernels was observed at force 100 kN and speed 60 mm/min. Therefore, a greater force was required to produce higher percentage kernel oil.In this present study, however, both roasted and unroasted kernels were compressed in a vessel with diameter of60 mmat varying forces from 150, 200, 250 and 300 kN andspeed 10 mm/min aimed at determining the optimal pressing force without serration effect on the force-deformation curve.

This article presents the theoretical evaluation of pressure and energy requirement of screw press FL 200 (Farmet Model, Czech Republic) for oil processing of Jatropha curcas L. bulk oilseeds. Both the linear and nonlinear compression information were analysed. The tangent curve mathematical model was applied which is appropriate for fitting of linear experimental data as the dependency between compressive force and deformation in relation to bulk seeds pressing height and vessel diameter. The integral of the tangent model represents energy. The non-linear pressing involving a mechanical screw press FL 200 geometric parameters namely screw shaft diameter (mm), inner and outer diameters (mm), screw thickness (mm) and screw pitch diameter (mm) were incorporated into the tangent curve mathematical model. The press designed with 44 lamellas at the oil outlet were divided into seven pressing sections or chambers. The determined amounts of pressure and energy substantially increased along the pressing sections. The results require validation to confirm the suitability of the tangent curve mathematical model for optimising the performance of screw press FL 200.

HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access archive for the deposit and dissemination of scientific research documents, whether they are published or not. The documents may come from teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers. L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Some design-related physical properties (size, shape, weight and density) of two varieties of Sunflower seeds, the Funtua and Isaanka varieties, were determined at 4 percent moisture content (dry basis). Mean geometric diameters for seeds and kernels were found to be 6.71 mm and 4.66 mm, respectively, for the Funtua variety, and 6.52 mm and 4.72 mm, respectively, for the Isaanka variety. Mean specific gravity for Funtua seeds and kernels were determined to be 0.918 and 0.813, respectively. Seeds and kernels of the Isaanka variety had mean specific gravity values of 0.962 and 1.056, respectively. Average One Thousand Seed Weights of 61.6 g and 64.4 g were established for the Funtua and Isaanka varieties, respectively. The seeds were observed to be more round than they were spherical.

Keywords: Sunflower seeds, Physica properties, Varieties, Achenes, Kernels

To identify the effects of aerially applied glyphosate on cotton plants, a field was planted with replicated blocks of cotton. To quantify relative deposits of applied chemical, spray samplers were placed in the spray swath and in several downwind orientations. An Air Tractor 402B spray aircraft, equipped with fifty-four CP-09 nozzles, was flown down the centre of the field to apply a mixture of 1.54 kg ha À1 of glyphosate and rubidium chloride tracer at a 46.77 l ha À1 application rate. At one week intervals following treatment, aerial colour-infrared imagery was obtained from the field using a global positioning system-triggered multispectral camera system. The processed drift and image data were highly correlated with correlation coefficients (r) from À0.38 to À0.97 at 1, 2, and 3 weeks after treatment. The drift and image data were used as the indicators of visual injury in regressions with a strong ability to explain variability (R 2 from 0.36 to 0.90 for drift data for the first week after treatment (WAT); from 0.20 to 0.90 for image data from 1, 2, to 3 WAT). The results illustrate that spray drift sampling can explain early cotton injury (1 WAT), and airborne remote sensing can explain late cotton injury (2 and 3 WAT). The results are helpful for determining the extent of required near-field drift sampling and demonstrate that airborne multispectral imaging can be a viable tool for determining the extent of damage relative to derived concentrations of glyphosate.

This study uses the Box-Jenkins seasonal time series model toostudy andianalyze the monthly maximum temperature data for the city of Baqubah during 2021-2023. The model is characterized by high accuracy and high analytical flexibility, as the results showed by the application side of the research, in which seasonal time series models were used, and these models are SARIMA (1,1,0)(1,1,2) 12 and SARIMA(1,1,0). (2,1,1) 12 and SARIMA (1,1,0) (1,1,1) 12 and other models. Also based on the quality standards of model compatibility (Akaiki information criterion, Bayes information criterion, and Hanan Quinn criterion), it was found that the appropriate mode was Effective for representing time series data is SARIMA(1,1,0)(1,1,2) 12 and based on model estimates, temperatures areipredicted for theiperiod from January 2021 to December 2023, where the values align with the corresponding values in the original time series .

Although high greenhouse tunnels are often used by growers in the Mediterranean basin, the data on the distributed microclimate within such structures is limited. Experiments were carried out in a naturally ventilated mono-span greenhouse with continuous screened side vents to determine the ventilation rate, temperature, humidity and air velocity distributions and the energy partitioning of the incoming radiation. Results indicate that the ventilation rate increases linearly with wind speed. When the wind blows perpendicularly to the greenhouse opening plane there is a cross-flow between the windward and leeward openings that results in gradients in the air and crop temperatures between windward and leeward sides. Gradients in temperature, humidity and air velocity are observed in the vertical direction as well. The temperature and humidity ratio were larger near the roof than near the crop while the air velocity was higher near the crop than near the roof. The gradients in the vertical direction were larger than those encountered in a horizontal plane in a direction parallel to the mean flow (from windward to leeward opening). The root mean square (RMS) values of the air velocity in all three components, the RMS of temperature normalised by the temperature difference between inside and outside and the turbulent fluxes were generally higher near the windward opening than near the leeward one. Nearly 75% of the net radiation in the greenhouse was consumed as latent heat by plant transpiration while only about 14% was converted to sensible heat.

In today's fast-moving business environment, packaging is more than just a protective layer around products. It has become an important part of branding, shipping safety, customer satisfaction, and cost management. Among all packaging solutions available in the market, the corrugated box has become one of the most trusted and widely used options for businesses across industries. From eCommerce brands and retail businesses to food companies and electronics manufacturers, every sector depends heavily on strong and reliable packaging solutions. A corrugated box offers durability, lightweight handling, affordability, and customization, making it suitable for products of different sizes and weights.

Saving cost and time was a motivation to develop a mechanized harvesting system for chickpeas, which are manually uprooted on fallow fields in developing countries. A tractor-pulled harvester with a modified stripper header was designed and fabricated, in which passive fingers with V-shaped slots removes chickpea pods from anchored plant; batted reel sweeps the pods across the platform. Field experiments were conducted to determine the effect of slot width and reel speed on machine performance in terms of harvesting losses. Minimal losses were found when the design was configured with a slot width of 4 cm, reel speed of 50 rpm and reel kinematic index of 1.6. The prototype harvester with a 1 m working width produced the work rate of 0.18 ha h-1 and exhibited acceptable working quality. The main conclusion is that the modified stripper harvester can work in unevenness ground where other machines cannot operate.

Aim of study: This paper presents a mathematical modeling approach to redesign the reels of chickpea harvesters for harvest efficiency.Area of study: A prototype chickpea harvester was designed and evaluated on the Dooshan farm of the University of Kurdistan, Sanandaj, Iran.Material and methods: The strategy used for reducing harvesting losses derived from the dynamic study of the reel applied to the chickpea harvester. The machine was designed such that bats of a power take-off (PTO)-powered reel, in conjunction with passive fingers, harvest pods from anchored plants and throw the pods into a hopper. The trochoid trajectory of the reel bats concerning reel kinematic index, and plant height and spacing was determined for redesigning the reel.Main results: This kinematic design allowed an estimation of the reel orientation at the time of impact. The experimentally validated model offers an accurate and low computational cost method to redesign harvester reels.Research highlights: The...

Over application with high frequency irrigation are some of the major problems which reduce the land production and productivity. In recognition of these constraints, study was conducted to investigate the effect of deficit irrigation under different furrow irrigation systems on soil properties and tomato yield. A field experiment was designed as a two factors factorial in RCBD; with three time replicates. The two factors were irrigation systems and water application levels. Irrigation depth was monitored using a Parshall Flume of an opening diameter 3 inch with discharge of 3.532 l/s at a head of 8cm. Results were compared in terms of standard range for soil properties and analysis of variance for yield at (P<0.05). The mean pH value of the soil before irrigation was nearly neutral and changed to moderately alkaline for alternative furrow irrigation (AFI) system and 50% ETc water application level, while it was changed to strongly alkaline for conventional furrow irrigation (CFI) and fixed furrow irrigation (FFI) systems and water application levels of 100% ETc, 85% ETc and 70% ETc. The interaction effects of irrigation systems and water application levels showed that, there were highly significant yield difference among the three irrigation systems with 100% ETc water application level and Maximum yield was obtained from CFI system with 100% ETc. However, from economic analysis results, AFI system with 100% ETc water application level had better in marginal rate of return (2606.36%). In view of the results, AFI system is taken as promising for conservation of water (1232.9m 3 /ha) and time (55:28'30" hours/ha), without negligible trade-off in yield.

The European Union (EU) has set ammonia emission restrictions for the different member states. To comply with the new regulations, the EU wants new techniques such as adapted feeding strategies and low emission building techniques to reduce ammonia emissions from livestock buildings. However, such ammonia restriction measures are only useful when their efficiency can be measured in the field. Current reliable measuring techniques are mainly based on continuous measurements over a long period (up to 200 days), and this requires expensive equipment. This makes them unsuitable for permanent evaluation on a large number of buildings. The main objective of the study presented here was the development of a procedure to determine NH 3 emissions from livestock buildings in the field, based on a limited number of measuring days. This method allows several buildings to be evaluated 'simultaneously' with the same measuring installation. In this study, high frequent ammonia measurements were taken from real livestock buildings for a year and were used to calculate NH 3 emission factors for pig houses. A procedure was developed based on the knowledge that NH 3 emission is strongly related to other variables that can be more easily measured over a yearly period, such as temperature, ventilation rate, number of animals and animal weight. Another assumption was that farm management could have significant influence on NH 3 emission, and consequently, this must be incorporated into the predictions. The prediction error between the measured and the calculated total NH 3 emission was less than 3% when only 8 days were selected over a whole year, on condition that 4 days were selected within the same growth period and 4 other days are selected in at least two other growth periods.

Because pigs frequently lose their footing and slip, it is important to understand slipping and its relation to different floor surfaces. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the gait and footing of young pigs walking on concrete floor surfaces having known friction characteristics and to determine critical skid resistance values in terms of the fitness of a concrete surface for flooring in pig quarters. Barrows were cinematographed with a high-speed 16-mm camera as they walked on various surfaces, and gait and footing were subsequently analyzed in motion studies. The six concrete floor test pads with different surface treatments (fine and coarse sand, fine and coarse broom, wood float and steel trowel) were evaluated for friction coefficient (skid resistance value) using a British pendulum tester both before and after pig tests. Leg angle, pastern angle and time variables were not related with average skid resistance value of the different floors. However, slip variables during ...

Raman scattering is an inelastic light-scattering process that yields a highly specific molecular fingerprint derived from the vibrational modes of biological components, including lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolic compounds. While Raman spectroscopy offers unparalleled chemical specificity and label-free analysis, the high dimensionality and complexity of biological spectral data have historically limited its clinical throughput. The integration of Artificial Intelligence (AI), particularly Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL), is transforming this paradigm. This paper reviews the foundational principles of Raman spectroscopy and details how AI-driven analysis is enabling the rapid, automated, and accurate interpretation of complex biological spectra, establishing a new frontier for molecular diagnostics in biomedicine.

According to the World Economic Forum, the global population is projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, demanding energy-efficient and sustainable food-preservation techniques. Solar drying offers a clean alternative to traditional drying systems, reducing energy consumption and improving product quality. The performance of solar dryers can be significantly improved by integrating thermal storage materials such as Phase Change Materials (PCMs) to ensure extended and stable drying even during cloudy periods and after sunset. This study experimentally investigates a solar dryer integrated with paraffin-wax PCM and evaluates its performance through energy, exergy, and economic assessments. The PCM-based solar dryer successfully dried onions, apricots, and tomatoes, achieving moisture removal efficiencies of 69.6%, 65%, and 72% respectively. PCM integration improved thermal stability, extended drying hours, and enhanced system sustainability. Overall, the PCM-assisted solar dryer presents a cost-effective, energy

Manure pit ventilation is a common design in commercial pig rearing buildings. However, determining accurate pit ventilation rates is technically challenging. A new pit exhaust airflow measurement assembly (PEAMA) was developed to directly and continuously measure airflow rates for tube-mounting variable-speed pit fans. The PEAMA consists of a PVC pipe, a flow straightener, and an impeller anemometer. A laboratory study revealed good linear correlations between the PEAMA signal outputs and the fan rotational speeds (R 2 > 0.999). The ventilation rates measured with the PEAMA were calibrated against those with the standardised traverse measurement with a highly linear correlation (R 2 > 0.996). In 2011, 24 PEAMA units were installed in twenty-four 250-mm diameter pit fans in a state-of-the-art pig research building. Multi-year field performance showed that the PEAMA greatly improved data quality during pit fan airflow monitoring compared with previously adopted techniques. This system enabled continuous and real-time ventilation outputs to be determined in volume time -1 . It was easy to maintain due to the simple design and outdoor installation. The cost of the 24 units accounted for only a small portion of a comprehensive air quality monitoring setup at the pig-rearing research building.

One of the processes to increase the shelf life of the food products is drying and dehydration. Vegetables may be dried by different methods like solar drying, open sun drying and other mechanical methods so that they can be available during the lean season. In this study, mint was subjected to drying after giving two different treatments and their respective physical and chemical parameters were evaluated. An increase in chlorophyll content, flavonoid content and Vitamin A content was observed in all of the dried samples as they become concentrated source of nutrients. However, a decrease in polyphenol content and Vitamin C content in all of the samples was found. Drying rate of solar dryer was higher than hot air dryer and open sun drying. The aroma of dried mint was maintained in solar dried samples but was lost in hot air dryer and open sun drying.

The fundamental objective of the review article was to explore the ecological sustainability of greenhouse covering material based on the following themes; considerations for greenhouse materials, properties of polymers and glass, additives, fillers, stabilizers and reinforcements, performance, Ultraviolet (UV) transmittance, phase change materials (PCMs), and environmental sustainability. A comparison of various polymers (polyvinyl chloride (PVC), acrylic, D-polymer, Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polyolefins), and silica glasses illustrated that each type of greenhouse cladding material has its unique merits and limitations. The performance of silica glasses, PVC, polyolefins was influenced by weather, greenhouse design, plant under cultivation, percentage UV transmittance, incorporation of additives and stabilizers, reinforcements, and integration of photovoltaic panels into the greenhouse roof among other factors. Polymers can be customized to achieve 0%UV transmittance, slow-insecticide release, and anti-microbial properties. In contrast, glass materials are preferred based on suitable photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) transmittance and near-infrared (NIR) reflection and less risk of photo-oxidation. From an ecological perspective, polymers can be recycled via mechanical and chemical recycling, closed-loop cycling, and polymerization of bio-based feedstock. However, post-consumer plastic films do not possess the same optical and energy properties as virgin polymers. The combined benefits of different polymers suggest that these materials could be adopted on a large scale over the long-term.

Applications of remote sensing in crop production are becoming increasingly popular due in part to an increased concern with pollution of surface and ground waters due to over-fertilization of agricultural lands and the need to compensate for spatial variability in a field. Past research in this area has focused primarily on N stress in crops. Other stresses and the interactions have not been fully evaluated. A field experiment was conducted to determine wavelengths and/or combinations of wavelengths that are indicative of P and N deficiency and also the interaction between these in corn (Zea mays L.). The field experiment was a randomized complete block design with four replications using a factorial arrangement of treatments in an irrigated continuous corn system. The treatment included four N rates (0, 67, 134, and 269 kg N ha-1) and four P rates (0, 22, 45, and 67 kg P ha-1). Spectral radiance measurements were taken at various growth stages in increments from 350 to 1000 nm and...

Techniques that measure the N status of corn (Zea mays L.) can aid in management decisions that have economic and environmental implications. This study was conducted to identify reflected electromagnetic wavelengths most sensitive to detecting N deficiencies in a corn canopy with the possibility for use as a management tool. Reflected shortwave radiation was measured from an irrigated corn N response trial with four hybrids and five N rates at 0, 40, 80, 120, and 160 kg N ha-1 in 1992 and 0, 50, 100, 150, and 200 kg N ha-1 in 1993. A portable spectroradiometer was used to measure reflected radiation (400-1100 nm in 1992, 350-1050 nm in 1993) from corn canopies at approximately the R5 growth stage. Regression analyses revealed that reflected radiation near 550 and 710 nm was superior to reflected radiation near 450 or 650 nm for detecting N deficiencies. The ratio of light reflectance between 550 and 600 nm to light reflectance between 800 and 900 nm also provided sensitive detectio...

Spatial variability of soil parameters within fields complicates N fertilizer recommendations for corn (Zea mays L.) production. Thus, the ability to identify differences in crop N status within corn fields could lead to efficiencies in N fertilizer application and decreased ground water pollution. In this study, we digitized aerial color photographic transparencies using an eight-bit scheme to generate digital counts for the red, green, and blue primary colors in the photographs at the R5 growth stage and related them to grain yield. Digital count responses were relative to the N treatment in which grain yield plateaued. Experiments were conducted in 1992 and 1993 for four irrigated corn hybrids with five N rates on a 6-ha field near Shelton, NE. Red and green digital counts relative to those for the high N treatment provided better prediction of yield response than relative blue counts in both years. In 1993, black-and-white photographs taken with a filter centered around 536 nm a...

The ratio of straw to grain mass as a function of cutting height affects combine efficiency and power consumption and is an important input parameter to combine simulation models. An equation was developed to predict straw to grain ratios for wheat as a function of cutting height. Methods: Two mass functions, one for straw and one for grain, were developed using regression techniques and measured data collected in west Texas during the summer, and used to predict the straw to grain ratio. Results: Three equations were developed to facilitate the simulation of a combine during wheat harvest. Two mass functions, one for straw and one for grain, were also developed; a quadratic equation describes the straw mass with an R 2 of 0.992. An S-shaped curve describes the mass function for grain with an R 2 of 0.957. An equation for straw to grain ratio of wheat was developed as a function of cutting height. The straw to grain ratio has an R 2 value of 0.947. Conclusions: In all cases, the equations had R 2 values above 0.94 and were significant at the 99.9 percent probability level (alpha = 0.001). Although all three equations are useful, the grain mass and straw to grain ratio equations will have direct application in combine simulation models.

As labor requirements in horticultural increase, so too does the feasibility of increased automation in these industries. This paper presents a performance evaluation of a kiwifruit harvesting robot designed to operate autonomously in pergola style orchards. The robot consists of four harvesting arms, endeffectors designed specifically for kiwifruit detachment, and a machine vision system employing convolution neural networks. Performance evaluations are presented for the harvester as a whole, as well as the machine vision system. We show the system as a whole is capable of harvesting over half of all fruit within three test orchards, equating a substantial reduction in peak harvesting labor requirements.

Animal production buildings emit a variety of airborne compounds through the exhaust fans in mechanically ventilated (MV) barns and through ridge vents and sidewalls of naturally ventilated (NV) buildings. Some of these gas, odour, or particulate emissions can result in animal and/or human health issues and/or create environmental air quality concerns. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate how airflow or ventilation rates for naturally ventilated barns can be determined for use in emission calculations by using emission measurements from a similar type of animal building with MV. Initially the continuous "net" carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) concentrations (exhaust -inlet) need to measured in the MV barn along with the building's airflow rate, typically found by measuring the onsite performance of its exhaust fans. The continuous net CO 2 concentrations are then measured in a similar animal building that is NV. The NV room's ventilation rate (on a per animal basis) is determined by multiplying the CO 2 concentrations ratios MV/NV from the earlier measurements and the MV room's ventilation rate. This technique is demonstrated in the paper using data from a turkey barn study, where ammonia (NH 3 ) concentrations were measured in both a MV and NV room and NH 3 emissions are calculated for both rooms. Thus, by using this modified CO 2 balance approach, one can calculate any airborne contaminate emissions rate from a NV barn as long as the CO 2 concentration ratios are known for that animal housing system and the net concentrations of that parameter is measured in the NV facility.

Dit paper introduceert het Cyclus BIOS-denkraam: een kosmologische architectuur die stelt dat alle werkelijkheid — op elk schaalniveau en in elk domein — georganiseerd is volgens dezelfde drieledige structuur van input, verwerking en output. De computationele metafoor wordt niet letterlijk gehanteerd maar als uitdrukking van een diepere ontologische waarheid: dat de structuurlogica van input-verwerking-output een universeel, schaalinvariant principe van de werkelijkheid zelf is. Niet omdat het universum een computer is, maar omdat computers — net als alle andere systemen — zijn voortgekomen uit een werkelijkheid die deze structuur fundamenteel bezit.
De architectuur wordt beschreven in drie functionele lagen. De ROM (Read-Only Memory) vertegenwoordigt de onveranderlijke structuurlogica die voorafgaat aan elke instantie van werkelijkheid. Zij bevat geen inhoud maar alleen structuur — de niet-algoritmische conditie waaronder algoritmische processen überhaupt mogelijk zijn. De RAM (Random Access Memory) is de tijdelijke, contextafhankelijke toestandsinvulling: alles wat tijd doet met de permanente structuur. De BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) is het cyclische initialisatieproces dat beide verbindt en de werkelijkheid elk moment opnieuw initialiseert vanuit dezelfde onveranderlijke basis. Tijd is daarmee geen externe container maar het product van de BIOS-cyclus zelf. De temporele beweging is spiraalvormig: elke cyclus draagt de geaccumuleerde RAM-toestand van het vorige moment mee als startconfiguratie voor de volgende.
De vraag naar de meta-ROM — de ROM van het geheel — wordt beantwoord met één woord: energie. Energie is niet iets in het systeem maar de conditie waaronder het systeem bestaat. Zij is onveranderlijk in totaal (eerste wet van de thermodynamica), vormloos maar structurerend, de bron van alle dynamiek en niet-algoritmisch van aard. Massa is bevroren energie, tijd is de maat van energieverandering, bewustzijn is energie die zichzelf leest.
Het denkraam wordt onderbouwd door vier actuele wetenschappelijke onderzoekslijnen. Faizal et al. (2025) tonen via Gödels onvolledigheidstheorema's aan dat een puur algoritmisch universum principieel onmogelijk is — wat de noodzaak van een niet-algoritmische ROM bewijst. Vopson (2022–2026) beschrijft met de Tweede Wet van Infodynamica hoe informatieentropie in biologische en fysische systemen daalt over tijd, wat in het Cyclus BIOS-kader de zelfoptimalisering van de RAM-laag beschrijft. Pillai et al. (2026) tonen in Nature Materials hoe het Piezo1-ionkanaal functioneert als een biologisch micro-BIOS: het leest de mechanische toestand van het weefsel (RAM) via zijn onveranderlijke eiwitstructuur (ROM) en initialiseert de chemische omgeving van de cel opnieuw (BIOS-output). Settimo et al. (2026) tonen aan dat kwantumgeheugen niet een absolute eigenschap is van een systeem maar afhankelijk van het observabelframe — een inzicht met directe consequenties voor hoe geheugen bij mensen wordt beoordeeld.
De filosofische architectuur bouwt op Deleuze en Guattari's rhizomatisch denken. Het Cyclus BIOS-denkraam is rhizomatisch: geen wortel, geen top, geen enkelvoudige richting. Geen enkel schaalniveau is het ‘echte’ niveau. Alle zijn gelijktijdig werkelijk, genest in elkaar, geregeerd door dezelfde ROM-structuurlogica. Orde en openheid zijn geen tegenstelling — de ROM garandeert de eerste, het rhizoom maakt de tweede mogelijk.
Het paper sluit af met de klinische vertaling in de Methodiek Keune. Vanuit het Cyclus BIOS-perspectief is dementie geen geheugenziekte maar een progressief falen van het interne BIOS-initialisatiemechanisme: het brein verliest de capaciteit om de vorige RAM-toestand te laden als startconfiguratie voor het huidige moment. De ROM — temperament, diepe emotionele patronen, procedureel en affectief geheugen — blijft intact. De Methodiek Keune positioneert de begeleider als extern BIOS-mechanisme: niet de falende RAM repareren, maar de intacte ROM lezen en de RAM-toestand van de cliënt in het huidige moment herinitialiseren. Hetzelfde principe geldt voor mensen met ASS: radicale normalisering is het expliciet wisselen van observabelframe, van het Schrödinger-beeld dat deficits meet naar het Heisenberg-beeld dat laat zien wat er wél is.


Sleutelwoorden  Cyclus BIOS · universele mechanica · ROM / RAM · energie als meta-ROM · infodynamica · Piezo1 · kwantumgeheugen · Methodiek Keune · radicale normalisering · rhizomatisch denken · dementie · ASS

Effective ventilation is crucial for the well-being and productivity of poultry in response to the growing global demand for poultry products. Properly designed and managed ventilation systems aid to remove contaminants and maintain uniform environmental conditions, benefiting both animals and workers in poultry houses. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling has become an essential tool in designing and evaluating ventilation systems, offering control over influencing factors and cost-effective solutions to address indoor environmental challenges in poultry housing. Through CFD simulations, airflow patterns within the poultry house will be analyzed to pinpoint areas for potential enhancement. A detailed 3D model of the poultry house and ventilation system is created within the CFD software with various simulation scenarios which are defined, considering different parameters like air inlet and outlet locations, fan settings, and environmental conditions. The process iterates until an optimal configuration is achieved, ensuring improved indoor air quality and enhanced poultry well-being and productivity. The simulation results indicated a moderately even temperature distribution but uneven air velocity in the baseline poultry house due to natural ventilation. Other results present the mass fraction distribution of ammonia (NH3), humidity, and carbon dioxide (CO2) for both systems and variations in air velocity and ammonia concentration in the baseline system. The analysis and comparison of the baseline and optimised poultry house ventilation systems reveal significant improvements with the optimised system.

Authors' Contributions: Each author made an equal contribution to the conception and design of the study. All authors have reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript for publication. Transparency: The authors affirm that this manuscript presents an honest, accurate, and transparent account of the study. All essential aspects have been included, and any deviations from the original study plan have been clearly explained. The writing process strictly adhered to established ethical standards.

This study presents an integrated framework for predicting and managing animal disease outbreaks in Korea using artificial intelligence (AI) models powered by big data from the Korea Animal Health Integrated System (KAHIS). First introduced during the 2016-2017 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) epidemic, these deep learning-based models estimate transmission risk by analyzing livestock vehicle movement patterns. The system produces farm-and municipality-level risk scores to guide targeted interventions for transboundary animal diseases such as HPAI, foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), African swine fever (ASF), and lumpy skin disease (LSD). While the models have proven effective in early detection and response, they are constrained by limited outbreak samples, outdated datasets, and the exclusion of environmental and vector-borne transmission variables. To enhance predictive capacity and disease preparedness, future models should incorporate multivariable data inputs and remain adaptable to evolving epidemiological landscapes.

Irrigation systems entail interacting processes that should be considered when analyzing the performances of irrigated areas. When analyzing the cause of performance gaps, one may consider the effect of one factor without taking into account the effect of other influential ones. This study addresses the performance of irrigated areas using a global approach. The analysis includes different factors of the production process and examines the relationship between irrigation and the economic performances of farmers' irrigated fields. Results showed that technical efficiency (TE), considered as our economic indicator, evaluating the degree to which the inputs are used efficiently, was about 0.85 for fruit orchards, tomato, wheat and 0.66 for olive trees. The on-farm water distribution efficiency (E farm ) that evaluates water lost during its transport to plots was poor and can decrease to 36%. A great potential for improving water management exists. E farm was not a significant factor for TE. So, E farm causing substantial water waste has no significant impact on economic performance, the main concern of the farmer. However the easy access to water was a significant factor for TE (p-value < 0.032 in all the cases). The easy access to water is a possible lever for improvement. We pointed out that irrigation performance in the studied area has no significant impact on economic performance. There is a divergence between the farmer's interest (the economic efficiency) and the community's objective to save water through better irrigation performance. Government efforts to provide incentives for farmers for better water management seem to have born no fruit. This study argues for the use of a bechmarking in building global representation adapted to the actual local context. The analysis approch suggests that more attention should be paid to the "water saving program" of Tunisia, by subsidising irrigation investments in a better way and focusing on subsidies that create the most of economic growth.

The possibilities for improving the control of greenhouse fogging systems, were studied by comparing several combinations of ventilation cooling techniques, shade screening and low-pressure fogging. The study was divided into three parts: experiments, modelling and simulations. In the first part of the paper, ten combinations of five cooling techniques were tested during the summers of 2002 and 2003 in a 132 m 2 greenhouse with a steel structure and a single-layer methacrylate cover located in Madrid, Spain. An analysis of variance of the climatic parameters was carried out to determine which combinations produced significant differences in inside temperature or relative humidity. Comparing the values for the inside to outside temperature difference, the combination of a shade screen and above-screen fogging achieved a difference in temperature almost the same as that for under-screen fogging, but the relative humidity was significantly lower. In the second part of the study a dynamic model was developed (2002) and validated (2003). The mean absolute error obtained for inside temperature was similar in the fit and the validation and it was less than 1.5 °C in both cases. The model was used to simulate the inside air temperature for a fog system working without shading, and above and under a shade screen. Control algorithms were developed for reducing system water consumption. In the three cases a simple on/off control with a fixed fogging cycle was compared with a pulse width modulation (PWM) strategy, in which the duration of the fogging pulse was increased as a function of inside temperature. The strategies with PWM applied to the fog system were able to reduce water consumption by 8-15% with respect to the strategies with a fixed fogging cycle.

Plant-based techniques to measure crop water status offer advantages over soil-based methods. The objective of this study was to quantify the relationship between leaf thickness measurements, as a promising plant-based technique, with leaf relative water content (RWC) and assess the model across different species and leaf positions. The relationship between RWC and relative thickness (RT) was determined on corn (Zea mays L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.), and fava bean (Vicia faba L.). RWC was calculated as measured leaf water content/leaf water content at full turgor, and RT as measured leaf thickness/leaf thickness at full turgor. Two leaves from the top, middle, and bottom of five plants of each species were collected at 60 days of age. Leaf samples brought to full turgor were left to dehydrate in a lab. Leaf thickness was measured using a magnetic field sensor and water content using weight loss. The RWC-RT relationship showed a distinc...