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On Smellosophy : what the nose
tells the mind by A-S. Barwich

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Barwich, Harvard University Press , 2020ïŒâ
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â ã¢ã³ïŒãœãã£ãŒã»ããŒãŠã£ããïŒAnn-Sophie BarwichïŒãžã®ãµã€ãå ãªã³ã¯ã¯ãã¡ã.
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Olfactory system
(smell)Like the sense of taste, the sense of smell, or the olfactiory system, is also responsive to chemical stimuli.[17] Unlike taste, there are hundreds of olfactory receptors (388 functional ones according to one 2003 study[41]), each binding to a particular molecular feature. Odor molecules possess a variety of features and, thus, excite specific receptors more or less strongly. This combination of excitatory signals from different receptors makes up what humans perceive as the molecule's smell.[42] The olfactory receptor neurons are located in a small region within the superior nasal cavity. This region is referred to as the olfactory epithelium and contains bipolar sensory neurons. Each olfactory sensory neuron has dendrites that extend from the apical surface of the epithelium into the mucus lining the cavity. As airborne molecules are inhaled through the nose, they pass over the olfactory epithelial region and dissolve into the mucus. These odorant molecules bind to proteins that keep them dissolved in the mucus and help transport them to the olfactory dendrites. The odorantâprotein complex binds to a receptor protein within the cell membrane of an olfactory dendrite. These receptors are G proteinâcoupled, and will produce a graded membrane potential in the olfactory neurons.[17] In the brain, olfaction is processed by the olfactory cortex. Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose differ from most other neurons in that they die and regenerate on a regular basis. The inability to smell is called anosmia. Some neurons in the nose are specialized to detect pheromones.[43] Loss of the sense of smell can result in food tasting bland. A person with an impaired sense of smell may require additional spice and seasoning levels for food to be tasted. Anosmia may also be related to some presentations of mild depression, because the loss of enjoyment of food may lead to a general sense of despair. The ability of olfactory neurons to replace themselves decreases with age, leading to age-related anosmia. This explains why some elderly people salt their food more than younger people do.[17] Causes of Olfactory dysfunction can be caused by age, exposure to toxic chemicals, viral infections, epilepsy, some sort of neurodegenerative disease, head trauma, or as a result of another disorder. [5] As studies in olfaction have continued, there has been a positive correlation to its dysfunction or degeneration and early signs of Alzheimers and sporadic Parkinson's disease. Many patients don't notice the decline in smell before being tested. In Parkinson's Disease and Alzheimers, an olfactory deficit is present in 85 to 90% of the early onset cases. [5]There is evidence that the decline of this sense can precede the Alzheimers or Parkinson's Disease by a couple years. Although the deficit is present in these two diseases, as well as others, it is important to make note that the severity or magnitude vary with every disease. This has brought to light some suggestions that olfactory testing could be used in some cases to aid in differentiating many of the neurodegenerative diseases. [5] Those who were born without a sense of smell or have a damaged sense of smell usually complain about 1, or more, of 3 things. Our olfactory sense is also used as a warning against bad food. If the sense of smell is damaged or not there, it can lead to a person contracting food poisoning more often. Not having a sense of smell can also lead to damaged relationships or insecurities within the relationships because of the inability for the person to not smell body odor. Lastly, smell influences how food and drink taste. When the olfactory sense is damaged, the satisfaction from eating and drinking is not as prominent. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense +++++++++++++++++++++++++ |
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| Ann-Sophie Barwich Ann-Sophie Barwich is a cognitive scientist, an empirical philosopher, and a historian of science. She is an Assistant Professor with joint positions in the Cognitive Science Program[1] and the Department of History and Philosophy of Science[2] at Indiana University Bloomington. Barwich is best known for her interdisciplinary[3] work on the history, philosophy, and neuroscience of olfaction. Her book, Smellosophy: What the Nose tells the Mind,[4] highlights the importance of thinking about the sense of smell as a model for neuroscience and the senses.[5][6][7][8][9] She is also noted for her analyses on methodological issues in molecular biology[10] and neuroscience.[11] |
ã¢ã³ïŒãœãã£ãŒã»ããŒãŠã£ãã ã¢ã³ïŒãœãã£ãŒã»ããŒãŠã£ããã¯ãèªç¥ç§åŠè ã§ãããçµéšçå²åŠè ã§ã ããç§åŠå²å®¶ã§ãããã€ã³ãã£ã¢ã倧åŠãã«ãŒãã³ãã³æ ¡ã®èªç¥ç§åŠããã°ã©ã [1]ãšç§åŠå²ã»ç§åŠå²åŠç§[2]ã§å ±åç ç©¶ãè¡ã婿ã§ãããããŒãŠã£ãã æ°ã¯ãå èŠã®æŽå²ãå²åŠãç¥çµç§åŠã«é¢ããåŠéçãªç ç©¶[3]ã§æãããç¥ãããŠããŸãã圌女ã®èæžãSmellosophy: 錻ãå¿ã«èªãããšã[4]ã¯ãç¥çµç§åŠãšæèŠã®ã¢ãã«ãšããŠå èŠã«ã€ããŠèããããšã®éèŠæ§ã匷調ããŠãã[5][6][7][8][9]ããŸãååçç© åŠ[10]ãšç¥çµç§åŠã®æ¹æ³è«åé¡ã«å¯Ÿãã圌女ã®åæã§ã泚ç®ãããŠãã[11]ã |
| Biography Ann-Sophie Barwich, originally from Weimar, East Germany,[12] received her Magister Artium (M.A.) in German Literature Studies and Philosophy in 2009 at the Humboldt University of Berlin with her thesis on causality in Leibniz and its relevance for theories of biological classification.[13] She received her Ph.D. in Philosophy in 2013 at the Centre for the Study of the Life Sciences at University of Exeter with advisors John Dupré and Michael Hauskeller, taking a philosophy of science approach to olfaction theory in her dissertation.[14] Barwich held a postdoctoral fellowship at the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research[15] before receiving the prestigious Presidential Scholar in Society and Neuroscience fellowship at the Center for Science and Society at Columbia University.[16] At the center, she worked in the neuroscience lab of Stuart Firestein on the project âFrom the Air to the Brain: Laboratory Routines in Olfactionâ. |
ç¥æŽ æ±ãã€ãã®ã¯ã€ããŒã«åºèº«ã®ã¢ã³ïŒãœãã£ãŒã»ããŒãŠã£ããã¯[12]ã2009幎ã«ã©ã€ããããã«ãããå æé¢ä¿ãšçç©åé¡ã®çè«ãšã®é¢é£ã«ã€ããŠã®è«æ ã§ãã«ãªã³ãã³ãã«ã倧åŠã®ãã€ãæåŠç ç©¶ããã³å²åŠã®ããžã¹ã¿ãŒã»ã¢ãŒãã£ãŠã ïŒä¿®å£«å·ïŒãååŸãã[13]ã2013幎ã«ãšã¯ã»ã¿ãŒå€§åŠã®çåœç§åŠç ç©¶ã»ã³ã¿ãŒã§ãžã§ã³ã»ãã¥ãã¬ããã³ãã€ã±ã«ã»ããŠã¹ã±ã©ãŒã®ã¢ããã€ã¶ãŒãšå ±ã«å²åŠã®å士å·ãååŸãè«æã§ã¯å èŠçè«ã«å¯Ÿããç§åŠå²åŠã®ã¢ãããŒãã è¡ã£ãŠãã[14]ã [14] ããŒãŠã£ããã¯ãã³ã³ã©ãŒãã»ããŒã¬ã³ãé²åèªç¥ç ç©¶æ[15]ã§å士ç ç©¶å¡ãåããåŸãã³ãã³ãã¢å€§åŠã®ç§åŠãšç€ŸäŒã»ã³ã¿ãŒã§ç€ŸäŒãšç¥çµç§åŠã«ãããå èªãã倧統é 奚åŠçãšãªã£ã[16]ãåã»ã³ã¿ãŒã§ã¯ãã¹ãã¥ã¢ãŒãã»ãã¡ã€ã¢ã¹ã¿ã€ã³ã®ç¥çµç§åŠç 究宀ã§ã空æ°ããè³ãžïŒå èŠã«ãããç 究宀ã®ã«ãŒãã£ã³ããããžã§ã¯ãã«åŸäºã |
| Research Barwich's research focuses on the chemical senses, with olfaction as the main target of study. Her approach applies philosophical ideas to empirical research to inform theories and methods on how perception and cognition should be modeled in the brain. This combines historical and philosophical analyses with sociological, qualitative methods that include interviews with experts in neuroscience, psychology, chemistry, and the industry of perfumery. A prime example is the research that went into the book Smellosophy,[4] in which she interviewed numerous neuroscientists such as Linda Buck, Stuart Firestein, philosophers including Barry C. Smith, winemaker Allison Tauziet, perfumers Harry Fremont and Christophe Laudamiel, sensory chemists such as Ann C. Noble, Avery Gilbert, as well as zoologists and biophysicists.[17] Her publications[18] are clustered around two areas: (1) the perceptual and cultural dimensions of smell and its link to cognition, which brings theoretical analyses to the empirical exploration of three aspects of odor: its affective nature, its phenomenological structure, and its cross-modal influences with the other senses, and (2) the role of scientific expertise in laboratory-based neuroscience, focusing on how current advances in olfaction can contribute to the conceptual foundations of neuroscience. By tracking the emergence, success, and decline of standard laboratory routines, her research investigates the cognitive and behavioral patterns that influence scientific decision-making. Barwich is also notable in philosophy of neuroscience[11] and philosophy of molecular biology [10] for her work on the historical and philosophical study of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs).[19] |
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容 ããŒãŠã£ããã®ç ç©¶ã¯ãå èŠãäžå¿ãšããååŠæèŠã«çŠç¹ãåœãŠãŠããŸãã圌女ã®ã¢ãããŒãã¯ãå²åŠçææ³ãå®èšŒçç ç©¶ã«é©çšããç¥èŠãšèªç¥ãè³å ã§ã©ã®ã ãã«ã¢ãã«åãããã¹ããã«é¢ããçè«ã𿹿³ã«æ å ±ãæäŸãããã®ã§ãããããã¯ãæŽå²çãå²åŠçãªåæãšãç¥çµç§åŠãå¿çåŠãååŠãéŠæ°Žç£æ¥ã®å°éå®¶ãž ã®ã€ã³ã¿ãã¥ãŒãå«ã瀟äŒåŠçã宿§çãªæ¹æ³ãçµã¿åããããã®ã ããã®ä»£è¡šäŸãæžç±ãSmellosophyã[4]ã§ããªã³ãã»ããã¯ãã¹ãã¥ã¢ãŒ ãã»ãã¡ã€ã¢ã¹ã¿ã€ã³ãããªãŒã»Cã»ã¹ãã¹ãªã©ã®å²åŠè ãã¯ã€ã³ã¡ãŒã«ãŒã®ã¢ãªãœã³ã»ã¿ãŠãžãšããã調éŠåž«ã®ããªãŒã»ãã¬ã¢ã³ããã¯ãªã¹ããã»ã©ãŠãããš ã«ãæèŠååŠè ã®ã¢ã³ã»Cã»ããŒãã«ãã¢ããªãŒã»ã®ã«ããŒããåç©åŠè ãçç©ç©çåŠè ãªã©ã«å€æ°ã®ã€ã³ã¿ãã¥ãŒãè¡ã£ãç ç©¶[17]ã§ããã 1ïŒåãã®ç¥èŠçã»æåçåŽé¢ãšãã®èªç¥ãžã®é¢é£æ§ãããªãã¡åãã®ææ çæ§è³ªãçŸè±¡åŠçæ§é ãä»ã®æèŠãšã®ã¯ãã¹ã¢ãŒãã«ãªåœ±é¿ãšãã3ã€ã®åŽé¢ã®çµéš çæ¢æ±ã«çè«åæããããããã®ãïŒ2ïŒå®éšå®€ããŒã¹ã®ç¥çµç§åŠã«ãããç§åŠã®å°éæ§ã®åœ¹å²ãå èŠã«ãããçŸåšã®é²æ©ãç¥çµç§åŠã®æŠå¿µçåºç€ã«ã©ã®ããã« è²¢ç®ã§ãããã«çŠç¹ãåœãŠããã®ãã«åé¡ãããŸã[18]ãæšæºçãªå®éšã«ãŒãã³ã®åºçŸãæåãè¡°éã远跡ããããšã§ãç§åŠçæææ±ºå®ã«åœ±é¿ãäžããèª ç¥ã»è¡åãã¿ãŒã³ãç ç©¶ããŠããããŸããGã¿ã³ãã¯è³ªå ±åœ¹åå容äœïŒGPCRïŒã®æŽå²çã»å²åŠçç ç©¶ã«ãããç¥çµç§åŠã®å²åŠ[11]ãååçç©åŠã®å²åŠ [10]ã§ã泚ç®ãããååšã§ãã[19]ã |
| Media appearances Her work, especially her book,[4] has been covered by Science[6] and national outlets including The New York Times,[20] The Wall Street Journal,[5] Harpers,[7] The Spectator,[9] and The Times Literary Supplement.[8] Smellosophy has also been selected by The Daily Telegraph as one of the "best wine books to buy for Christmas."[21] The parenting magazine Fatherly covered her work in articles on children's sense of smell,[22] pre-teens' body odor,[23] and debunking the myth that humans have a poor sense of smell.[24] She has been interviewed by the Italian newspaper la Repubblica,[25] Lynne Malcolm's All in the Mind program at ABC Radio National,[26] and the Radio New Zealand Nine to Noon with Kathryn Ryan program.[27] Barwich was also invited to appear on the game show Tell Me Something I Don't Know on Freakonomics Radio.[28] |
ã¡ãã£ã¢ãžã®ç»å Ž åœŒå¥³ã®ä»äºãç¹ã«èæž[4]ã¯ããµã€ãšã³ã¹[6]ãããã¥ãŒãšãŒã¯ã¿ã€ã ãº[20]ããŠã©ãŒã«ã¹ããªãŒããžã£ãŒãã«[5]ãããŒããŒãº[7]ãã¹ãã¯ã¿ã¯ ã«ãã¿ã€ã ãºãªãã©ãªãŒãµããªã¡ã³ããªã©ã®å šåœçŽã§åãäžããããŠããã ãŸããã¹ã¡ããœãã£ãŒããã€ãªãŒãã¬ã°ã©ãã®ãã¯ãªã¹ãã¹ã«è²·ãããã¯ã€ã³æ¬ãã¹ããã«éžåºãããŠãã[8][21]ã è²å éèªãFatherlyãã§ã¯ãåã©ãã®å èŠ[22]ããã¬ãã£ãŒã³ã®äœè[23]ãã人éã®å èŠã¯äœãããšããä¿èª¬ã®åŠå®ã«é¢ããèšäºã§åœŒå¥³ã®ä»äº ãåãäžãã[24]ã [24] ã€ã¿ãªã¢ã®æ°è la Repubblicaã[25] ABC Radio National ã® Lynne Malcolm ã® All in the Mind ããã°ã©ã ã[26] Radio New Zealand Nine to Noon with Kathryn Ryan ããã°ã©ã ããã€ã³ã¿ãã¥ãŒãåããã 27] Barwich 㯠Freakonomics Radio ã®ã²ãŒã ã·ã§ãŒ Tell Me Something I Don't Know ã«ãæåŸ ããã[28]ã |
| Public writings Barwich is currently a writer for the column Molecules to Mind: The sense of smell as a window into mind and brain in Psychology Today.[35] She has also written on smell training[36] and wine tasting[37] for the NEO.LIFE magazine, on the philosophy and science of olfaction for Aeon[38] and Nautilus Quarterly,[39][40] and the importance of olfaction for philosophy in The Philosophers' Magazine.[41] During the COVID-19 pandemic, she wrote about COVID-19-related loss of smell and what it means for our understanding of the mind for StatNews.[42] De Standaard[43] picked up Barwich's work to address one of the core symptoms of COVID-19: the loss of smell and taste. Focusing on the case of Mary Hesse, she has also written for Aeon on the erasure of women philosophers from collective memory.[44] |
äžè¬åãèäœç© ããŒãŠã£ããã¯çŸåšããPsychology Todayãã®ã³ã©ã ãMolecules to Mindãã®å·çè ã§ãã[35]ããŸããNEO.LIFEèªã§ã¯å èŠãã¬ãŒãã³ã°[36]ãã¯ã€ã³ãã€ã¹ãã£ã³ã°[37]ã«ã€ããŠãAeon[38]ã Nautilus Quarterlyã§ã¯å èŠã®å²åŠã»ç§åŠã«ã€ããŠãThe Philosophers' Magazineã§ã¯å²åŠã«ãããå èŠã®éèŠæ§ã«ã€ããŠå·çããŠãã [39] [40]ã [41] COVID-19ãæµè¡ããéã圌女ã¯COVID-19ã«é¢é£ããå èŠã®åªå€±ãšãããå¿ã®çè§£ã«ãšã£ãŠäœãæå³ãããã«ã€ããŠãã¹ã¿ãããã¥ãŒã¹ãã«å¯çš¿ ããŠããŸã[42] ã ãã»ã¹ã¿ã³ããŒãã[43]ã¯ããŒãŠã£ããã®ä»äºãåãäžããCOVID-19ã®äžæ žçç¶ã®äžã€ãå èŠãšå³èŠã®åªå€±ã«ã€ããŠåãäžããŠããŸããã¡ã¢ãªãŒã» ããã»ã®ã±ãŒã¹ã«çŠç¹ãåœãŠãéåçèšæ¶ãã女æ§å²åŠè ãæ¶å»ãããããšã«ã€ããŠãã€ãªã³ãã«ãå¯çš¿ããŠãã[44]ã |
| Selected bibliography Barwich, Ann-Sophie (2020). Smellosophy: What the Nose tells the Mind. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674983694. Barwich, Ann-Sophie (2020). "What makes a discovery successful? The story of Linda Buck and the olfactory receptors" (PDF). Cell. 181 (4): 749â753. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2020.04.040. PMID 32413294. S2CID 218627484. Barwich, Ann-Sophie (2019). "The value of failure in science: The story of grandmother cells in neuroscience". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 13 (1121): 1121. doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01121. PMC 6822296. PMID 31708726. Barwich, Ann-Sophie (2018). "Measuring the World: Olfaction as a Process Model of Perception". Everything flows: Towards a processual philosophy of biology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198779636. Barwich, Ann-Sophie; Karim, Baschir (2017). "The Manipulability of What? The History of GâProtein Coupled Receptors". Biology and Philosophy. 32 (6): 1317â1339. doi:10.1007/s10539-017-9608-9. hdl:2022/26207. S2CID 148645746. Barwich, Ann-Sophie (2016). "What is so special about smell? Olfaction as a model system in neurobiology". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 92 (1083): 27â33. doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2015-133249. PMID 26534994. S2CID 31525667. Barwich, Ann-Sophie; Chang, Hasok (2015). "Sensory measurements: coordination and standardization". Biological Theory. 10 (3): 200â211. doi:10.1007/s13752-015-0222-2. S2CID 82111463. Barwich, Ann-Sophie (2014). "A sense so rare: Measuring olfactory experiences and making a case for a process perspective on sensory perception". Biological Theory. 9 (3): 258â268. doi:10.1007/s13752-014-0165-z. S2CID 84039814. |
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann-Sophie_Barwich |
|
| Patricia
Smith Churchland
(born 16 July 1943)[3] is a Canadian-American analytic
philosopher[1][2] noted for her contributions to neurophilosophy and
the philosophy of mind. She is UC President's Professor of Philosophy
Emerita at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), where she
has taught since 1984. She has also held an adjunct professorship at
the Salk Institute for Biological Studies since 1989.[4] She is a
member of the Board of Trustees Moscow Center for Consciousness Studies
of Philosophy Department, Moscow State University.[5] In 2015, she was
elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences.[6]
Educated at the University of British Columbia, the University of
Pittsburgh, and Somerville College, Oxford, she taught philosophy at
the University of Manitoba from 1969 to 1984 and is married to the
philosopher Paul Churchland.[7] Larissa MacFarquhar, writing for The
New Yorker, observed of the philosophical couple that: "Their work is
so similar that they are sometimes discussed, in journals and books, as
one person."[8] |
ãããªã·ã¢ã»ã¹ãã¹ã»ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ãïŒPatricia
Smith
Churchlandã1943幎7æ16æ¥çãŸãïŒ[3]ã¯ãç¥çµå²åŠãšå¿ã®å²åŠãžã®è²¢ç®ã§ç¥ãããã«ããç³»ã¢ã¡ãªã«äººã®åæå²åŠè
[1][2]ã§ã
ããã«ãªãã©ã«ãã¢å€§åŠãµã³ãã£ãšãŽæ ¡ïŒUCSDïŒã®å²åŠåèªææã§ããã1984幎ããåæ ¡ã§æéããšã£ãŠããã圌女ã¯ãŸãã1989幎ãããœãŒã¯çç©
åŠç ç©¶æã®éåžžå€ææãåããŠãã[4]ã 圌女ã¯ãã¢ã¹ã¯ã¯å€§åŠå²åŠç§ã®æèç ç©¶ã®ããã®è©è°å¡ã¢ã¹ã¯ã¯ã»ã³ã¿ãŒã®ã¡ã³ããŒã§ãã[5]
2015幎ã«ã圌女ã¯ã¢ã¡ãªã«èžè¡ç§åŠã¢ã«ãããŒã®ãã§ããŒã«éžåºãããã [6]
ããªãã£ãã·ã¥ã»ã³ãã³ãã¢å€§åŠããããããŒã°å€§åŠããªãã¯ã¹ãã©ãŒãã®ãµããŒãŽã£ã«ã»ã«ã¬ããžã§æè²ãåãã1969幎ãã1984幎ãŸã§ãããã倧åŠ
ã§å²åŠãæããå²åŠè
ã®ããŒã«ã»ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ããšçµå©ãã[7]
ã©ãªããµã»ãã¯ãã¡ãŒã«ãŒã¯ãã¥ãŒãšãŒã«ãŒã®ããã«æžããŠããã®å²åŠçã«ããã«ã«ã€ããŠãã芳å¯ããŠãããã圌ãã®ä»äºã¯éåžžã«ãã䌌ãŠãããããéèªã
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| Biography Early life and education Churchland was born Patricia Smith in Oliver, British Columbia,[3] and raised on a farm in the South Okanagan valley.[9][10] Both of her parents lacked a high-school education; her father and mother left school after grades 6 and 8 respectively. Her mother was a nurse and her father worked in newspaper publishing in addition to running the family farm. In spite of their limited education, Churchland has described her parents as interested in the sciences, and the worldview they instilled in her as a secular one. She has also described her parents as eager for her to attend college, and though many farmers in their community thought this "hilarious and a grotesque waste of money", they saw to it that she did so.[10] She took her undergraduate degree at the University of British Columbia, graduating with honors in 1965.[7] She received a Woodrow Wilson Fellowship to study at the University of Pittsburgh, where she took an M.A. in 1966.[7][11] Thereafter she studied at Somerville College, Oxford as a British Council and Canada Council Fellow, obtaining a B. Phil in 1969.[7] Academic career Churchland's first academic appointment was at the University of Manitoba, where she was an assistant professor from 1969 to 1977, an associate professor from 1977 to 1982, and promoted to a full professorship in 1983.[7] It was here that she began to make a formal study of neuroscience with the help and encouragement of Larry Jordan, a professor with a lab in the Department of Physiology there.[9][10][12] From 1982 to 1983 she was a Visiting Member in Social Science at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton.[13] In 1984, she was invited to take up a professorship in the department of philosophy at UCSD, and relocated there with her husband Paul, where both have remained since.[14] Since 1989, she has also held an adjunct professorship at the Salk Institute adjacent to UCSD's campus, where she became acquainted with Jonas Salk[4][9] whose name the Institute bears. Describing Salk, Churchland has said that he "liked the idea of neurophilosophy, and he gave me a tremendous amount of encouragement at a time when many other people thought that we were, frankly, out to lunch."[10] Another important supporter Churchland found at the Salk Institute was Francis Crick.[9][10] At the Salk Institute, Churchland has worked with Terrence Sejnowski's lab as a research collaborator.[15] Her collaboration with Sejnowski culminated in a book, The Computational Brain (MIT Press, 1993), co-authored with Sejnowski. Churchland was named the UC President's Professor of Philosophy in 1999, and served as Chair of the Philosophy Department at UCSD from 2000-2007.[7] She attended and was a speaker at the secularist Beyond Belief symposia in 2006, 2007, and 2008.[16][17][18] Personal life Churchland first met her husband, the philosopher Paul Churchland, while they were both enrolled in a class on Plato at the University of Pittsburgh,[10] and they were married after she completed her B.Phil at Somerville College, Oxford.[9] Their children are Mark M. Churchland (born 1972) and Anne K. Churchland (born 1974), both of whom are neuroscientists.[19][20] Churchland is considered an atheist,[21] however she identified herself as pantheist in a 2012 interview.[22][23] |
ç¥æŽ å¹Œå°æãšæè² ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ãã¯ããªãã£ãã·ã¥ã»ã³ãã³ãã¢å·ã®ãªãªããŒã§ãããªã·ã¢ã»ã¹ãã¹ã«çãŸã[3]ãåãªã«ãã¬ã³æžè°·ã®èŸ²å Žã§è²ã£ã[9][10]ã 䞡芪ã¯å ±ã«é«æ ¡æè²ãåãããç¶èŠªã¯6幎çãæ¯èŠªã¯8幎çã§åŠæ ¡ãå»ã£ããæ¯èŠªã¯çè·åž«ãç¶èŠªã¯èŸ²å Žãçµå¶ããåããæ°è瀟ã§åããŠããããããã䞡芪㯠ç§åŠã«èå³ãããããã®äžç芳ã¯äžä¿çãªãã®ã§ãã£ããšèªã£ãŠããããŸãã䞡芪ã¯åœŒå¥³ã倧åŠã«è¡ãããšãç±æããŠãããå°åã®å€ãã®èŸ²å®¶ããæ»çšœã§ããé ã®ç¡é§é£ãã ããšæã£ããã圌女ã倧åŠã«è¡ãããã«ä»åãããšè¿°ã¹ãŠãã[10]ã [7] ãã®åŸããŠããããŠã»ãŠã£ã«ãœã³å¥šåŠéãåŸãŠãããããŒã°å€§åŠã«çåŠãã1966幎ã«ä¿®å£«å·ãååŸ[7][11] ãã®åŸãããªãã£ãã·ã¥è©è°äŒããã³ã«ããè©è°äŒã®ãã§ããŒãšããŠãªãã¯ã¹ãã©ãŒãã®ãµããŒãŽã£ã«ã»ã«ã¬ããžã§åŠã³ã1969幎ã«çåŠå£«ãååŸ[7] ã ç ç©¶è ãšããŠã®çµæŽ ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ãã¯ããããã倧åŠã§1969幎ãã1977幎ãŸã§å©ææã1977幎ãã1982幎ãŸã§åææãåãã1983å¹Žã«æ£ææã«æä»»ãã [7]ããã®ãšããççåŠæå®€ã«ç 究宀ãæã€ã©ãªãŒã»ãžã§ãŒãã³ææã®æŽå©ãšå¥šå±ãåããŠç¥çµç§åŠãæ£åŒã«ç ç©¶ããããã«ãªã£ã[9][10][12]ã [1982幎ãã1983幎ãŸã§ããªã³ã¹ãã³é«çç ç©¶æã§ç€ŸäŒç§åŠã®å®¢å¡ç ç©¶å¡[13]ã1984幎ã«ã«ãªãã©ã«ãã¢å€§åŠã®å²åŠç§ã®ææã«æããã倫㮠ããŒã«ãšãšãã«ç§»ãäœã¿ãçŸåšã«è³ã[14]ããã£ãŒãã©ã³ãã¯ãœãŒã¯ã«ã€ããŠããç¥çµå²åŠã®èãæ¹ã奜ãã§ãä»ã®å€ãã®äººãç§ãã¡ã¯æ£çŽèšã£ãŠæŒé£æã ã ãšèããŠãããšãã«ã圌ã¯ç§ã«å€å€§ãªå±ãŸããäžããŠãããããšè¿°ã¹ãŠãã[10]ããã£ãŒãã©ã³ãããœãŒã¯ç ç©¶æã§èŠã€ããããäžäººã®éèŠãªæ¯æŽè ã¯ã ã©ã³ã·ã¹ã»ã¯ãªãã¯ã§ãã[9]ã [ãœãŒã¯ç ç©¶æã§ã¯ããã¬ã³ã¹ã»ã»ãžã¥ããã¹ããŒã®ç 究宀ãšå ±åç ç©¶ãè¡ã£ãŠãã[15]ãã»ãžã¥ããã¹ããŒãšã®å ±åç ç©¶ã¯ããèšç®è³ãïŒMIT Press, 1993ïŒãšããæžç±ã«çµå®ããããã£ãŒãã©ã³ãã¯1999幎ã«ã«ãªãã©ã«ãã¢å€§åŠå€§çµ±é å²åŠææã«ä»»åœããã2000幎ãã2007幎ãŸã§ã«ãªãã©ã«ã ã¢å€§åŠå€§åŠé¢å²åŠç§ã®åŠç§é·ãåãã[7]ã 2006幎ã2007幎ã2008幎ã«éå¬ãããäžä¿äž»çŸ©è ã®ã·ã³ããžãŠã ãããšã³ãã»ããªãŒããã«åå ããè¬æŒãè¡ã£ã[16][17][18]ã ç§ç掻 ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ãã¯ããããããŒã°å€§åŠã§ãã©ãã³ã«é¢ããææ¥ãåããŠããæã«ã倫ã§ããå²åŠè ã®ããŒã«ã»ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ããšåããŠåºäŒã[10]ããªãã¯ã¹ ãã©ãŒãã®ãµããŒãŽã£ã«ã»ã«ã¬ããžã§å士å·ãååŸããåŸã«çµå©ãã[9]ã 圌ãã®åäŸã¯ããŒã¯ã»Mã»ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ãïŒ1972幎çïŒãšã¢ã³ã»Kã»ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ãïŒ1974幎çïŒã§ã2人ãšãç¥çµç§åŠè ã§ãã[19][20] ãã£ãŒãã©ã³ãã¯ç¡ç¥è«è ãšããŠç¥ãããŠãããã2012幎ã«ã€ã³ã¿ãã¥ãŒã«å¿ããéã¯æ±ç¥äž»çŸ©è ãšããŠèªããèªãã[21][22][23] ã |
| Philosophical work Churchland is broadly allied to a view of philosophy as a kind of 'proto-science' - asking challenging but largely empirical questions. She advocates the scientific endeavour, and has dismissed significant swathes of professional philosophy as obsessed with what she regards as unnecessary.[24] Churchland's own work has focused on the interface between neuroscience and philosophy. According to her, philosophers are increasingly realizing that to understand the mind one must understand the brain. She applies findings from neuroscience to address traditional philosophical questions about knowledge, free will, consciousness and ethics. She is associated with a school of thought called eliminative materialism, which argues that common sense, immediately intuitive, or "folk psychological" concepts such as thought, free will, and consciousness will likely need to be revised in a physically reductionistic way as neuroscientists discover more about the nature of brain function.[25] 2014 saw a brief exchange of views on these topics with Colin McGinn in the pages of the New York Review Of Books.[26] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Churchland Neurophilosophy: Toward a Unified Science of the Mind-Brain. (1986) Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. "The Hornswoggle Problem". (1996) San Diego, La Jolla, CA. Journal of Consciousness Studies. Brain-Wise: Studies in Neurophilosophy. (2002) Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Braintrust: What Neuroscience Tells Us about Morality. (2011) Princeton University Press. eBook ISBN 9781400838080[31] Touching A Nerve: The Self As Brain. (2013) W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393058321 Conscience: The Origins of Moral Intuition. (2019) W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-1324000891 American philosophy Eliminative materialism Neurophilosophy List of American philosophers Materialism Monism Philosophy of mind Reductionism Scientism |
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The olfactory system,
or sense of smell, is the sensory system used for smelling (olfaction).
Olfaction is one of the special senses, that have directly associated
specific organs. Most mammals and reptiles have a main olfactory system
and an accessory olfactory system. The main olfactory system detects
airborne substances, while the accessory system senses fluid-phase
stimuli.The senses of smell and taste (gustatory system) are often referred to together as the chemosensory system, because they both give the brain information about the chemical composition of objects through a process called transduction. |
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Structure![]() This diagram linearly (unless otherwise mentioned) tracks the projections of all known structures that allow for olfaction to their relevant endpoints in the human brain. Peripheral The peripheral olfactory system consists mainly of the nostrils, ethmoid bone, nasal cavity, and the olfactory epithelium (layers of thin tissue covered in mucus that line the nasal cavity). The primary components of the layers of epithelial tissue are the mucous membranes, olfactory glands, olfactory neurons, and nerve fibers of the olfactory nerves.[1] Odor molecules can enter the peripheral pathway and reach the nasal cavity either through the nostrils when inhaling (olfaction) or through the throat when the tongue pushes air to the back of the nasal cavity while chewing or swallowing (retro-nasal olfaction).[2] Inside the nasal cavity, mucus lining the walls of the cavity dissolves odor molecules. Mucus also covers the olfactory epithelium, which contains mucous membranes that produce and store mucus, and olfactory glands that secrete metabolic enzymes found in the mucus.[3] Transduction ![]() Action potential propagated by olfactory stimuli in an axon. Olfactory sensory neurons in the epithelium detect odor molecules dissolved in the mucus and transmit information about the odor to the brain in a process called sensory transduction.[4][5] Olfactory neurons have cilia (tiny hairs) containing olfactory receptors that bind to odor molecules, causing an electrical response that spreads through the sensory neuron to the olfactory nerve fibers at the back of the nasal cavity.[2] Olfactory nerves and fibers transmit information about odors from the peripheral olfactory system to the central olfactory system of the brain, which is separated from the epithelium by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone. Olfactory nerve fibers, which originate in the epithelium, pass through the cribriform plate, connecting the epithelium to the brain's limbic system at the olfactory bulbs.[6] |
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Central![]() Details of olfaction system The main olfactory bulb transmits pulses to both mitral and tufted cells, which help determine odor concentration based on the time certain neuron clusters fire (called 'timing code'). These cells also note differences between highly similar odors and use that data to aid in later recognition. The cells are different with mitral having low firing-rates and being easily inhibited by neighboring cells, while tufted have high rates of firing and are more difficult to inhibit.[7][8][9][10] How the bulbar neural circuit transforms odor inputs to the bulb to the bulbar responses that are sent to the olfactory cortex can be partly understood by a mathematical model.[11] The uncus houses the olfactory cortex which includes the piriform cortex (posterior orbitofrontal cortex), amygdala, olfactory tubercle, and parahippocampal gyrus. The olfactory tubercle connects to numerous areas of the amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, brain stem, retina, auditory cortex, and olfactory system. *In total it has 27 inputs and 20 outputs. An oversimplification of its role is to state that it: checks to ensure odor signals arose from actual odors rather than villi irritation, regulates motor behavior (primarily social and stereotypical) brought on by odors, integrates auditory and olfactory sensory info to complete the aforementioned tasks, and plays a role in transmitting positive signals to reward sensors (and is thus involved in addiction).[12][13][14] The amygdala (in olfaction) processes pheromone, allomone, and kairomone (same-species, cross-species, and cross-species where the emitter is harmed and the sensor is benefited, respectively) signals. Due to cerebrum evolution this processing is secondary and therefore is largely unnoticed in human interactions.[15] Allomones include flower scents, natural herbicides, and natural toxic plant chemicals. The info for these processes comes from the vomeronasal organ indirectly via the olfactory bulb.[16] The main olfactory bulb's pulses in the amygdala are used to pair odors to names and recognize odor to odor differences.[17][18] Stria terminalis, specifically bed nuclei (BNST), act as the information pathway between the amygdala and hypothalamus, as well as the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. BNST abnormalities often lead to sexual confusion and immaturity. BNST also connects to the septal area, rewarding sexual behavior.[19][20] Mitral pulses to the hypothalamus promote/discourage feeding, whereas accessory olfactory bulb pulses regulate reproductive and odor-related-reflex processes. The hippocampus (although minimally connected to the main olfactory bulb) receives almost all of its olfactory information via the amygdala (either directly or via the BNST). The hippocampus forms new and reinforces existing memories. Similarly, the parahippocampus encodes, recognizes and contextualizes scenes.[21] The parahippocampal gyrus houses the topographical map for olfaction. The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) is heavily correlated with the cingulate gyrus and septal area to act out positive/negative reinforcement. The OFC is the expectation of reward/punishment in response to stimuli. The OFC represents the emotion and reward in decision making.[22] The anterior olfactory nucleus distributes reciprocal signals between the olfactory bulb and piriform cortex.[23] The anterior olfactory nucleus is the memory hub for smell.[24] When different odor objects or components are mixed, humans and other mammals sniffing the mixture (presented by, e.g., a sniff bottle) are often unable to identify the components in the mixture even though they can recognize each individual component presented alone.[25] This is largely because each odor sensory neuron can be excited by multiple odor components. It has been proposed that, in an olfactory environment typically composed of multiple odor components (e.g., odor of a dog entering a kitchen that contains a background coffee odor), feedback from the olfactory cortex to the olfactory bulb[26] suppresses the pre-existing odor background (e.g., coffee) via olfactory adaptation,[27] so that the newly arrived foreground odor (e.g., dog) can be singled out from the mixture for recognition.[28] 1: Olfactory bulb 2: Mitral cells 3: Bone 4: Nasal epithelium 5: Glomerulus 6: Olfactory receptor cells |
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| Clinical significance Loss of smell is known as anosmia. Anosmia can occur on both sides or a single side. Olfactory problems can be divided into different types based on their malfunction. The olfactory dysfunction can be total (anosmia), incomplete (partial anosmia, hyposmia, or microsmia), distorted (dysosmia), or can be characterized by spontaneous sensations like phantosmia. An inability to recognize odors despite a normally functioning olfactory system is termed olfactory agnosia. Hyperosmia is a rare condition typified by an abnormally heightened sense of smell. Like vision and hearing, the olfactory problems can be bilateral or unilateral meaning if a person has anosmia on the right side of the nose but not the left, it is a unilateral right anosmia. On the other hand, if it is on both sides of the nose it is called bilateral anosmia or total anosmia.[29] Destruction to olfactory bulb, tract, and primary cortex (brodmann area 34) results in anosmia on the same side as the destruction. Also, irritative lesion of the uncus results in olfactory hallucinations. Damage to the olfactory system can occur by traumatic brain injury, cancer, infection, inhalation of toxic fumes, or neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. These conditions can cause anosmia. In contrast, recent finding suggested the molecular aspects of olfactory dysfunction can be recognized as a hallmark of amyloidogenesis-related diseases and there may even be a causal link through the disruption of multivalent metal ion transport and storage.[30] Doctors can detect damage to the olfactory system by presenting the patient with odors via a scratch and sniff card or by having the patient close their eyes and try to identify commonly available odors like coffee or peppermint candy. Doctors must exclude other diseases that inhibit or eliminate 'the sense of smell' such as chronic colds or sinusitus before making the diagnosis that there is permanent damage to the olfactory system. Prevalence of olfactory dysfunction in the general US population was assessed by questionnaire and examination in a national health survey in 2012-2014.[31] Among over a thousand persons aged 40 years and older, 12.0% reported a problem with smell in the past 12 months and 12.4% had olfactory dysfunction on examination. Prevalence rose from 4.2% at age 40-49 to 39.4% at 80 years and older and was higher in men than women, in blacks and Mexican Americans than in whites and in less than more educated. Of concern for safety, 20% of persons aged 70 and older were unable to identify smoke and 31%, natural gas. |
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Causes of olfactory dysfunction![]() Vesalius' Fabrica, 1543. Human Olfactory bulbs and Olfactory tracts outlined in red The common causes of olfactory dysfunction: advanced age, viral infections, exposure to toxic chemicals, head trauma, and neurodegenerative diseases.[29] Age Age is the strongest reason for olfactory decline in healthy adults, having even greater impact than does cigarette smoking. Age-related changes in smell function often go unnoticed and smell ability is rarely tested clinically unlike hearing and vision. 2% of people under 65 years of age have chronic smelling problems. This increases greatly between people of ages 65 and 80 with about half experiencing significant problems smelling. Then for adults over 80, the numbers rise to almost 75%.[32] The basis for age-related changes in smell function include closure of the cribriform plate,[29] and cumulative damage to the olfactory receptors from repeated viral and other insults throughout life. Viral infections The most common cause of permanent hyposmia and anosmia are upper respiratory infections. Such dysfunctions show no change over time and can sometimes reflect damage not only to the olfactory epithelium, but also to the central olfactory structures as a result of viral invasions into the brain. Among these virus-related disorders are the common cold, hepatitis, influenza and influenza-like illness, as well as herpes. Notably, COVID-19 is associated with olfactory disturbance.[33] Most viral infections are unrecognizable because they are so mild or entirely asymptomatic.[29] Exposure to toxic chemicals Chronic exposure to some airborne toxins such as herbicides, pesticides, solvents, and heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, nickel, and manganese), can alter the ability to smell.[34] These agents not only damage the olfactory epithelium, but they are likely to enter the brain via the olfactory mucosa.[35] Head trauma Trauma-related olfactory dysfunction depends on the severity of the trauma and whether strong acceleration/deceleration of the head occurred. Occipital and side impact causes more damage to the olfactory system than frontal impact.[36] However, recent evidence from individuals with traumatic brain injury suggests that smell loss can occur with changes in brain function outside of olfactory cortex. [37] Neurodegenerative diseases Neurologists have observed that olfactory dysfunction is a cardinal feature of several neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Most of these patients are unaware of an olfactory deficit until after testing where 85% to 90% of early-stage patients showed decreased activity in central odor processing structures.[38] Other neurodegenerative diseases that affect olfactory dysfunction include Huntington's disease, multi-infarct dementia, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and schizophrenia. These diseases have more moderate effects on the olfactory system than Alzheimer's or Parkinson's diseases.[39] Furthermore, progressive supranuclear palsy and parkinsonism are associated with only minor olfactory problems. These findings have led to the suggestion that olfactory testing may help in the diagnosis of several different neurodegenerative diseases.[40] Neurodegenerative diseases with well-established genetic determinants are also associated with olfactory dysfunction. Such dysfunction, for example, is found in patients with familial Parkinson's disease and those with Down syndrome.[41] Further studies have concluded that the olfactory loss may be associated with intellectual disability, rather than any Alzheimer's disease-like pathology.[42] Huntington's disease is also associated with problems in odor identification, detection, discrimination, and memory. The problem is prevalent once the phenotypic elements of the disorder appear, although it is unknown how far in advance the olfactory loss precedes the phenotypic expression.[29] |
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| History Linda B. Buck and Richard Axel won the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work on the olfactory system. |
æŽå² ãªã³ãã»Bã»ããã¯ãšãªãã£ãŒãã»ã¢ã¯ã»ã«ã¯ãå èŠç³»ã®ç ç©¶ã§2004幎ããŒãã«ççåŠã»å»åŠè³ãåè³ã |
| Olfactic communication Sinusitis https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactory_system |
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| What the nose knows, by Colleen Walsh, February 27, 2020 |
|
| â⊠I carried to my lips a
spoonful of the tea in which I had let soften a bit of madeleine. But
at the very instant when the mouthful of tea mixed with cake crumbs
touched my palate, I quivered, attentive to the extraordinary thing
that was happening inside me.â Itâs a seminal passage in literature, so famous in fact, that it has its own name: the Proustian moment â a sensory experience that triggers a rush of memories often long past, or even seemingly forgotten. For French author Marcel Proust, who penned the legendary lines in his 1913 novel, âà la recherche du temps perdu,â it was the soupçon of cake in tea that sent his mind reeling. But according to a biologist and an olfactory branding specialist Wednesday, it was the nose that was really at work. This should not be surprising, as neuroscience makes clear. Smell and memory seem to be so closely linked because of the brainâs anatomy, said Harvardâs Venkatesh Murthy, Raymond Leo Erikson Life Sciences Professor and chair of the Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology. Murthy walked the audience through the science early in the panel discussion âOlfaction in Science and Society,â sponsored by the Harvard Museum of Natural History in collaboration with the Harvard Brain Science Initiative. Smells are handled by the olfactory bulb, the structure in the front of the brain that sends information to the other areas of the bodyâs central command for further processing. Odors take a direct route to the limbic system, including the amygdala and the hippocampus, the regions related to emotion and memory. âThe olfactory signals very quickly get to the limbic system,â Murthy said. But, as with Proust, taste plays a role, too, said Murthy, whose lab explores the neural and algorithmic basis of odor-guided behaviors in terrestrial animals. |
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| Published online 2013 Oct 10. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00066 PMCID: PMC3794443 PMID: 24124415 Effects of odor on emotion, with implications Mikiko Kadohisa* Author information Article notes Copyright and License information PMC Disclaimer Go to: Abstract The sense of smell is found widely in the animal kingdom. Human and animal studies show that odor perception is modulated by experience and/or physiological state (such as hunger), and that some odors can arouse emotion, and can lead to the recall of emotional memories. Further, odors can influence psychological and physiological states. Individual odorants are mapped via gene-specified receptors to corresponding glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, which directly projects to the piriform cortex and the amygdala without a thalamic relay. The odors to which a glomerulus responds reflect the chemical structure of the odorant. The piriform cortex and the amygdala both project to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) which with the amygdala is involved in emotion and associative learning, and to the entorhinal/hippocampal system which is involved in long-term memory including episodic memory. Evidence that some odors can modulate emotion and cognition is described, and the possible implications for the treatment of psychological problems, for example in reducing the effects of stress, are considered. Keywords: odor, emotion, amygdala, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex |
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ã«åãŒã圱é¿ãšãã®æå³ Mikiko Kadohisa èè æ å ± è«æããŒã èäœæš©ããã³ã©ã€ã»ã³ã¹æ å ± PMCå 責äºé æ»ã èŠæš å èŠã¯åç©çã«åºãååšããããããåç©ã®ç ç©¶ãããåãã®ç¥èŠã¯çµéšãçççç¶æ ïŒç©ºè ¹ãªã©ïŒã«ãã£ãŠèª¿ç¯ãããããšãåãã®äžã«ã¯æ åãåèµ·ããæ åçèšæ¶ãæ³èµ·ããããã®ãããããšã瀺ãããŠãããããã«ãåãã¯å¿ççã»çççç¶æ ã«åœ±é¿ãäžããããšããããå çã¯èŠåºãä»ããã«æ¢šç¶ç®è³ªãšææ¡äœã«çŽæ¥æå°ãããã糞çäœãåå¿ããã«ããã¯ãã«ããç©è³ªã®ååŠæ§é ãåæ ããŠãããæ¢šç¶ç®è³ªãšææ¡äœã¯ãšãã«çŒçª©å é ç®è³ªïŒOFCïŒã«æå°ããŠãããOFCã¯ææ¡äœãšãšãã«æ åãšé£ååŠç¿ã«é¢äžããŠãããå å /海銬系ã¯ãšããœãŒãèšæ¶ãå«ãé·æèšæ¶ã«é¢äžããŠãããããã€ãã®åããææ ãèªç¥ã調ç¯ããããšãã§ãããšãã蚌æ ã«ã€ããŠè¿°ã¹ãã¹ãã¬ã¹ã®åœ±é¿ã軜æžãããªã©ãå¿ççåé¡ã®æ²»çãžã®å¯èœãªåœ±é¿ã«ã€ããŠèå¯ããã ããŒã¯ãŒãïŒåããæ åãææ¡äœã海銬ãåé åç®è³ª |
| Front. Behav. Neurosci., 10 March 2020 Sec. Emotion Regulation and Processing Volume 14 - 2020 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00035 Behavioral and Neurobiological Convergence of Odor, Mood and Emotion: A Review Ioannis Kontaris1* Brett S. East2,3 Donald A. Wilson2,3* **** https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2020.00035/full |
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| Smellscape The smellscape concept was introduced by Porteous (1985), who suggested that perceptions of smell, while comparable to spatially ordered visual impressions, differ in their episodic nature, and academic interest in the concept and its analysis and design approaches has grown over the past 30 years. Henshaw (2014, p. 5) supplemented Porteous's definition of smellscape, describing it as âreferring to the overall smell environment, but with the acknowledgment that as human beings, we are only capable of detecting this partially at any one point of time, although we may carry a mental image or memory of the smellscape in its totality.â The word smell in this concept differs from odourâthe combined substances in the air that cause olfactory sensationsâas it emphasizes the human experience as a perceptual construct (Xiao et al., 2018a). https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.700514/full - Porteous, J. D. (1985). Smellscape. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 9, 356â378. doi: 10.1177/030913338500900303 - Henshaw, V. (2014). Urban Smellscapes: Understanding and Designing City Smell Environments. New York, NY: Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9780203072776 - Xiao, J., Tait, M., and Kang, J. (2018a). A perceptual model of smellscape pleasantness. Cities 76, 105â115. doi: 10.1016/j.cities.2018.01.013 |
ã¹ã¡ã«ã¹ã±ãŒã ã¹ã¡ã«ã¹ã±ãŒãã®æŠå¿µã¯PorteousïŒ1985ïŒã«ãã£ãŠå°å ¥ããã圌ã¯ããªã€ã®ç¥èŠã¯ç©ºéçã«ç§©åºåãããèŠèŠçå°è±¡ã«å¹æµãããã®ã®ããã®ãšããœãŒãçãªæ§è³ªã«ãããŠç°ãªãã ãšã瀺åãããHenshaw (2014, p. 5)ã¯Porteousã®smellscapeã®å®çŸ©ãè£è¶³ãããå šäœçãªåãã®ç°å¢ãæããã人éãšããŠãããæç¹ã§ã¯éšåçã«ããåããæç¥ããããš ãã§ããªãããå šäœçãªåãã®ã€ã¡ãŒãžãèšæ¶ãæã£ãŠããå¯èœæ§ãããããšè¿°ã¹ãŠããããã®æŠå¿µã«ãããåããšããèšèã¯ãç¥èŠæ§æèŠçŽ ãšããŠã®äººéã®çµ éšã匷調ãããããåãïŒå èŠæèŠãåŒãèµ·ãã空æ°äžã®è€åç©è³ªïŒãšã¯ç°ãªãïŒXiao et al.2018a). https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.700514/full - Porteous, J. D. (1985). Smellscape. Prog. Phys. Geogr. 9, 356â378. doi: 10.1177/030913338500900303 - Henshaw, V. (2014). Urban Smellscapes: Understanding and Designing City Smell Environments. New York, NY: Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9780203072776 - Xiao, J., Tait, M., and Kang, J. (2018a). A perceptual model of smellscape pleasantness. Cities 76, 105â115. doi: 10.1016/j.cities.2018.01.013 |
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