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ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2011-11-10 Thu

#927. ޥζޤο [germanic][inflection][synthesis_to_analysis][contact][geography][map][dutch][german][faroese][icelandic][danish][afrikaans]

Map of Germanic Europe

ΥޥɤüԤʬۤϿޤ˼ȡü Continental Scandinavianü High Germanü Englishü Icelandic ˤĻշ롥Ͽޤ붽̣ϡĤǼ English Continental Scandinavia Ū˶ޤ㤷פƤޥǤꡤ֤Ǽ Icelandic High German Ū˶ޤǤ褯ĤƤޥǤȤ¤ơ׿Ū졦üݼŪü˰Ϥޤ줿ФǼշ˴ޤޤ Faroese, Dutch, Frisian, Low German ϡޤ򤢤٤פƤ뤬٤ݻƤȤŪʤ򼨤ȸѲشطϸΤΤ뤤ϼ¼ŪʤΤ
ˤĤƹŸƤΤO'Neil Ǥ롥

Now from the point of view of their inflectional systems, it is in the languages of the extreme southwest and northeast areas, among the Scandinavians and the English, that things are farthest from the state of the old languages, where --- in fact --- the old inflectional system has become so simplified that the languages can barely be said to be inflected at all. It is in the other two areas, in the northwest in Iceland and in the southeast among the High Germans (but most especially in Iceland) that an older inflectional system is best preserved. Between these two extremes and their associated corners or areas and languages, lie other Germanic languages (Faroese, Frisian, Dutch, etc.) of neither extreme characteristic: i.e. not stripped (essentially) of their inflections, nor heavily inflected like the older languages. (250)


ľܤ˸Ѳ˱ƶڤܤȤȤϤʤüԤŪΩ˱ƶڤܤŪΩ줬ˤ˱ƶڤܤˤȯŸ˱ƶڤܤȤŪʴطꤹ뤳Ȥϲǽ
ޤ礤ñ㲽Ѹξ硤ťΥɸ (Old Norse) Ȥܿñ㲽ηŪʰȤʤäȤϡǤϹƤ[2009-06-26-1]ε#59. ѸˤˤťΥɸΰյ򶵤äפ򻲾ȡˡǡɸ (Icelandic) Ū˸ΩƤ뤬椨ˡŤޤޤǤ褯ĤƤȤȤ褯[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפ򻲾ȡˡŪ˷иƤܿ٤ȤδؿȤƤ뤬θܿˤȤؾװˤä礤˾դƤΤǤ롥ǤϸѲŪˤŪưŤƤȤ
ǤϡѸ䥢ɸʳΥޥˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤǽO'Neil ϡΦ󥸥ʥӥζޤñ㲽ѸΤʿŪʴطˤȼĥ롥ξ硤Φ󥸥ʥӥ줬ܿΤϥɥĸ (Middle Low German) Ǥ롥

It is clear then that Continental Scandinavian is inflectionally simple like English, with --- however --- its idiosyncratic sense of simplicity. The reasons for its simplicity seem to be exactly those that led to the development of the neutralized northern Middle English inflectional system: language contact between Middle Low German and Danish in the countryside and between Middle Low German and all Continental Scandinavian languages in the centers of trade. (267)


ˡѸΦ󥸥ʥӥƱ褦ñ㲽ޤĥեꥫ󥹸 (Afrikaans) ˤĤƤ⡤ƱͤεΩġǤϡ (Dutch) ϥޥ (Low German) ȤܿͿƤ롥

. . . the original population that settled Capetown and then the Cape was not a homogeneous Dutch-speaking population. The group of people that arrived in Capetown in 1652 was first of all predominantly German (Low German mercenaries) and the Dutch part of it was of mixed Dutch dialects. Thus just the right conditions for the neutralization of inflections existed in Capetown at the time of its settlement. (268--69)


¾ˤ⡤եꥸ (Frisian) ȥ (Dutch) ȤԻǸܿи̤ȤƤ "Town Frisian" (268) 󤲤롥
ȿФˡʣʶޤŪ褯ݤäƤȤơɸ¾˵󤲤ƤΤϥɥĸ (High German) Ǥ롥Ǥ O'Neil ϡϥɥĸ⥢ɤۤɤǤϤʤŪ˸ƳΥƤƤ롥

. . . High German has not been so completely isolated as Icelandic. But then neither is its inflectional system as conservative. Yet in fact the area of High German has been generally isolated from other Germanic contact --- the sort of contact that would lend to neutralization, for the general motion of High German has always been away from the Germanic area and onto its periphery among non-Germanic peoples. (277)


ǸˡϿ޾λշǼޤŪʶ٤򼨤췲ˤĤƤ O'Neil ŪشطǧƤΤǡŦƤʲϡե (Faroese) ζޤŪħŤƤʬΰѤǤ롥

. . . the Faroese fished and worked among the Icelanders and still do, at the same time being administered, educated, and exploited by continental Scandinavians. Thus for centuries was Faroese exposed to the simplified inflectional systems of continental Scandinavia while in constant contact with the conservative system of Icelandic. Unless this conflict was resolved Faroese could neither move toward Continental Scandinavian, say, nor remain essentially where it began like Icelandic: neither completely neutralize its inflections, nor simplify them trivially. The conflict was not resolved and as a consequence Faroese moved in a middle state inflectionally. (280)


O'Neil, Wayne. "The Evolution of the Germanic Inflectional Systems: A Study in the Causes of Language Change." Orbis 27 (1980): 248--86.

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2011-10-17 Mon

#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ [borrowing][loan_word][icelandic]

ε#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ夲 "scale of adoptability" ϡܤμѤ䤹ϡ줬ηϤ˹¤ŪȤ߹ޤƤ٤ȿ㤹Ȥݤäǡε䤬Ƥ롥ηϤι¤ϸˤäưۤʤΤ顤ŪѤ¿ȾʤȤΤ뤳ȤˤʤΤ
㤨СѸܸϤФмѤ¿ȸ뤬ϼѤʤȤʥɸ졤ʤɡˤȤӤˤƤʤƤڤˤʤѸѸˤƤθûˤϼѸˤȸƤ褤ۤɤǡѸǤƤΤΡ[2011-09-17-1]ε#873. ѸοˤʣΥХ󥹡פ򻲾ȡˡѸΤѤˤȤȤԲǽǤϤʤ⤷ʤ[2010-07-01-1]ε#430. Ѳ˳װפǼ褦ˡɸϡּѸѤ򤹤붯פäƤȤ졤ѤʤŵȤƼ夲뤳Ȥ¿Τ褦˸ȡ֤ "scale of receptivity" ʤ롤Ѥμ䤹μ٤ߤ뤳ȤΤ褦˻פ롥Haugen (225) ˤСOtakar Vočadlo ȤԤhomogeneous, amalgamate, heterogeneous Ȥ3ʬ scale of receptivity ߤƤꡤμμ٤ŵ򼨤ƤȤ
֤μѤ¿ɤϤˤ衤줬칽¤˰¸ΤɤǤ롥Kiparsky ϡ칽¤¸ιͤꤷƤꡤѤ¿ɤüԤŪҲŪΩ˰¸ΤƤ (Haugen 225) ˤĤơHaugen (225) Ϥդ importation vs. substitution ζ̤ФơKiparsky ˶ᤤΩ줫鼡Τ褦˷Ƥ롥

Most of the differences brought out by Vočadlo are not differences in actual borrowing, but in the relationship between importation and substitution, as here defined. Some languages import the whole morpheme, others substitute their own morphemes; but all borrow if there is any social reason for doing so, such as the existence of a group of bilinguals with linguistic prestige.


Haugen θϤǤϡ㤨мѤ¿ȸѸȾʤȸ륢ɸκϡ¤ΤȤѤ¿ɤΤΤκǤϤʤ2ĤμѤˡ (importation and substitution) ΨκǤǽȤȤˤʤ롥importation Ф substitution ħϡŪŪ˼Ѥ餷ʤȤǤ뤫顤Ѥݤ substitution ˰¸Ψι⤤ϡʬѤξʤȤߤʤ뤳ȤˤʤξˡˤѤä碌Τ򤽤θμѤ̤ȹͤΤǤС̤˸Ƥۤɽ֤Ѥ¿ɤϤʤΤ⤷ʤѤεˤŪΩʤ loan translation ѡ semantic loan ʰ̣ѡˤɽ substitution νǧǤ롥

Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.
Vočadlo, Otakar. "Some Observations on Mixed Languages." Actes du IVe congrès internationale de linguistes. Copenhagen: 1937. 169--76.[sic]

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2010-07-01 Thu

#430. Ѳ˳װ [language_change][sociolinguistics][icelandic][old_norse][speed_of_change]

ѲϤۤȤɤξ硤ͰŪ椬ʤȤˤϼ˵äƤޤΤǤ롥ֻפѴʤɡ͡ռŪ˸褦Ȥ⤢뤬ɬ⤦ޤʤȤ¿Keller Τ褦ˡġοʹ֤ϸʤȤƤҲΤȤʤäƸѲ⤿餷Ƥ뤳ȤϳΤǤ롥ơѲε䤹ʹ®٤⡤ҲˤäѲȹͤ롥
ѸѲФƤȻפϥꥹ濴ȤѸҲŪư¿Ҳäȸ롥ꥹϴ¿ꡤ͸ȤؤΦʸۼ⳰ӽФȤʤä¿η㤷ҲưФǤ뤫顤θ礭㤷ѤꤹȤΤ򤷤䤹
ȤȿФˡ̤˼ҲưʤȸѲ⾯ʤȹͤ롥ǤϸѲ˳װͤƤߤʲϡBrinton and Arnovick (16) ˵󤲤ƤװǤ롥

geographic isolation, which protects a language from foreign influence;
separation from the mother tongue, which leads to conservatism on the part of speakers who are reluctant to depart from tradition;
political and social stability, which eliminates the need for linguistic change to meet changing social conditions;
attitudes of ethnic and linguistic purism, which encourage the vigilance of speakers of a language against external influences and internal change; and
a strong written tradition.


Brinton and Arnovick Ϥ¾˸Ū侩 mass communication Ѳ˳װǤȤƤ롥ˡpurism written tradition Ȥ⿼ط뤬ڡä˸춵ڤ⵬ϼ ( prescriptivism ) ¥ʤ뤿ᡤѲ˳װΰĤȹͤ
ơװ¿碌ļҲŵ Iceland 롥Iceland äƤ Modern Icelandic ϡOld Icelandic λ夫Ū礭ѲƤʤ ( see [2010-04-20-1] ) ä˽񤭸դ˴ؤ¤ꡤѲ϶ϾǤ롥ϡIceland (1) Ū˸ΩƤꡤ(2) Scandinavia θϤ󤯳֤äƤ뤳ȤˤݼŪǤꡤ(3) ҲŪ˰ꤷƤꡤ(4) ѸѤ򤹤붯äƤꡤ(5) 11Ĺ񤭸դͭƤ뤳Ȥˤȹͤ롥
ǡѸ줬Ūû֤δ֤ѲűѸѸΥꥹҲͤƤߤ褦Ǥϡ(1)(2) ʤΦȤδطΩƤ ( see [2009-10-03-1] ) षΦΥ󥰡ʥޥɤƱ˦ˤΥޥͤȷ㤷ܿƤޤ(3) ˤưҲǤꡤ(4) ̱²ˤꤽ⤽ǤƤǤϤʤ(5) ΥޥͤΥե󥹸줬񤭸դɸȤʤäˡѸν񤭸դϤܼۤ줿Ѳ˳װڸʤΤǤ롥
ǤϡѸϤɤglobalisation ҲβưȤ¦̤ͤСѸǤϸѲ㤷Ȥǽͽۤ롥ǡޥǥδ䶵ڤȤ¦̤ͤȡѲ˳ȤǽͽۤǤ롥Ѳ¥ʺޤޤɤΤ褦ƯƤäȸäƤ

Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.

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2010-04-20 Tue

#358. ɸȱѸδط [icelandic][old_norse]

14ʮФ Eyjafjallajoekull л衼å˳ߤ餻礭ﳲ⤿餷ɤܤιѤ4ʬ1ۤɤιդ30ʾγлġܤ餱餺βлǤ롥Ūܤ뤳ȤξʤäDz̤Ƥǯϡϵ岹Ȳˤ̶˳οϩȯβǽƤȤǡνܤĤĤ롥衼åѤˤȤäƤ϶졹ȤʮФ⥢ɤ̾٤夲뤳ȤȤʤä
ɤǤϡ25ͤۤɤι̱θ嵭򻲾ȡˤɸ ( Icelandic ) äƤ Ethnologue ε򻲾ȡˡüԿ͸ȤƤϤ礭ʤѸˤˤƥɸ줬İյϿɸȱѸδطˤĤơȤǻȤѸ5ʬͥȤ Icelandic and English ꤹPDF饤ɤΤǡåפƤ饤ɤܼȡϢܥ֥εؤΥݥ󥿤ϰʲ̤ꡥ

ɸȱѸδط
衼åϿ
ޥ
ޥɤη [2009-10-26-1]
ťʸ
̲αѸͿƶ [2010-04-02-1]
٤̲ñǹ줿ʸ

ʸ嵭2010/04/22(Thu)ʸ25ͤȤɡʸüԡˤο͸1980ǯθŤΤȤäƤޤΤŦ꤬Ȥޤ CIA The World Factbook ˤȡ2009ǯ7οפ307ͤۤɤȤΤȤǤ

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