ɸϡǤˡ#1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1]) Ǥ⡤OED most (ADJECTIVE, PRONOUN, NOUN, & ADVERB)ȤĤĿ줿Ȥ뤬 OED βäɤǤ
Old English māst, the normal Old English development of the Germanic form, is attested only in Northumbrian, but it is not certain whether it existed only in that region. The vowel quality of the usual Old English form (West Saxon mǣst, Kentish mēst) is unusual. It may have been formed by analogy with lǣst least adj. (or perhaps by i-mutation from an earlier form in ā, although this presents phonological difficulties). The reflex of this form survived in the south until the 15th cent. The establishment of the (originally northern) form most as the only form in the midlands and south was probably due to the influence of the related mo adv.1 and more adj.
űѸ West Saxon ʤɤǼ첻ȿиǤ lǣst 䤫⤷ʤȽҤ٤ĤġѸʤɤǤ첻̲Ƥطʤˤϡ٤ mo, more 䤬äΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤ƤʤɡӤ褦Ǥ롥
OED ˤϡ첻̤˴ؤڤ⤢ΤǡͤޤǤ˰ѤƤ
Some forms show early shortening of the vowel before the consonant cluster -st (e.g. masst in the β forms, must in the γ forms). Some early Middle English examples of mast from southern texts probably also show a shortening of Old English ǣ (compare α forms). Occasional forms (e.g. Older Scots mest, messt in the β forms) probably show the influence of early Scandinavian.
Ǿ -est ϡ#6170. ƻӵ -er ȺǾ -est εơ ([2026-03-19-1]) Ǹ褦ˡȤʤ륲ޥĸˤ2ĤΥפΤ첻ķ̲ΤȤäƤ褤Ǿ most ϡष첻ķ̲ˤζȤϻפ뤬űѸǤ -est -ost κߤ䡤ѸǤȤƤ -mest -most κƱʤɤλ¤ǰƬˤȡ̣
Ϣơʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1])
#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1])
ӵ -er ȺǾ -est εȯãɤäƤȡԤԤ˻ (dental_suffix) դΤǤ뤳Ȥʬ롥
#6170. ƻӵ -er ȺǾ -est εơ ([2026-03-19-1]) ǸȤꡤ⥲ޥĸ2ĤΥסʤ A פ */-iz-, -ist-/ B פ */-o:z-, -o:st-/ ̤ȹͤ롥ӵ˴ޤޤ *z rhotacism ˤäƸűѸޤǤ r Ȥʤä
ӵ˻դƺ줿ΤǾǤ롥OED -est (SUFFIX) ˤȡA פˤĤ "comparative suffix . . . + a dental suffix" ȤꡤB פˤĤƤ A פ˴ŤȤ롥κǾηϡޥˤⶦ̤˳ǧ졤˸奮ꥷ -ίστος ˤߤ롥
Ĵϻդǹ碌ӵɽ路ĺǺǾɽ魯ȤäħŪʸƯƤΤȤ櫓űѸˤϡ-osð, -esð, -usð Τ褦ɽ魯ʸͭ۷ǧ褦
Ѹˤˤ -st ϡ͡褷Ƥ궽̣Ԥʤ-st γƵȡ
#6170. ƻӵ -er ȺǾ -est εơ ([2026-03-19-1]) 衤-er Ȥμդεȯã˴ؿƤ롥Ѹӵ -er ˤϡƻˤˤ衤A B Ȳ̾դƤ2ĤΥޥĸΥפ̤Ȥ롥
űѸʳޤǤˡƻӵȤƤ -ra ӵȤƤ -or ΩƤ -er ϾʤȤŪǤϤʤäѸˤʤȡʻˤĤƤӵϸľܤĤʤ -er Ūˤʤäΰ̲β˲äΤȤ櫓ƻӵˤ r e Ȥ첻뤳ȤˤʤäΤϡɤΤ褦ʷаޤǤʤΤ
OED -er (SUFFIX3) ˡΤ褦ʵҤä
Old English betera better adj. apparently preserves -era, but the word is an unusual case; compare the discussion at that entry. Later forms with epenthetic vowel, as -ere, -er develop in Middle English, but are rare in Old English.
Attested regularly formed adverbs continue type (ii) of the suffix, preserving the vowel before r in the final syllable (compare heardor harder), with very occasional reduction to -er in Old English. The adverbial and adjectival comparative endings merge in the course of Middle English.
εҤˤȡƻӵˤ e "epenthetic vowel" Ȥ롥첻λ¤Ҥ٤ƤǡʤɤΤ褦줿ΤˤĤƤϽҤ٤Ƥʤľ˵Ƥ롤betera ĤƤ e αƶǤ롤ȤɤʤȡǸڤƤӵ -or 䤽μǤ -er ƻˤȤäƤδפȤʤäȤͤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
ޤǤεǡƻӵ B פϡŤͳ褹뤫⤷ʤȤβ˿줿 (Krahe 1965: §56) ޤκǾ B פƻбǤñгʤηˤʤȤҤߤ (Campbell §670; p. 277) ƻδ֤ιԤ褬ˤˤˤꤹȡѸˤƤ -er ΰܲˤƱ褦ʹԤʺ줫ƻءˤäȹͤΤϡʬ˼ʤ褦˻פ롥
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
Krahe, H. Germanische Sprachwissenschaft. II, Formelehre. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1965.
ΤȤŪĴ٤Ƥƻ졦ӵ顦ǾεȯãˤĤơűѸʸˡ路 Campbell ꡤϢ뵭Ҥ˺ϿŪ˻ĤƤ
1. ƻκǾΰ۷ȤȯãʲѲ (§331.6; p. 139)
superlatives in -ōst- had -ūst- before u, as d.p. -ūstumiz, and hence OE has -ost < -ūst, beside -ast < -ōst (§355.4) . . . .
2. ƻκǾΰ۷ʬ (§657; pp. 272--73)
The superlative normally ends in -ost < -ust (§355.4), more rarely in -ast (§331.6), and may be declined both strong and weak. The formative element is often changed to -est by vowel harmony, especially in cases with -ost- (§385). In eW-S -ost-, -ast-, and the more archaic -ust- are used occasionally, but in all texts -est- prevails heavily. In lw-S and lNorth. -ost prevails (lNorth. also -ust-). In VP and Ru.1 it is not possible to determine if -ost- or -ast- originally prevailed in the dialects, in VP because all the forms have est- by harmony, in Ru.1 owing to entire absence of material. eKt. has -ast. KG has extended -est- to the uninflected form.
3. ƻӵ顦Ǿε (§660; p. 277)
§660. Origin of forms. The comparative and superlative suffixes which caused mutation were Gmc. -izan-, -ista-, and these were regularly developed in OE, apart from the W-S syncopation in superlatives. The non-mutating suffixes were Gmc. -ōzan-, -ōsta-. The latter develops regularly to OE -ust, -ost, -ast (§331.6). The development of -ōzan- in OE is very difficult, as the invariable syncope of an originally long medial syllable has no parallel. It is a peculiarly OE development, even OFris. having -er-, a normal development of -ōz-, corresponding to OS, OHG -or-, ON -ar-, Goth. -ōz-. The OE form is presumably due to the influence of the comparatives in -iz-, in which syncope is normal. This suffix -iz- may have been used in Prim. OE, as in OHG, not only with the few a-, ō-stems with mutated comparatives, but with most i;̯a-, i;̯ō-stems, e.g. OE swētra is not from *su;̯ōtiōz- but *su;̯ōtiz-, cf. OHG suozziro. It would also probably be used with i-stem adjs. so far as these survived. Hence -r- < -iz- would be a very frequent comparative suffix, and might replace the form derived from -ōz- in the other adjectival classes.
4. ӵ顦Ǿε (§670; p. 277)
§670. Comparison of adverbs. Adjectival advs. have normally compar. -or, superl. -ost, e.g.:
hearde, severely heardor heardost
ġearwe, readily ġearwor ġearwost
-or also appears as -ur and -ar; -ost can appear as -ust, -ast (as in the superl. adj.). In origin -ost is merely the acc. sg. neut. of the superl. adjectival suffix. Compar. -or, -ur, -ar points to Gmc. -ōz, corresponding to Goth. -os. The final r (< z) should be lost in West Gmc., but is restored by analogy of the compar. adj.
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
#6170. ƻӵ -er ȺǾ -est εơ ([2026-03-19-1]) ơƱȤʤդ -er, -est εͤ롥ӸŪˤ̡˸Ƥɬפ뤫
Lass (§8.4.2; p. 208) ꡤϢ2Ѥ롥űѸӵ顦ǾˤĤƤս
Comparison of adverbs is usually in {-or}, {-ost}, occasionally spelled <-ur, -ar, -ust, -st>; the comparative reflects a PGmc */-o:-z/ (Go -ōs). By normal WGmc sound changes (as in the a-stem nom sg */-α-z/), the /r/ should have disappeared in OE; it is most likely retained by analogy to adjectival comparison.
The superlative has the same vowel, but with the presumably adjectival superlative suffix */-st-/; in many cases there is an */-m-/ formative as well, giving a double superlative: inne-m-est 'inmost', ūte-m-est 'outmost' (cf. inne 'inside', ūte 'outside'). The simplex type can be seen in for-m-a 'first' (cf. for-e 'in front', and the discussion of ordinal numerals in §8.4.3), hinde-m-a 'last' (hinder 'behind'). This */-m-/ occurs in Gothic as well (fru-m-ist-s 'first'), though not elsewhere in West Germanic; it is an old IE marker, and can be seen in the Latin parallel to for-m-a, fru-m-ist-s, ie. pri-m-u-s 'first'.
ǰƬˡε ([2026-03-19-1]) ȹ碌ơƻ졦ӵ顦ǾˤĤơεȯãƤߤ
ƻӵ -er: AפBפκ硥BפεˤĤ꤫ǤϤʤ o-stem åʸȿǷޤफ
ӵ -er: ȶӤĤBפͳ褹롥r ĤΤϡƻӵ䤫
ƻκǾ -est: Aפͳ褹롥뤤ϡBפ첻岽֤ͳ褹Ȥͤ롥
κǾ -est: ȶӤĤBפͳ褹롥ҲʬˤĤƤϡƻκǾбʪ줿Τ
4Ĥθϸߤ˰ۤʤ֤Ƥ줬ƻδ֤ǡޤӵȺǾδ֤ǡʣ̡֤̤äƤȹͤƤΤ褵ѸޤǤˤϤܸۤʬۤˤɤ夤Ƥ˻ޤǡĤޤꥲޥĸ줫űѸˤƤϡ͡ʲ깭Ƥ롥
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ȡ#6170. ƻӵ -er ȺǾ -est εơ ([2026-03-19-1]) ȡ#6171. ƻӵ -er ε1Ĥ⤷ʤ */-o:z-/ ϸŤåʸޤ ([2026-03-20-1]) ȤƼ夲Ƥ꤫顤ƻ˰Ƥߤ
Lass (§8.4.2; p. 207) ʤǡűѸǺǤŵŪä -e űѸηƻӵ -ra ǤȵˤȤǽ˹ԤäȤʤ֤ϡεˤ̤ꡤޥĸ o-stem åʸȤȤǤ롥åʸˤ첻ΰۤʤ2Ĥη֤ꤷƤ롥
The most widespread OE formation is in {-e}, probably from the e-grade of the ablative, corresponding to L {-ē} < */-e:-d/: L facillim-ē 'easily', whose ablative origin is clear in OL facilum-ēd. So OE wīd 'wide', adv wīd-e, gelīc 'similar', adv ge-līc-e, etc.
³ñ -ly γơεˤڤǤ궽̣ΤǡѤ롥
Since {-e} was typically added to adverbialize the extremely common adjectives in -līc, the complex {-līce} was reinterpreted during OE times as an adverbial ending in itself, and there were thus a number of doublets off the same base: from heard 'hard' the adverbs heard-e, heard-līc-e, from hwæt 'brave' hwæt-e, hwæt-līc-e. (Our ModE adverbial {-ly} is of course the descendant of {-līce}.
ñ -ly ˴ؤϡflat_adverb γƵȡ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ε#6170. ƻӵ -er ȺǾ -est εơ ([2026-03-19-1]) ǡ-er εȤ2ĤΥפäȤߤ2ĤΥפϥޥĸ */-o:z-/ ̤Ȥ뤬äˤĹ첻ɤ鸽줿ΤȽȤʤ1ĤϡΰǤƤ褦ˡ Krahe ƤΤǡ̤ΤǤϤʤȤơϥޥĸ a-stem å (ablative) ͳ褹ΤǤϤʤȡ
դλˤĤơLass ̤βս (§8.4.2; p. 207) Ǥ⤦⤷ƤƤΤǡɤǤߤ褦űѸθ˴ؤѤ롥
. . . . One widespread marker is the o-stem ablative sg */-o:-d/ < */-o-ed/ or its later e-grade */-e:-d/. The o-grade appears in Latin adverbs of the type subit-ō (see §6.3.2), perhaps in Greek adverbs in -os; in Germanic it is transparent in the type Go ga-leik-ō 'similarly', OS gi-līc-o, OHG gi-līhh-o. This is common in Gothic, and is the normal formation in OS and OHG.
In OE, this */-o:/ appears as /-α/, and only in a restricted class of adverbs from adjectives in */-inγ-, -unγ-/, e.g. wēn-ing-a 'perhaps', dearn-ung-a 'secretly'.
űѸǤ -a ȿǤƤȤȤˤʤ뤬ǤĤäƤʤ⤷ Krahe ⤬ȤСƻӵ -er 첻ʬˤΤ鷺ʺפǧ롤Ȥ롥
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
ƻӵ -er ȺǾ -est ˤƸη֤Ȥ夷ΤˤϡޥĸʹߡűѸФѸ˻ޤǤ͡Ѳʣ˴ؤäƤꡤޤäñǤϤʤޤӵȺǾˤϡ⤦1ıŪˡꡤ줾 more, most դȤ뤬ŪˤϤȾ嵭η֤Ȥδؤcf. #1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1])#1320. LAEME Ǹ most ΰ۷֤ʬۡ ([2012-12-07-1])ˡˡforemost utmost ˸ -most Ȥޤ̤κǾ¸ߤΤߤδطȤǤ롥
塤1ĤҤȤɳƤȹͤƤ롥ޤϡƻǤϤʤˤӵ -er ȺǾ -est εˤĤĴ٤ƤߤLass (§6.3.2; pp. 149--50) Ѥ뤳ȤϤ褦
There were two regular comparative/superlative formations in Germanic, which can be illustrated by Gothic and Old English forms:
(6.33) A. */-iz-, -ist-/ Positive Comparative Superlative Go alþ-eis 'old' alþ-iz-a alþ-ist-s OE eald ield-ra ield-est B. */-o:z-, -o:st-/ Positive Comparative Superlative Go arm-s 'poor' arm-ōz-a arm-ōst-s OE earm earm-ra earm-ost/-ast
Type A reflects an IE suffix found in Latin comparatives of the type mai-ōr-em 'greater' (acc [s]g) < */mag-jo:s-m̥/; the zero-grade is /-is-/, and this remnant gives (by Verner's Law) Gothic -iz-, and later with rhotacism OE -r-. The -a ending is probably from the weak n-stem noun declension. This suffix of course causes umlaut of the root vowel, and leaves behind a front /e/ in the superlative.
The B suffix is a Germanic development of unclear antecedents; it may reflect an original a-stem (OE o-stem) ablative ending */-o:-d/, which was used to form adverbs (type: L subit-ō 'suddenly', Go ga-leik-ō 'similarly': see §8.4.2). One possible scenario (Krahe 1965: §56) is a development in these adverbs of a comparative in */-o:is-/, later */-o:-s/; this served as an analogical target for the creation of a new suffix, and its extension to the adjective. Be that as it may, both A and B suffixes appear in all the Germanic dialects, but distributed differently; the A type is commoner in Gothic, the B type in NGmc and OE, while OHG shows a pretty even mixture.
In OE, the choice of one or the other seems to be largely lexically determined; the adjectives that most often have type A are eald (ieldra, ieldest), geong 'young' (gi(e)ngra), hēah 'high' (hīer(r)a, lang 'long' (lengra), sceort 'short' (scyrtra); others that occasionally show it are brād 'broad' (brǣdra ~ brādra, strang 'strong' (strengra ~ strangra. Some basic A adjectives sometimes have B forms as well, e.g. geong with mainly gi(e)ngra but occasionally geongra.
Ѹηƻӵ -er ˤĤƤϡޥĸűѸ A B 2ĤΥפ̤뤬줬ľܤεǤΤ¨ǤǤʤΤ i-mutation ȼʤ B פΤۤͭϸȻˤǤ뤬⤽ B ˤĤƤϡεˤεԾܤȤ⤢롥ˤؤäƤǽꡤƻڤ뤳ȤϤǤʤκǾ -est ˤĤƤϡŪ A פ̤ȤߤƤ褤
Ǥ˾ʣ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Krahe, H. Germanische Sprachwissenschaft. II, Formelehre. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1965.
˥塼ɤ硤Christchurch Х6֤ۤɤ Dunedin ظä椫ϡμʿΤįʤιϿޤƤߤȡΥ롼Ȥ쳤ߤϡѡפȸƤ֤ˤϤϤФΤΡˤ䤫¦ѶʤƤ롥ΤäΤΤ褦Ѷʤγߤϡbay ȤϤ鷺Ȥ bight ȸƤФ餷ʹˤΤʤñä¼ŵˤϡbay 礭Ԥפäŵϥȥꥢߤ礭ѶʤǡGreat Australian Bight ȸƤ֤餷礭ѤȤƤ¾ gulf Ȥñ⤢ꡤѸ
bight ȤñʹľΤϡbight Ȥϸ츻Ūˤ bay ο̤ʤΤȤȤgh y ϸűѸ٥Ǥϸߤ˰۷֤Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿
ȤرѸ츻ŵ٤ƤߤơޤäƤ줿츻˴ؤľиƤˤʤʤϤꤷä꼭Ĵ٤ƤߤʤСΤʤȤʬʤΤ
ޤϡ߿ bay Τۤ顥ϡ⤽ǤϤʤƥ baiam ͳ褷ťڥǤȯŸ bahia ťե baie ͳơѸ bai ȤƼѤ줿Polychronicon ˽ФƤ롥̤ä츻ˤĤƤԾܤǡθΤ褦Ǥ롥
ܤ bight ϡ<gh> ֻۤܳμ¤ͽ̤ۤꡤäűѸ byht ϡֶѡפ̣ѸˤʤäơֳߤѶѡפθȤƱȤƥɥĸ Bucht 䥪 bocht ꡤޥĸ *buχtiz ƷƤ롥˰캬 *bheug- "to bend" ̤ꡤϱѸΡ֤ʤˡפ̣ bow ФƤ롥
˸츻ŵĤʤȰääƤޤޤȤǤܵˤ heldio Ǥ⤢ޤ#1626. The Canterbury Bight ֥٥ѡסꤪİС
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
927ڡˤˡǯ٤ī㡼Υֺ˾äȤԻĤʱñ6ʲƴȤƤ3ˤɶˤƳ֤ޤơޤϡEnglish --- ƤñɤޤǤꤹפǤޤ߿ñǤ90ʬ뤳ȤǤۤ˭ʥȥԥåǤ
ֺ¤ȴϢơ Voicy heldio ˤ#1574. "English" ȤñˤĤƻפᤰ餻ȤϤޤ --- 927īֺ¡ۿޤ
6ֺ¤Ƥ markmap ˤޥɥޥåײޤʲåƳˡѤˤȤС

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#5826. رȤ helito ץ쥤ޤ --- ϡֱѸѸס ([2025-04-09-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ɥ ito ʥȡhel賦ήԤäƤƤޤ
heldio/helwa Υꥹʡ lacolaco note ֱѸˡߥܡɥ "helito" äƤߤ helwa ꥪղǤΥҲ𤵤줿塤䤬嵭 hellog ˥ꥹʡ夵 note ֹΡֱѸΤʤפäƤޤֳ̿1 itoɽޤǤ߷ѸμȤǻѤߡ umisio ito ƥХǤƤ֤ǤϳʹƤޤơ⤦1Ĥ̤μȤ helito 褦ȻװǤ
ito ϡץ쥤䡼Ƽۤ줿 (1--100) ˱äɽ礤ʹѤͭ礤ǤѸǤС֥ץȥס (prototype) ǧȤΤΤڤॲȤɽǤ뤫⤷ޤѸˤ helito ˤϡɤΤ褦ʤ꤬դ路AIϤڤʤ顤ĤƤͤƤߤޤ
(1) űѸäݤѸäݤ
ñΤʷϵȯֻʤɤ顤űѸ1˶ᤤˤѸ100˶ᤤˤȽǤޤ㤨С(ge)wyrd ʱ̿ˤϸűѸ餷1ˤglobalization ʥХ벽ˤϸѸ餷100ˤ뤫⤷ޤűѸѸμޤ
(2) Ѹ줬Ѥ줿
ѸäѸ (loan_word) ˤĤơμθŤȽꤷޤ㤨Сƥͳ street ťΥɸͳ sky ϸŤ1˶ᤤˡܸͳ sushi anime ˿100˶ᤤ˼ѤȤޤñθ츻μޤ
(3)
Ѹθäפʷʤʤˤ˴Ťʬषޤޥ (germanic)ե (french)ƥ (latin)ꥷ (greek)ʤɤҤȤޤꤷޤ礦man Τ褦ʥޥϤδܸǤ1˶justice Τ褦ʥեѸ50նᡤphilosophy Τ褦ʳؽѸ100˶Ťʤɤμ٤ͤޤѸäΡ3ع¤פƤɬפޤɬϢ³ΤˤʤʤΤǡȤƤϾ줷⤷ޤ
(4) ֿפ˴ؤ
(3) αԤȤ⤤ޤäΥơޤֿפ˹ʤäԤǤޥϤѤʿɽ魯bread ʤɡˤȡեͳ줿ʸθcuisine ʤɡˤ椵ޤ̾ cow (ưʪޥ) vs. beef (ե) Τ褦Ω⤳ΤǰǤΤ褦ʥơ̤θä˴Ť helito Ǥϡäȸ츻˭٤μɬפǤꡤ٤Ϥʤ⤤⤷ޤ
¾helito ˤϤɤΤ褦ʤ꤬ͤǤ礦
ɸ2ĤθѼˤϡ̾ƤΤǡȤƱʪȸ뤳Ȥ롥ξԤȤ⥢ä˥ɶ¹ˤȷӤĤƤ뤳ȤϳΤŪˤϴ˰ۤʤΤǤ롥
ɸ (Irish) ϰ²Υȸɤ°1Ǥꡤ襢ɤϤȷӤĤƤǤϥɤȤäƤ褤
ɱѸ (Irish English/Hiberno-English) ϡƱ²°ȤϤäƤ⥲ޥɤ°1ǤѸ (English) ΡΤޤʬ줷1ĤǤ롥礦ɥꥫѸ졤ɱѸ줬줾쥢ꥫ¤αѸ졤¤αѸƤ褤褦ˡɱѸϥ¤αѸǤ롥Ѹ1ѼȤȤ
²ƱǤɤۤʤС¾塤̤θȤäƤ褤줺ˤСɸȥɱѸϡܸȱѸۤɤ˰ۤʤ롤ȽҤ٤Ƥ
ʹߡɤϥɤФʸŪƶϤƤäβǡαѸ줬Υɸ֤ƤäȤˤ롥ơޤǤ˥ɤϻ¾塤Ѹ줬ۤϤȤʤäߡǤ륢ɸϡˤƿΤ鷺2%ۤɤˤää뾯ȤʤäƤ롥ϡ#2803. ɸüԿȻϰ ([2016-12-29-1]) ǸȤǤ롥
ɸȥɱѸϴʪȽҤ٤ξǡԤԤ̣ޤǤȤ¤ŦƤɸ줬ǤȤء夫Ѹ줬ܿ줿櫓ʤΤǡǰäƤȤˤʤѸѼ⡤ؤˤäɸθŪħ٥ԥååפ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǡȤǤ롥
(184) ֥ɤθ˥åפȤƿƤϢάǯɽǤƤ
1600إꥹ
á~I˥ɸȱѸθܿ
áѤʤ
1840s絲ɸüԤθ
áȤƤΥɸηѾˡ
1900Ҹؤβ®
á~II˰ꤷɱѸη
1970sǥιꡤEC
á~III˥ɱѸȼױѸѼȤܿ
2000кĹХꥼ
Ȥơ (186) θդѤƤ
ɱѸϡΥɤˤäȤФǤϤʤɸȱѸܿˤäޤ줿줬ߤޤ³ƤȤΤȤФǤ롥ʤɱѸϡɤǰäȤФ̮Ⱥޤ³ƤϢ³ΤȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
ļ̦ءˤϡɤθ˾ܤҲؼԤǤ롥Ȥ櫓ʲᤷƤ

ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ϣ뵭Ȥơ#2798. ̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ ([2016-12-24-1])#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#2803. ɸüԿȻϰ ([2016-12-29-1])#2804. ɤˤߤΤͤ츽ݡ ([2016-12-30-1]) Ƥ
12 Voicy helwa ͭۿˤˤ֡ڱѸˤ #232ۥɤαѸˡꤹۿؿΤϡҤɤ
̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ
3ε#5691. ӾӰˡؿȻǤɤɥĻˡ١ʴȽŹҴȥ˥ӡ2015ǯˤܼ ([2024-11-25-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ҥꡤޥ̱²ɥĸθˤĤơԤβѤܽκǸ7ϤΡȷӤĤפꤹ1 (206--07) ꡥ
ɥĿͤǯˤ錄äơŪʼѤΩƤǤʤ꿼ŪŪʸήäƤޤ줬Ūꡦ̤ߤ֤¤ߤ¿ؤ̾δФͿƤΤǤ
ѥɥΤ褦濴ʤе٤ꥷ㡦ޤ䥭ꥹȶʤ⤪ӤˮʬǤ줿ɥĿͤʤϤȤǧΤϡۣŪʼʤǤäơ̿ȥưƤ롼ΤȤƤοʹ֤Ȥκ롼ͭἫǤ
ǤˤʤäơɥĤ˥ʥʥꥺब來äƤȤȤȤȶȤĹȤȤϱʤɤȤΡդӤĤ˿ʤʤΥץѥ깭ޤޤ˥åȤʥʥʥꥺʤΤǤ縵ˤϡɥĿͤˤȤäƤϡּפֲȶפǤꡤΥƤϥɥͤΥɥĿͤ¸ͳʤʤ롤ȤפäΤǤ
äʼѤͻλ۲ȤˤȡΡּפˤϡָפȤ̩ܤϢؤޤơ֥ɥĿͤϡ¾Υޥ̱²Ȥϰۤʤ̱²εサϤˤäȻߤޤꡤĤȤθΤޤްݻס֤ɥ̱²ΤߤȤĤʤäƤꡤ˿˸ͭʸĤΤפȼĥޤ
ǤϡָפҤȤĤΡ̱²פδäʤΤǤꡤ줬⡤ʪưʪǤ뤫Τ褦ʬĹƤȤȤ館Ƥޤ֥ɥĿͤϸ⼫κˤĤʤäƤΤˡ¾ν̱²;θƤ줿ꡤϤ̤ϰ˰ưʸڤƤޤäפȤΤǤ
Τ褦ʹͤΩƤС֥ɥĸ줬äƤ뤹٤Ƥϰ褬ɥĤȤ줵٤פȤȤˤʤꡤΥɥ̱²濴ȷӤĤƤȤɤʶ̤뤫ϡʥɥĤ硹˼ȤǤ
ɥĸ줬֤ȤθΤޤްݻפȹͤ줿ݤˡоȤ줿ޥɮƬϤ餯ѸȹͤƤ褤ŪˤߤƤ⡤ѸۤɽǤʤޥϤʤޤĤѸϰ̤ĤĤ̾ʸǤ⤢롥ѸʤˡˤΤΤ˺ϤʤѸ줬ޥ̱²ɥĸθΤ˰礤˽Ф줿ȤȤϽʬˤꤽ

Ӿ Ӱ졡ؿȻǤɤɥĻˡ١ȽŹҴȥ˥ӡ2015ǯ

ȥ˥ΥɥĻδɥĤˤɤޤΥǤͤɤǤ⤿ؤٶˤʤ1ǤƤϱѸˤȤϼФδطˤʤޤ֥ޥ̱²פƤȤϡѸˤγؤӤˤȤäƤפǤʲܼܽƤޤ
Ϥ
1ϡޥοȤλ
ȵ
ޥͤοȥ˴
եηʬ
ޥοȤο
ʤ
ομο
ηäߡϥࡦ
ʸȤη³
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2ϡ˵
ǤƮط
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ξ˳μ礿
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ɥ̱ȼ
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ܤ줿ۻĮ顼
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Ϥ˻ФۻĮ
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Ķʹ
Ȥʻʸ
ɥĻǯɽ
Ӿ Ӱ졡ؿȻǤɤɥĻˡ١ȽŹҴȥ˥ӡ2015ǯ

1130ڡ 17:30--19:00
ꡧī㡼ɶ
̡饤Υϥ֥åɷ1֤θƨۿ
ߡī㡼֥
ǯ٤ī륷ָֺ츻ŵǤɤѸˡ˰٤ΥڡǽĴ˿ʤǤޤرѸ츻ŵ١ʸҡȤʤ顤ѸûˤɤäƤǤ
1ָ˳֤8ǤϥȱѸθܿޤѸˤϡɤϥޤ (the Low Countries) ȤξŪʸήǡŪˤǻܿäȹͤƤޤŪʱѸ˵ҤˤƤϡȤθܿϡƥ졤ե졤ťΥɸʤɤȤθܿ٤٤㤯硹Ūˤ뤳ȤϤۤȤɤޤפʥѸĤƽꡤȤȤŪǤαѸؤαƶŪˤϰ̤˹ͤƤʾ礭ֺ1ʬεβͤϽʬˤȻפޤ
ιֺ¤Ǥϡޥɤˤ륪ʤӴϢ졦ˤΰ֤ŤǧĤġƱ줬Ѹθä䤽¾ͿƶˤĤƵޤޤطʤȤƤαطˤˤܤޤˡñ줬ܸä¿Ǥ¤ˤܤȻפޤ
ܥֺ¤γƲΩƤޤΤǡؤλáԻäˤ餺餴äȤǤޤ7ʬˤĤƤϡơפޥɥޥåפˤޤȤƤޤΤǡʲε
#5625. ī륷ֺ¤1ֱѸ츻ŵڤפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-09-20-1])
#5629. ī륷ֺ¤2ֱѸäˤѤפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-09-24-1])
#5631. ī륷ֺ¤3ֱñȡ֥ˡ§ספޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-09-26-1])
#5639. ī륷ֺ¤4ָαѸ˻ĤűѸκספޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-10-04-1])
#5646. ī륷ֺ¤5ֱѸ졤ƥȽвפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-10-11-1])
#5650. ī륷ֺ¤6ֱѸ졤θȸפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-10-15-1])
#5669. ī륷ֺ¤7ֱѸ졤ե˿פޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2024-11-03-1])
ֺܹ¤ξܺ٤ȤߤɤرѸ츻ŵ١ʸҡϡ˵֤Ĥļ֤Ф¸ޤʴϢդޤΤǡŵʤȤ֤ˤꤢޤˡ

ʰʲ嵭2024/11/27(Wed)
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
ε#5682. Low Dutch ȤάΡ ([2024-11-16-1]) ǡ䤽ȴϢѼ狼θüѤ˿줿εǤ⡤Ʊؿ#4445. ʤѸˤˤϽ줫αƶᾮɾƤΤ ([2021-06-28-1]) ʤɤǵƤ
ѸȥϤȤޥɤϥɥĸ췲°Ƥꡤñ褯Ƥ롥äơñ줬Ū˱ѸʤΤѸʤΤοäȽꤹΤϡФкǤ롥κطʤˤĤơDurkin (356) ⤦ǫ˲⤷ƤΤǡѤ
Normally such certainty is only available in cases where the absence of an English sound change or the presence of a Dutch or Low German one demonstrates borrowing: the situation is similar to that explored with reference to early Scandinavian borrowings . . . , with the added complication that there are fewer sound changes distinguishing English from Dutch and Low German. The same problem even affects some words first attested much later than the Middle English period, especially those found in regional varieties for which earlier evidence is in very short supply.
Ѹ줫Ѹ줫ݤȽˤơѲ̵ͭȤäŪʾڵʤ㤤ȤǺޤǸťΥɼѸȽˤ뺤ȤӤ뤬ťΥɸξˤϡ̥ޥɤ°ʤΤǡ⤦Ūʺۤ뤳ȤǤΤ
ޤ¸Ūڵ˳ϰѼˤäȤʤȡȽ꤬ˤʤȤΤ⤦ʤ롥ġñˤĤơŪʾڵǤʤ쳰Ūʾڵ̩˹θƤʤФʤʤʤǤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
#2646. Ѹ˴ؤס ([2016-07-25-1]) ǡѸˤˤ륪Ѹᤰä Durkin Ȥ Dutch Ǥ Low German ǤʤŪ Low Dutch ȤѸ줬ȤƤ줬ؤΤȤСDurkin Ȥǫ˲⤷ƤƤ1 (354) ɤǤߤ褦
Loanwords into English from Dutch (including Flemish) and Low German are normally considered together, because it is so difficult to tell them apart. This is partly because word forms in both languages were, and to some extent still are, so similar, and partly because the social and cultural circumstances of borrowing into English are also often hard to tell apart. 'Low Dutch' is sometimes used as a collective cover term for borrowings from either or both languages into English, although it is important to note that Low Dutch is not itself a language name, but simply a terminological shorthand for referring to a complex situation.
Dutch Low German ϳơ̤ѼǤϤ뤬ñη֤ߤˤ褯ƤꡤѸƱʸ̮ˤƤϡºݾ̤ĤʤȤ¿ˡص2Ѽ碌ѸȤ Low Dutch ꤷƤȤȤ̣ Low Dutch ϥեȤȤˤʤ롥եѸ줫ƥѸ줫Ƚ̤ĤˤȤˡص֥եƥϼѸפʤɤȰ礷ƸƤ֤Τ˻Ƥ롥
ѸΥե켫Τ٤Ȥ⤤뤫⤷ʤȤΤϡ嵭 Dutch ˤƤ Low German ˤƤ⡤ֶ̤ѼפȰΤȤҤ٤ϤϤ겿餫٤ˤƥեǤ⤢뤫ˤĤƤϡ#415. All linguistic varieties are fictions ([2010-06-16-1]) ȡ
˻ȤΤǤ Low Dutch Ȥϰʤ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.

928ڡ 17:30--19:00
ꡧī㡼ɶ
̡饤Υϥ֥åɷʸƨۿ
ߡī㡼֥
2ָ928ڡ17:30--19:00ī㡼ɶˤƥָֺ츻ŵǤɤѸˡ6ȤʤֱѸ졤θȸפ֤ޤ
8245ǤϡֱѸ졤ƥȽвפꤷơűѸʤ뤤ϤλˤˤƥθŪƶܤޤ8Ⱦ11ȾˤƤΥ˾ơťΥɸ (old_norse) ȸűѸθܿˤĤƲ⤷ޤ
ȤϾ嵭λ˳ưʥӥпȤγ±ؤޤϥ֥ƥˤ⽱褷䤬ƥ꽻褦ˤʤޤη̡ťΥɸȤȸűѸäͤȤδ֤Ǹܿޤ
ťΥɸ줫μѸϡѸ900ۤɻĤäƤޤпϤۤ礭櫓ǤϤޤܸ䵡ǽʤɹ٤ǻѤ줬¿ޤޤƤΤܤ٤ħǤֺ¤Ǥ϶ŪʸťΥɸ줫μѸ夲θ츻ɤ߲Ƥޤ
ťΥɸȱѸܿǻ̩ʤΤǤξ줬ޥ²°ƤꡤᤤطˤäȤ䡤ξ̱²μҲŪʸήοȿǤƤȹͤޤγư̤ťΥɸȤܿϡѸθäˡʤƼ¤ʸˡˤ¿ʱƶͿޤѸλѤǡŪʸܿνϴDzǤޤ
ܥֺ¤ϳƲΩ⤤Τǡ6滲äǤޤäʤ֤ǤޤɶǤ̻äΤۤ饤äǽǤθ1֤Ρָƨۿפ⤴ѤǤޤʳäƤäߤɤ
ʤܥֺ¤ϡָ츻ŵǤɤѸˡפꤷƤȤꡤȤ櫓رѸ츻ŵ١ʸҡˤ˻ȤޤƱŵϡֺ¤˻ȡڤ֤Ǥ뤫Ȼפޤʤ긵ˤʤȤꤢޤˡ

ʰʲ嵭2024/09/21(Sat)
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
űѸθä٤˥ԥ奢ʥޥϤθäȤäƤ褯Ѹϸ¤Ƥ롥⡤θ¤줿Ѹʬƥ (latin) ΤΤǤ롥ۤˤϸťΥɸ (old_norse)ȸ (celtic)ޥ (germanic), ե (french) μѸʤǤϤʤޤDZƤ
θ줫űѸؤμѸϡष㳰Ū餳ˤʤΤʤΤǡűѸɤǤȤ˽Ф魯Ȥ䤱ΩĤΤǤ롥Ѹ˸Ǥ⤫äƤ褯ܤƤ롥Hogg ϡűѸθäȸüѤˤĤƼΤ褦ɾƤ롥
. . . there are words of non-native origin in Old English, the vast majority of which are from Latin. It has been estimated only about 3 per cent of Old English vocabulary is taken from non-native sources and it is clear that the strong preference in Old English was to use its native resources in order to create new vocabulary. In this respect, therefore, and as elsewhere, Old English is typically Germanic. (102--03)
. . . there was in Old English only a very limited use of words taken from other language, i.e. borrowed or loan words, and those words were primarily from Latin. Apart from Latin, Old English borrowed words from the Scandinavian languages after the Viking invasions, from the celtic languages mostly at a very early date, and there was also a scattering of forms from the other Germanic languages. At the very end of the period we begin to see the first loan words from Norman French. (109)
űѸγƸ줫θüѤˤĤƤϡʲεȡ
#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1])
#1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1])
#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1])
#1945. űѸΥƥѤλʬ ([2014-08-24-1])
#2578. ȸ̤ƱѸؼѤ줿찮Υƥñ ([2016-05-18-1])
#3787. 650ǯդȤ롤ΥƥѸü ([2019-09-09-1])
#3788. űѸΥƥѸΰճ ([2019-09-10-1])
#3789. űѸäˤƥѸΨ1.75% ([2019-09-11-1])
#3790. 650ǯΥƥѸΰ ([2019-09-12-1])
#3829. 650ǯʸΥƥѸΰ ([2019-10-21-1])
#3830. űѸΥƥѸϸޤ³ݤ ([2019-10-22-1])
#1216. űѸΥȼѸ ([2012-08-25-1])
#3821. Old Saxon μѸ ([2019-10-13-1])
#302. űѸΥեѸ ([2010-02-23-1])
Hogg, Richard. An Introduction to Old English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2002.
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