#6170. ƻӵ -er ȺǾ -est εơ ([2026-03-19-1]) 衤-er Ȥμդεȯã˴ؿƤ롥Ѹӵ -er ˤϡƻˤˤ衤A B Ȳ̾դƤ2ĤΥޥĸΥפ̤Ȥ롥
űѸʳޤǤˡƻӵȤƤ -ra ӵȤƤ -or ΩƤ -er ϾʤȤŪǤϤʤäѸˤʤȡʻˤĤƤӵϸľܤĤʤ -er Ūˤʤäΰ̲β˲äΤȤ櫓ƻӵˤ r e Ȥ첻뤳ȤˤʤäΤϡɤΤ褦ʷаޤǤʤΤ
OED -er (SUFFIX3) ˡΤ褦ʵҤä
Old English betera better adj. apparently preserves -era, but the word is an unusual case; compare the discussion at that entry. Later forms with epenthetic vowel, as -ere, -er develop in Middle English, but are rare in Old English.
Attested regularly formed adverbs continue type (ii) of the suffix, preserving the vowel before r in the final syllable (compare heardor harder), with very occasional reduction to -er in Old English. The adverbial and adjectival comparative endings merge in the course of Middle English.
εҤˤȡƻӵˤ e "epenthetic vowel" Ȥ롥첻λ¤Ҥ٤ƤǡʤɤΤ褦줿ΤˤĤƤϽҤ٤Ƥʤľ˵Ƥ롤betera ĤƤ e αƶǤ롤ȤɤʤȡǸڤƤӵ -or 䤽μǤ -er ƻˤȤäƤδפȤʤäȤͤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
ޤǤεǡƻӵ B פϡŤͳ褹뤫⤷ʤȤβ˿줿 (Krahe 1965: §56) ޤκǾ B פƻбǤñгʤηˤʤȤҤߤ (Campbell §670; p. 277) ƻδ֤ιԤ褬ˤˤˤꤹȡѸˤƤ -er ΰܲˤƱ褦ʹԤʺ줫ƻءˤäȹͤΤϡʬ˼ʤ褦˻פ롥
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
Krahe, H. Germanische Sprachwissenschaft. II, Formelehre. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1965.
GW Τ褦 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤ khelfʷѸ˥ե˥СȤ̲ϤƤޤkhelf ǤֱѸ˥ƥ50ⳫǤξԤݤ碌ǥƥĤξҲΤ⤪⤷פ#5115. ե٥åȤεȯãˤĤƤ2ĤΥƥġ ([2023-04-29-1]) Ҳ𤷤ޤ
Ѹ˥ƥĤ heldio äǤ420رˤ줿ƥ#7. consumption p Ϥɤ顩ܤޤ

ΥƥĤ heldio ǤޤԤƣ蘆Ȥ̲Ǥ#700. consumption p Ϥɤ顩 --- ƣ蘆κоȤۿƤޤΤǡҤİȯ˴ؤʤΤǥ饸ȤȴǤ
ƥĤ̤ǿƤ治ź (epenthesis) ϡźǤ褯벻Ѳ1Ǥ consumption, assumption, resumption /p/ Τۤ epenthesis ؤñƤߤޤ
September, November, December, number /b/
Hampshire, Thompson, empty /p/
passenger, messenger, nightingale /n/
Τۤ she θεᤰ벾1ĤǤϡepenthesis δͿƤޤcf. #4769. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ξҲ ([2022-05-18-1])ˡ
epenthesis ȴϢ뤽¾βѲˤĤƤϡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ⤴Ȥ
˻䤬ϪξäĤ /m/ ȯפϡ饸Ǥ̤ˤäΤǡưޤΤǤYouTube ǤˡỤ̄äƤС
ε#4798. ENL ǤθѲϡֳפǡESL/EFL Ǥϡְִ㤤ס ([2022-06-16-1]) ǰѤ Jenkins (37) ϡELF (= English as a Lingua Franca) γˤȤʤħȯˤƤ롥ϡĴη̡͡ʱѸѼǧ줿ħǤꡤΤ ELF ѤˤƤƽפʹܤȤȤˤʤ롥
The Lingua Franca Core (LFC)
1. Consonant sounds except for substitutions of 'th' and of dark /l/
2. Aspiration after world-initial /p/, /t/ and /k/
3. Avoidance of consonant deletion (as opposed to epenthesis) in consonant clusters.
4. Vowel length distinctions
5. Nuclear (Tonic) stress production and placement within word groups (tone units)
ħ EFL ˤƳˤȤϤʤʤΤǤ (Jenkins 37)
Non-core features:
1. Certain consonants (see Lingua Franca Core no. 1)
2. Vowel quality
3. Weak forms
4. Features of connected speech such as elision and assimilation
5. Word stress
6. Pitch movement on the nuclear syllable (tone)
7. Stress-timed rhythm
ܸüԤŵŪˤߤѸȯ嵭Ρ֥פƤϤƤߤȡread lead ϤȤˡ֥ɡפȯƤޤƬ /r/ /l/ ζ̤ Core no. 1 ˴ޤޤΤǡħȤƤҤȤȯʬɬפ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥첻 (epenthesis) /ri:d/ ǤϤʤ /ri:do/ ȯ줿ȤƤ⡤ħˤϴޤޤʤᡤƤ (cf. Core no. 3)
Jenkins, Jennifer. "Global Intelligibility and Local Diversity: Possibility or Paradox?" English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles. Ed. Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni. London: Continuum, 2006. 32--39.
ε#4769. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ξҲ ([2022-05-18-1]) ǡѸˤˤǯФ뿷ñ˾Ҳ𤷤Laing and Lass ʸηսѤȡΤ褦ˤʤ (231)
(a) For the history of she, we posit an approximant epenthesis of a type already found in OE, spreading to further items in ME, and occurring in all periods of Scots as well as PDE. This turns the word-onset into a consonant cluster with its own history, independent of that of the nuclear vowel (though it seems primarily to occur before certain nuclear types).
(b) The nuclear vowel derives in the normal way from OE [eo], with no need for 'resyllabification' or the creation of 'rising diphthongs'.
(c) This account allows an etymology with no interim generation of trimoric nuclei, or the problem of maintaining vowel length when the first element of the nucleus is the first vowel of the diphthong that constitutes it. It therefore allows for the unproblematic derivation of both [ʃe:] (required for PDE [ʃi:]) and [ʃo:] (required for some regional types such as [ʃu:]).
(d) We claim that the so-called 'she problem' has been a problem mainly because of a misconception of the kind of etymology it is. The literature (and this is true even of Britton's account, which is clearly the best) founders (sic) on the failure to separate the development of the word-onset and the development of the nuclear vowel.
The mistake has been the attempt to combine a vocalic story and a consonantal story and at the same time make phonological sense. We suggest that in this case it cannot be done, and that by separating the two stories we arrive at a clean and linguistically justifiable narrative.
ǵξܺ٤Ω뤳ȤϤʤοФ伫ȤɾҤ٤ʤСޤƤƤ¾ϤȤߤƤ롥
ޤLAEME ȤǿΥġѤĤġŪʼ̤λ˰͵ƤפǤ롥礭ʻ餳˼ȤǤȤ褯ʬȤ餯뿮괶ȤФ褤ιȿ˶ò롥
嵭ȴϢ뤬LAEME ϢȤƤ CoNE (= A Corpus of Narrative Etymologies from Proto-Old English to Early Middle English) CC (= the Corpus of Changes) ԻȤʸץȤΰĤȤơshe 夲ƤŦƤCoNE ϡѸʸڤñΤ۷֤ˤĤơѲֻѲδԤȤŪʴǤʡֽѸȤӸءפȸƤӤۤɤˡshe ˤĤƤСγƳʷޤ٤Ƥΰ۷֤Ϳ褦ȤƤꡤ[ʃ] ޤ֤ΰ⤢ޤǤΰˤʤΤǤ롥scha, þoe, þie, yo Τ褦㳰Ūʰ۷֤ˤĤƤ⡤̣ͿƤ롥
ơ"Yod Epenthesis" Ƥ켫Τڥ˥Ūžäshe θ츻ˤǤ [j] ˼ƳФ뤫ײ1ĤȤʤäƤ [j] ƳФ뤳Ȥ̣Ƿ餯ᡤ֤ [j] äƤޤäפȼĥΤǤ롥ˤ [j] ɬԼפȤ櫓ǤʤȯŪǤϤ졤㤬뤳ȤʸΤ˼Ƥ뤫
Ū¿ĤҤȤĤεˤĤƤԤ䤤Ƥߤ⤢ΤΤȤϤꡤĻɷŪʹɾ
Laing, Margaret and Roger Lass. "On Middle English she, sho: A Refurbished Narrative," Folia Linguistica Historica 35 (2014): 201-40.
Lass, Roger, Margaret Laing, Rhona Alcorn, and Keith Williamson. A Corpus of Narrative Etymologies from Proto-Old English to Early Middle English and accompanying Corpus of Changes, Version 1.1. Edinburgh: U of Edinburgh, 2013--. Available online at http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/ihd/CoNE/CoNE.html.
3;ñ̾ she θ츻ä100ǯʾ褬³ƤˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥ⼡εǼ夲Ƥ
#792. she --- Ǥ٤ι⤤츻Ծܤθ ([2011-06-28-1])
#793. she --- 奤ˤ۷ʬۡ ([2011-06-29-1])
#827. she θ츻 ([2011-08-02-1])
#829. she θ츻ν ([2011-08-04-1])
θŤ LAEME ȤǿΥġѤĩΤ2014ǯ Laing and Lass ʸǤLAEME ˤĤƤϡ#4086. Ѹ츦ˤ LAEME ([2020-07-04-1])#4396. ѸϿޤȥդѥƤ LAEME ([2021-05-10-1]) Ϥ laeme γƵȡˡ
she ϡüŪˤСѸǧ۷֡ʸɸ she Ϣʤ֤ޤˤ˸ (1) Ҳ [ʃ](2) [eː] [oː]ɤΤ褦ΤȤ2˽롥Ȥ櫓θȤʤܤƤ۷ [hjoː] ʤɤ˴ޤޤ [j] ɤΤ褦ƳФ뤫פȤʤ롥
Ǥϡ [j] ϴ¸βϢ³ΤʤŪƳФ뤳ȤȤƤLaing and Lass οϡ[j] ŪƳФ줿ΤǤϤʤŪ줿ˤʤȤȤñˤС [j] äƤޤäΤȤȤо嵭 (1), (2) Τ̵ʤǤ뤷LAEME ۷֤ʬۤδ̷ʤȤ
֤ [j] äƤޤäϡƱʸǤ "Yod Epenthesis" (= YE) ̾դƤ롥űѸ [heo] YE ͳ [hjeo] Ȥʤꡤθ "eo-Monophthongisation/Merger" (= EOM) ̤ [hjeː] 뤤 [hjoː] ƳФȤϩʼºݤˤϡκǸβطʤŪ [hjøː] ꤵƤ餷ˡˡƬ [hj] "Fusional Assimilation" (= FA) Ф [ç] ȤʤꡤǸ "Palatal Fronting" (= PF) η̡[ʃ] Ϥ롤Ȥƻڤ
űѸ줫ήмΤ褦ˤʤ (Laing and Lass 217)
*heo ((YE)) > *hjeo ((EOM)) >
1 *hjo: ((FA)) > [ço:] ((PF)) > [ʃo:]
2 *hje: ((FA)) > [çe:] ((PF)) > [ʃe:]
Laing, Margaret and Roger Lass. "On Middle English she, sho: A Refurbished Narrative," Folia Linguistica Historica 35 (2014): 201-40.
ε#3490. dreamt dreamed ء ([2018-11-16-1]) ȴϢơɸˤĤơξˡκĴ٤椬褦ΤʺϤʤ褦Ǥ롥ˡκȤƺȤ뤳Ȥ¿ꥫѸǤ dreamed ޤ졤ꥹѸǤξȤѤȤʾp. 422ˡ
Fowler's (231) ˤ "Dreamed, esp. as the pa.t. form, tends to be used for emphasis and in poetry." ȤꡤѰˤ뺹뤳ȤƤ롥
Ѹξ MED ƤߤȡȤơֵ§Ūʡ drēmed(e ȡԵ§Ūʡ drempte ξѤƤȤ狼뤬ʬȤƤϵ§εܤʤʤԵ§˸治ź (epenthesis) p äƤ뤳Ȥ (cf. #739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]))
ѸǶ̣ΤϡShakespeare ǤξѤƤ뤬AV ˤ dreamt ϤʤȤ¤ʡرѸ츻ŵ١ˡAV Shakespeare ٤ʸŪǸʸˡ褯ݻƤȤΤǡ dreamed ΤۤȤФäΤ⤷ʤդˤСdreamt άŪˤˤϤդ路ʤȹͤ줿Τ⤷ʤ
ʤ1775ǯ Johnson μǤ "preter. dreamed, or dreamt" Ȥꡤdreamed ɮƬ˵Ƥ뤳Ȥ˿Ƥ
ͧ ԡظѸˡŵ١Ʋ2006ǯ
Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.
߷ ˧ͺ (Խ紴)رѸ츻ŵ١ҡ1997ǯ
ǯ November 11ˤȤΤ̯11˽˺ƤΤǡꤤ
αñϡƥο novem 9ˤ˴Ť November 뤤 Novembris (mēnsis) եͳ1200ǯ Novembre ȤƱѸäƤΤǤ롥ƥǤθ *novem-ri-s λҲ֤ b źä -mbr- ȤʤäΤʤΤ褦ʸ治ź (epenthesis) ˤĤƤϡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) ȡˡַפɽ魯θθȾǤεˤĤƤϡ#3073. 9SeptemberĹ ([2017-09-25-1]) Ȥ줿
ƥnovem ΰ캬 *newn̥ ǤꡤѸȤƤϤ nine ط롥ƥ줫μѸȤƤθ캬ݻƤñˤ nonagenarian 90Ρ, nones ʥ9ʷˤä57ˡ, noon ʡʸ6ơ9ΰդء, novena 9 ֤ε 롥ޤꥷ줫μѸȤƤ ennead ʶİȡˤ롥
űѸǤ Blōdmōnaþ (blood month) ȸƤФ졤鲺䤫ǤϤʤϥͤ٤ȤưʪӤȴϢȤ
ܸDZ11ɽ魯פϡȥ졼Ȥ߷ʤդĤˤͳ褹Ȥͤ뤬͡ʸ츻⤬롥ΥĥʿʪˤάȤ⤵뤷10ηȹͤ11ηȤȤ⤢롥
Ѳϸν̿Ȥ⤤ۤŪʤΤǤꡤźȤ줿Ϥʤ줯餤ߤƤʤ⡤θޤ餫ȤƤʤΤԻĤȤԻĤǤ롥⤽⡤ְ̣פȼʤʱˤѲȤΤϤɤȤʤΤạ̈ѲȤΤ䤹Ѳ뤳ȤïȤΤؤκǤ̥ŪǤ롥
ѲθˤĤƤϡŤ͡⤬ƤAlgeo and Pyles (34--35) ȤơĤɽŪʤ Ҳ𤷤褦
ޤ2ĤθABܿAüԤBԴ˽ȤAȯħBػۤȤȤ롥СˡظȯħƳ륱ϡظ첾 (substratum_theory) ȸƤФ롥դˡظȯħظ˻ۤ졤Ū˸Ԥ˲Ѳˤ "superstratum theory" ȸƤФ롥
ʤ٤ߤηֳ֤Ȥʤ褦ĴƯΤǤϤʤȤ "phonological space" ʲ֡ˤδ⤢롥ܸΤ褦첻Ȥ [i, e] 첻Ȥ [u, o, ɑ] 첻ηϤϡ褯ѹդμ줿֤ǤꡤŪѲˤѹդμƤʤ֤ϡѹդܻؤѲ䤹⤷ʤ
Ʊ (assimilation) ۲ (dissimilation)æ (elision) (intrusion)ۤˡ#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragoge ([2011-05-06-1]) Ǽ褦ʳƼβظˤϡ "ease of articulation" ĴưפˤȤưŤ褦˻פ롥Ť龧ƤǤϤ뤬⤷줬ѲͣθȤС٤Ƥθ줬Ĵ䤹νؤȵ夷ƤޤȤˤʤäơϡĤꤦ븶1ĤˤʤȤ롥
üԤΰռٴͿβѲ⤢롥#192. etymological respelling (2) ([2009-11-05-1]) Ǹ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ȥƿ줿褦ˡcomptroller ֻҲ [mptr] ȯ褦ˤʤäȤˤϰ spelling_pronunciation äȤˤʤ롥ޤ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡchaise longue chaise lounge Ȥȯ褦ˤʤäΤϡָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ˤΤǤ롥
ҿȯؤΰռ뤳Ȥˤä꽤 (hypercorrection) ⡤Ѳ1װȹͤ롥talkin' somethin' Τ褦 g æȯ¤ޤפޤꡤ g ͽʤĶǤ g [ɪŋ] ȯ褦ʥǤ롥㤨 chicken Virgin Islands 줾 chicking, Virging Islands ʤɤȯѲ롥Ϣơrajah, cashmere, kosher ʤɤλˡͽʤä /ʒ/ 褦ˤʤä̲ (overgeneralization) ⤢롥
͡ʲ⤬ƤƤñȤDzѲԤȤϤǤʤʣװͿƤ뤳 (multiple causation of language change) Ȥɬפ
Ѳθ˸¤餺Ū˸Ѳθ˴ؤƤϡ#442. Ѳθ([2010-07-13-1]) Ȥ줿
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
harbinger , messenger ʻȼԡ, passenger ʾҡ, porringer ʻ滮, scavenger ٤ưʪ, wharfinger Ȼ߾ˤΤ褦ʸˤϡ2n ߤ롥message, passage, porridge ʤɤθӤФ狼̤ꡤ n 츻ŪǤ롥g ֤ n epenthesis 治ź[2011-05-06-1]ε#739. glide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragogeפȡˤȹͤ롥
OED ˤȡmessenger ˤĤƤϡAnglo-Norman Picard ˤ n 줿֤ߤȤ顤ɬѸˤΩѲǤϤʤΥեֻαƶˤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
ʲϡ6ˤĤ n Τʤ֤νлȡn 줿褽λOED 츻ŵȤƤޤȤΤǤ롥
| Word | First without n | First with n |
|---|---|---|
| harbinger | ?lateOE | ME |
| messenger | ?a1200 | lateME |
| passenger | 1337 | C15 |
| porringer | 1467 | 1601 |
| scavenger | ME | 1530 |
| wharfinger | 1552--53 | 1642 |
'INTRUSIVE' [n] and [ŋ]
§438. The 'intrusive' [n] in messenger, papenjay, &c. and [ŋ] in nightingale and paringale 'equal' (<paregal) is a species of consonantal glide easing the passage between the preceding vowel and the following [ʤ] or [g], and is found chiefly in adopted words; it is perhaps, as has been suggested, associated with a desire to make weightier the middle syllable so as to avoid syncope . . . . It appears to develop at various dates from the thirteenth century (nightingale) onwards. In words in which it is an established feature of StE, e.g. nightingale and messenger, it is regularly shown by the orthoepists.
<g> б벻ۤʤ뤬nightingale ˤƤ g ֤ n Ƥ¤ؤθڤ̣#797. nightingale ([2011-07-03-1]) ε㤬ޤ긫ʤȽҤ٤messenger passenger Ʊͤ˰äƤ٤ȤȤ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
[2011-05-06-1]εglide, prosthesis, epenthesis, paragogeפ錄겻 (glide) ޤ1ĤȤƿ줿 number ȡξάɽ no., No., no, No ˤĤơ̾ number ϥƥ numerus ͳ褷ե no(u)mbre ͳ1300ǯޤǤ˱Ѹ˼ѤƤư number ۤƱ˱ѸäƤƤ롥ʻˤƤ⡤錄겻 /b/ ϥեʳǵäƤ
ƥ numerus åʷ numerō "in number" ΰ̣ѤƤξάɽ no., No. 17ȾФ˱ѸäƤȯϱѸ˴Ťޤ /ˈnʌmbə/ Ǥ롥ʣ Nos., nos. ֤ꡤɽǤ "#" Ѥʤε number sign 뤤 hash (sign) ȸƤФ뤬ԤϳʻҾͤɽ魯 hatch(ing) Ϣۤˤָ̱츻ȸˡեǤ noɥĸǤ Nr. ֤롥
Ĥޤ긽Ѹ number no. ϸ츻Ūˤϸ̩˴ȾάδطǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥षƥ numerus ˵ˤ2Ÿ ( doublet ) ȸƤ֤٤
ʤ錄겻 /b/ Ƥʤ֤ϡƥ numerus ȤDZѸˤ¿ѤƤ롥
denumerable, enumerate, enumeration, innumerable, numerable, numeral, numeration, numerator, numerical, supernumerary
[2011-04-21-1]εthumb ֤ȯ (2) פǡthumb <b> Ĥȯ줿ǽ뤳Ȥˤ<b> ֻѸκǤᤤϿȤơ̾ Thomley ɽ魯 Tvmbeleia ʸڤƤ뤬 <b> Ƥ뤳ȤΤ錄겻 (glide) ȤѸƳ錄ʲˤȤϡֲﴱ벻Ĵ¾βĴؤȰܹԤݤɬŪˤȤ뱿ưӤˤä벻סʡؿѸؼŵ, p. 496 ˡ
/m/ /l/ ³ĶǤϡ/m/ νФ錄 (off-glide) /l/ 錄 (on-glide) ŪɬȤͭξ /b/ ȯ롥Tvmbeleia ξˤϡ<e> 첻֤˲ߤƤ뤬岻ˤۣ첻ʤΤǡĴθ̤ȤƤ̵ȹͤ롥פȤơthimble ֻؤ̤פ롥θϡűѸǤ þȳmel ( þūma "thumb" + -el "small" ) Ȥ֤ä15ˤ錄겻 /b/ Ƹߤη֤Ȥ褦ˤʤäΤ褦ϡbramble, mumble, nimble, shamble ʤɾʤʤ/r/ ľǤ number ʤɤ㤬롥þūma ñȤǤϡ/b/ 錄겻ȤǽϤʤTvmbeleia ʤɤ㤬ñȷ˱ƶͿȹͤ뤳ȤϤǤ
錄겻ˤ벻ϡź (addition) Υᥫ˥1ĤǤ롥֤Ȥźäʬȡ3ʬ롥
(1) Ƭź (prosthesis) Ѹˤ¿ʤOE cwȳsann > ME queisen > ModE squeeze ˤ /s/ źä롥եѸǤ츻ŪʸƬ e 㤬¿ (ex. especial, escalade )
(2) 治ź (epenthesis) ŵϡ嵭 thimble ¾ˤ /b/ Ǥ롥OE ǣmettig > ME empty ʤɤ⤢롥
(3) ź (paragoge) /n/ /s/ θ /t/ /d/ 㤬¿[2010-09-17-1]εDracula ˸ whilstפǿ줿褦 against, amidst, amongst, betwixt, whilst 䡤¾ ancient, tyrant, parchment, sound ʤɤ㤬롥
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ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
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