1130ˤ˸줿֤Τۤإͥפκǿ#390. ϤʤѲΤˤ⤤⤬뤬β⡤ǼϤޤhellog Ǥ⤿ӤӼ夲ƤѲ˴ؤָײ (invisible_hand theory) ˤĤƳȤʤޤ
®ƻϩʤɤǻΤʤΤȯνڡפ˴ޤ줿Ȥ뤫ȻפޤѸǤϤ traffic jam out of nowhere ȸƤ֤ΤǤ¤ϤθݤȸѲΥᥫ˥ˤϡä٤ΤǤ
ưǤϡ Rudi Keller ιͤ˴ŤޤϤθ̽ڤ㤨äϤƤޤƬμ֤դȤҤ˾®ȡ³֤Ͼͤ뤿˰ޡȤäơμ֤⾯˥֥졼Ƨߤޤ줬ظؤϢƤȤɤʤ뤫ǽŪˤϴߤθ³֤ΰ췲ϽڤˤϤޤ롤Ȥï˾Ǥʤä̤ޤƤޤΤǤ
ǽפʤΤϡɥ饤СïֽڤäƤפʤɤȤϹͤƤʤȤǤ1ͤҤȤϰꤿȤŪưǹưƤˤ⤫餺ʹưŪѤȡĿͤΰտޤȤϤΥơڤȤҲŪʸݤƤޤޤΡ֥ߥʸĿͤΰտޡפȡ֥ޥΤη̡פδ֤ˤѥɥåָפȸƤФΤΤǤ
ơϸѲˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤޤޤ䤿ʡܸʸˡѤƤפȤֱѸȯˤ˻Ĥ褦Ѳ褦פʤɤȤտޤäƸѤƤ櫓ǤϤޤܤˤޤ뤤ϾڤȯʤɤȤȻפĤġθդȯƤǤ̵ռĴεѤ߽Ťʤꡤ¿ο͡ŤƤȡǯɴǯȤѥǸȤˡ礭ʸѲȤʤäƸΤǤ
ưǤϡ夵Ȥä̤ơΰտޤ̤ˤΤ츫ȥ֥åܥåŪʡָפλȤߤˤĤƤäƤޤ
ࡦߥкѳؤ⤤ֿθפޤؤ˱ѤǤȤϡȰճ˻פ뤫⤷ޤѲ1ĤͭϤʲǤΤǡưԤǤΥåڤǤФȻפޤ
ʤΥơޤˤĤƤ hellog βǤ⤿ӤӼ夲ƤޤưѤơ⤦ŪطʤΤꤿȻפ줿ϡ invisible_hand ΥդΤʤǤȤ櫓ʲε碌ƤɤߤС
#8. ̽ڤȸѲ ([2009-05-07-1])
#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1])
Keller, Rudi. On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language. Trans. Brigitte Nerlich. London and New York: Routledge, 1994.
ѲΤʤǤⲻѲ뤳ȤϤȤ櫓ؤˤˤơֲѲפʤΤϤˤϤΤޤǼ夤ˤȤɤޤ롥ʤ첻ѲΤ벻ѲäȤơʤϤΤȤ˵äΤѲϤΤȤ˵ΤȤ̵˵Τ饭꤬ʤΤ˲褷ƤʤȤäƤ褤
زˡ٤路ϡƬ˶ᤤ1.2 ѲפκǽˡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
19ʹߤλŪؤȯãȤȤˡ֤ʤѲ뤫װϲפȤ꤬ŪؤˤȤäƽפʴؿ1ĤȤʤäȾεҸءȾѷθܤޤȯŸȤȤ˿ѲƤƤѲϵŪˤϰλ˵ѲΤ餯ʣľŪˤͽΤ뤳Ȥˤ뤬ޤǤθϼȤƸѲؤθȤ夤ȤäƤ롥ʤѲװŪҲŪŪŪװ˵ᡤʸ̮¸ѲˤĤʸ̮θ椬ʸ̮ͳѲˤĤƤϳŪŪװθ椬ԤʤƤ
زˡ٤줿Τ1985ǯ줫40ǯФäǤ⡤ҤξܼŪѤäƤʤѸˤβѲγˤƤ⡤͡ʹͤƤƤΤΡּȤƸѲؤθȤ夤ȤäƤѤ꤬ʤ
丫ǤϡѲΤʤǤ⡤Ȥ櫓ѲϺǸޤΤޤޤ˻Ĥ륿פʤΤǤϤʤ餳ĤΤ롥
סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ
ظλŵ٤įƤȤѲ (language_change) Ȥδؿʬ˴ؤ͡ʵܤӹǤѲˤĤƤϻܥ֥¾͡˹ͤƤԤ10ͤ10̤θѲѤ롥ϡظλŵ٤ pp. 560--62 ˵ܤƤ롤ԻˤָѲװȤΥᥫ˥פꤹ1Ѥ롥
ѲװȤΥᥫ˥
ȤФϻήѲ³ΤǤꡤ˶٥ǤѲ˵ŤˤϤƤ֤ȤФפȤª졤оݤȤʤ롥Ȥʿ»ʸغʤ䡤ñʸȯΤʤɤСѲïܤˤ餫Ǥ롥äơޤȤФѲΤޤǤȤȯΩäƸ츽ݤƤȤפǤ롥Ĥƥ塼Ferdinand de Saussure, 185--1913ˤذ̸عֵ (Cours de linguistique générale)٤̻ (diachronic linguistics) ȶ (synchronic linguistics) ̡˸椹٤ǤȽҤ٤ΤϡޤǯʸˡɤŰ줷ˡ§õ˷پĤ餹ǤäȻפ뤬ɤʸǤ⤵ޤޤʥ٥ǾѲοʹʳˤΤǡŪԤʤǤ̻Ūʻ³뤳ȤڤǤ롥
ǤϤʤȤФѲΤǤŪװȤƤϻҶθ콬βҲŪѰۡŪװȤƤϸܿͤ롥Ҷͤζʤȯäʹʤû֤Τ˸ʸˡηϤ뤬ͤˤʤäƤϤۤɴñˤѲʤĤޤҶθ콬β˸ѲװǤȻפ롥ޤθ츽ݤवޤޤʼҲŪѰۤɤ줬ˤɤΤ褦ʷǺѤƤΤͽǤʤɤ⡤ȤΡ֥ɡפϡ֥ԲפȤιήؤȸָסֿ٤פʤɤΡ֤ȴաפ夷ƤΤ⤷ʤʬβˤϡָ콬פּҲءפθ̤ԲķȤ롥ܿˤѲϡŪܤ֤ʤɤȯѤ뤤¿Ѥˤ륳ɴ֤δĤˤäͶȯ롥ܺ٤ˤĤƤϸҤ롥
ƶ٥ǸѲβ˵ŤȤ⤢뤱ɤ⡤Ѳɴǯǯñ̤ǸˤꤤäϤäǧ롥λ庹ѻ뤿ˤϲʸԲķǤ롥ĤޤꤽΤ褦ʸäƽƸѲװȤΥᥫ˥βǽˤʤȤ롥λŪ椬ˤ礭ȯŸΤ⡤¾θ²ʤʸϿ¿¸ߤǤ롥ʸϲ٤ݼŪǤʤɡɬ줬ΤޤϿƤ櫓Ǥʤαդ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥
ûʸϤΤʤˡѲκǤפǻ̩˵ͤޤƤ롥ǽפΤ٤Ƥ夷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ̩٤϶ä٤䤬ǤͤȽǤ5ȴФ
(1) ֤ȤФѲΤޤǤȤȯΩäƸ츽ݤƤȤפǤ
(2) ֶŪԤʤǤ̻Ūʻ³뤳ȤڤǤ
(3) ֤ʤȤФѲΤǤŪװȤƤϻҶθ콬βҲŪѰۡŪװȤƤϸܿͤ
(4) ֤ʬβˤϡָ콬פּҲءפθ̤ԲķȤ
(5) ʸϲ٤ݼŪǤʤɡɬ줬ΤޤϿƤ櫓Ǥʤαդ뤳ȤɬפǤ
ԡָѲסظλŵ١ ʿԡˡīҽŹ2005ǯ560--82ǡ
ѲͼԤǤ Bybee (9) ɸˤĤ礭ͿƤ롥
A very general answer is that the words and constructions of our language change as they cycle through our minds and bodies and are passed through usage from one speaker to another.
ѲΡ֤ʤפȤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפؤ˶ᤤΤǤϤʤȹͤ뤬ˤ褳1ʸ Bybee θѲѤȤߤĤळȤǤ롥ǤСǧδפӻѴפθѲѤǤ롥
³ Bybee ϡѲˤ3Ĥηȼĥ롥Ѥˤꡤ3ιҤ
Because language is an activity that involves both cognitive access (recalling words and constructions from memory) and the motor routines of production (articulation), and because we use the same words and constructions many times over the course of a day, week, or year, these words and constructions are subject to the kinds of processes that repeated actions undergo. (9)
Another pervasive process in the human approach to the world is the formation of patterns from our experience and application of these patterns to new experiences or ideas. (10)
The other major factor in language change is the way words or patterns of language are used in context. Very often the meaning supplied by frequently occurring contexts can lead to change. Words and constructions that are used in certain contexts become associated with those contexts. (10)
1ĤǧΡưס2ĤϹ̣Ǥ (analogy)3ĤϻѴ (usage-based_model) ȸƤ褤
Bybee, Joan. Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2015.
ɸˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ⤿ӤӵƤ㤨м̤ꡥ
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
#3271. Ѳ multiple causation ƹ͡ ([2018-04-11-1])
#3355. ѲθŪװ쳰Ūװ"multiple causation" ([2018-07-04-1])
#3377. Ѳθ2ȷ3 ([2018-07-26-1])
#3842. Ѳθʣ¿ ([2019-11-03-1])
#3971. Ѳ multiple causation ƺƹ͡ ([2020-03-11-1])
ϡ⤦1 Hickey (487--88) ɲäǯ͡Ω줬Τ褯ޤȤƤ롥
2.1 Language-internal versus contact factors
In the current context language-internal change is understood as that which occurs within a speech community, among monolingual speakers, and contact-induced change as that which is induced by interfacing with speakers of a different language.
Opinions are divided on when to assume contact as the source of change. Some authors insist on the primacy of internal factors . . . and so favor these when the scales of probability are not biased in either direction for any instance of change. Other scholars view contact explanations more favorably . . . while still others would like to see a less dichotomous view of internal versus and external factors in change . . . .
The fate of explanations based on language contact has varied in recent linguistic literature. During the 1980s many linguists reacted negatively to apparently superficial contact explanations . . . . Others . . . have been consistently skeptical of contact explanations, stressing the coherent internal structure of languages and assuming by default that this is the locus of new features. This position has also been theoretically contested . . . , as it is unproven that language-internal factors take automatic precedence over contact in language change.
Another point needs to be highlighted: at best contact accounts for a phenomenon but does not explain why this should have arisen in the first place. Contact treatments tend to push sources back a step, but not to explain ultimate origins. Rather contact seeks to account for how features come about. "Account" is a more muted term and does not raise expectations of high degrees of adequacy implied by "explanation" . . . .
It would be blind to neglect the possible language-internal arguments for various features suspected of having a contact source. If internal arguments are considered and then deemed insufficient on their own, this actually strengthens the contact case, as contact is then seen as a necessary contributory factor to account fully for the appearance of features. Ultimately, contact accounts depend for acceptance on whether scholars are convinced by what they know about contact scenarios in general, specific contact in the case being discussed, possible alternative accounts and the crucial balance of internal and external factors.
Given that both language-internal and contact sources are available to speakers, it might be fair to postulate that no matter what the likelihood of transfer though contact, language internal factors can always play a role. It is the nature and rate of change which can be influenced by contact, a factor which can vary in intensity.
伫ȤϡˤĤ͡ʰոɤ߹ͤƤѲ̤ˤĤƤиŪŪװξפǤȤΩ줫ưȤϤʤ̤θѲˤĤƤС줫װ궯ѤƤȤȤϤȹͤ롥
Hickey, Raymond. "Assessing the Role of Contact in the History of English." Chapter 37 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. New York: OUP, 2012. 485--96.
rhotic ʥꥫѸפȡnon-rhotic ʥꥹѸפȤΩϤ褯ΤƤ롥Ωñ㲽ƤȤ館뤭餤ꡤºݤˤϥꥫѸ non-rhotic Ѽ⤢СꥹѸ rhotic Ѽ⤢롥ꥫѸΰǤʤ non-rhotic ȯԤʤƤ뤫ˤĤƤϹäˤꡤܺ٤Ϥޤ餫ˤƤʤ (cf. #3953. ꥫѸ non-rhotic Ѽε ([2020-02-22-1]))
⤽ non-rhotic ȯ߽ФȤˤʤä /r/ üȤѲϡʤϤޤäΤMinkova (280) ϡ/r/ ü˺ѤŪҲŪװŦĤġֻ˸경줿 <r> Ʊξü˻ߤˡʣʹ˰礤η̤Ȥơrhotic non-rhotic ξȯ¸뤳ȤˤʤäƤΤ⤯
While loss of /r/ may be described as 'natural' in a phonetic sense, it is still unclear why some communities of speakers preserved it when others did not. One reason why the change may have taken off in the first place, not usually considered in the textbook accounts, is loan phonology. In Later Old French (eleventh to fourteenth century) and Middle French (fourteenth to sixteenth century), pre-consonantal [r] was assimilated to the following consonant and thereby lost in the spoken language (it is retained in spelling to this day), producing rhymes such as sage : large, fors : clos, ferme : meesme. Thus English orthography was at odds with the functional factor of ease of articulation and with the possibly prestigious pronunciation of recent loanwords in which pre-consonantal [-r] had been lost. This may account for the considerable lag time for the diffusion and codification of [r]-loss in early Modern English. Rhotic and non-rhotic pronunciations must have coexisted for over three centuries, even in the same dialects. . . . [C]onservatism based on spelling maintained rhoticity in the Southern standard until just after the first quarter of the nineteenth century.
ǿƤե "loan phonology" ͿƤΤǤϤʤȤϡ¿ʻǤ롥
ּʡײեˤ /r/ üֻˤ <r> ݻ --- /r/ üϤʤŪҲŪװȡ˻ߤ褦ˡŪװȤĹˤ錄˰깭Ū1700ǯ鸽ߤޤǤ300ǯʾˤ錄ä rhotic non-rhotic ξȯ¸³ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
ɸˤĤƤϡ#3842. Ѳθʣ¿ ([2019-11-03-1]) ĥäεǤǤ͡ƤҤȤ Fischer et al. (31) ꡤݤȤƴϢսѤθѲˤ multiple_causation ȥɤǤ뤳Ȥʬ䤹Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The current trend in theory formation is for this multifactorial view of causality to be formulated more and more explicitly. This is true both of models that accommodate multiple language-internal causes, typically with roots in the grammaticalization literature ..., and of models that seek to combine language-internal and language-external explanations of change ....
䤬ޤǸѲ "multiple causation" ˤĤƼĥƤΤϡѤκǸˤ褦˸ŪŪι碌ǰƬˤƤΤȤäʤۤɡѤȾФˤ褦˸ŪäƤ⤽ϰǤϤʤ㪴ŪǤȤȤ "multiple" ͤ뤳ȤǤ뤷ǤаѤǿƤʤ쳰Ū "multiple" ʤϤɤΥ٥ˤƤʣŪװȤƸѲβĩȤΤΥȥɤȤäƤ褤ѲˤȤʣʸݤ뤿ˤϡ¸μưϤȤʤоݤĩȤޤޤɬפˤʤäƤƤȤ
Fischer et al. (54) ΥХμ줿1ѤƤ
Methodologically, it is most sound to give heed to and study quite a number of aspects of both an external and an internal kind, having to do with the type of contact, the socio-cultural make-up of the speech-community, and the state of the conventional internalized code that individuals in the community have developed during the period of language acquisition and beyond.
Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.
ܥ֥ǤϸѲθ (causation) ˴ؤ͡ƤäˡƤѲˤʣιäװȤơmultiple_causation θ§ĥƤȤаʲεǤ롥
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
#3271. Ѳ multiple causation ƹ͡ ([2018-04-11-1])
#3355. ѲθŪװ쳰Ūװ"multiple causation" ([2018-07-04-1])
#3377. Ѳθ2ȷ3 ([2018-07-26-1])
Ѳˤ餺ˤƤ⸶ȷ̤δطõΤ̴طȤʣ¿ͤʤΤۤȤɤξ硤ץ1Ĥ櫓ǤϤʤˤĤơڤΥ롼֥å٤路ȥ (90--91) ˤϤΤʸϤɤǤߤ褦̴ְطʣפȤʸϤʸ˵ϰʲDzˤƤˡ
ʡ뺧Ƥʤͤ¿뺧Ƥ뤬ʡǤʤͤ¿Ȥäơ̤뺧Ϲʡ˱ƶʤȤȤǤϤʤʡԹʤơ뺧ȿȤˤˤϸΤĤشط٤ƤǤϤʤˤʤΤϡ줾θ٤ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
E1 E2 θǤȼĥȤE1 E2 ʤ礬뤳ȡ뤤̤θ E2 礬뤳ȤϡɬȿȤϤʤ E1 ФФ뤤ϰ̤ E2 ȼĥƤĤޤꡤ¾θϤۤɰŪǤϤʤ뤤 E1 E2 פʸΰǤꡤΤ餹ʣθꡤ¾ˤפʸ뤫⤷ʤȤ櫓ˤϥХܤۤʤΤ٤ˤʤͤ⤤СȢۤĤŤƤµȤ̵οͤ⤤롥ξԤȤŪˤ϶̣뤷פˤХ٤θʤΤѤ̻¤
ΰۤʤ븶ޤäƱƶڤܤƤ롥ȤСϵ岹ȲˤϤޤޤʸꡤΰˤۤγưѲʤɼŪʤΤ⤢뤬Ȥäƿʹ֤ǤϤʤȤϤʤ٤⤤̴طʣʤΤ¿¿ͤװƯƤʤĤΤȤۤγưޤȲ˰äƤΤʤСϿʹֳưڤܤƤƶ뤵ʤ뺬Ȥʤˡ
ȷ̤Ͻ۴ŤˤΤ⤷ʤDzҤΩ¤⤿餹⤷ʤդ¤ΤDzԤϤ⤽Ωᡤ줬ʤ¤⤿餹Ȥ롼ˤʤäƤ櫓꼫ͳʳư뤬椨¤Ωξ뤳Ȥ⤢ȤƤ⤹Ф餷ǥäƤҤꤿʤȤȤ⤢Ȥۤɤ褦ˡ̴طʣ
ѲθθݤζȤ
ȥˡˡ ҡˡڤΥ롼֥å5ǡ˼Ҥطʸˡӡ2019ǯ
ѲϸŪŪޤװȤ߹碌ˤäȤ "multiple causation" θ§ˤĤơʲεޤƽǼĥƤ
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
#3271. Ѳ multiple causation ƹ͡ ([2018-04-11-1])
Ѳ路 Aitchison ƱΩǤꡤεǤϢսѡȤƤ⤦1 Aitchison (202) ꥨåȤ⤤٤ʸϤ
Change is likely to be triggered by social factors, such as fashion, foreign influence and social need. However, these factors cannot take effect unless the language is 'ready' for a particular change. They simply make use of inherent tendencies which reside in the physical and mental make-up of human beings. Causality needs therefore to be explored on a number of different levels. The immediate trigger must be looked at alongside the underlying propensities of the language concerned, and of human languages in general.
A language never allows disruptive changes to destroy the system. In response to disruptions, therapeutic changes are likely to intervene and restore the broken patterns --- though in certain circumstances therapeutic changes can themselves cause further disruptions by setting off a change of changes which may last for centuries.
Above all, anyone who attempts to study the causes of language change must be aware of the multiplicity of factors involved. It is essential to realize that language is both a social and a mental phenomenon in which sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic factors are likely to be inextricably entwined. 'Nothing is simple' might be a useful motto for historical linguists to hang in their studies . . . .
ѺǸˤ褦ˡȤϼҲŪӿŪʡήɤؤȲƤ褤ˤװ̩ܤ߹äҲŪĿŪʸݤǤ롥ؤϡξܤۤʤФʤʤ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
Aitchison (175--76) ߤ뼫ǽ (systemic_regulation) 夲ĤġˡüԤդȤƤ롥ξǡȤβλˤ3ब̤ȽҤ١⤷Ƥ롥
[L]anguage has a remarkable instinct for self-preservation. It contains inbuilt self-regulating devices which restore broken patterns and prevent disintegration. More accurately, of course, it is the speakers of the language who perform these adjustments in response to some innate need to structure the information they have to remember.
In a sense, language can be regarded as a garden, and its speakers as gardeners who keep the garden in a good state. How do they do this? There are at least three possible versions of this garden metaphor---a strong version, a medium version, and a weak version.
In the strong version, the gardeners tackle problems before they arise. They are so knowledgeable about potential problems that they are able to forestall them. They might, for example, put weedkiller on the grass before any weeds spring up and spoil the beauty of the lawn. In other words, they practice prophylaxis.
In the medium version, the gardeners nip problems in the bud, as it were. They wait until they occur, but then deal with them before they get out of hand like the Little Prince in Saint-Exupéry's fairy story, who goes round his small planet every morning rooting out baobab trees when they are still seedlings, before they can do any real damage.
In the weak version of the garden metaphor, the gardener acts only when disaster has struck, when the garden is in danger of becoming a jungle, like the lazy man, mentioned by the Little Prince, who failed to root out three baobabs when they were still a manageable size, and faced a disaster on his planet.
³ʸ̮ Aitchison ϡȤڵϸĤäƤʤȤ⤭ºݤ˼ϡ֤Υȼ夤2ĤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤդϡװͽɤˤޤǤϴؤʤβ꤬ŦǤȤȤϤ뤷뤤ޤɤޤ줿缣ŤܤȤȤ⤹롥üԡʤƸˤϡͽɰؤǤϤʤоˡȤդǤ롤ȤƤ褤⤷ʤ
ѲΡͽɡפȡּšפȤˤĤƤϡ#837. Ѳˤ therapy or pathogeny ([2011-08-12-1])#835. ǽŪʸѲѤؤȽ ([2011-08-10-1])#546. ѲϸĿͤδ˾̤˿ʤޤʤ ([2010-10-25-1])#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1])#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1])#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
ε#3312. ˤؤɽء ([2018-05-22-1]) ǡΡִءפǤȤơʸˡøäѲ®٤ͻݤˡͻоݤؤˤѲ˸ꤹʤС̤˻夬ۤ®٤ߤʤȤȤϤ뤫⤷ʤܸˤλ𤫤ާơ¼ (14--15) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
̤˶岽οʤҲǤϡ̤ʳŪװʤ¤ꡤѲϡ䤽˶ᤤˤߤɮԤϹͤƤ롥ʤǤϽդΡʸΡڤʤǤ뤫Ǥ롥
Ǥ˽Ҥ٤褦ˡäդäִ֤˾äƤޤդȤɤʤʤäդμҲǤϡؤʤɤΰ֤Ǥʤ¤ꡤθդĤʤդ֤뤳ȤԲǽʤΤǤ롥ФơդĹˤ錄äƻ¸롥³뤳ȤˤäƼʸΤΤΤǤäƤ֤ⷫɮԤʤСäդѲȤɤϤȤƯܼҲǤ⡤϶϶ɤ߽ǽϤڤƤ˰㤤ʤǡ˶ᤤҲδؤˤѲ˳ΤǤ롥٤ʸѲϤ˶ᤤˤƤ⤿Ƥ뤷ޤϤդĤȤɤʤ顤ϰϰ礭ѰۤȤȤ⡤礤ˤꤦ롥
夬ˤĤơؤˤѲ˳ʤȤϡ֤2ʳ餤ΥåȤ狼䤹Ĥޤꡤ̤˻夬ˤĤƼΨ夬롤Ψ夬ˤĤƸεϰռġεϰռĤˤĤäդѲ롤ȤȤȤʸѤǤ⼨ƤȤꡤɸѼˤĤƤǤ롥ɸѼˤƱΩĤΤϤ狼ʤͻоݤؤǤʤɽؤޤǹȤɤʤΤ⸡ƤƤߤɬפ롥
Ѳ® (speed_of_change) 䵬ϼ (prescriptivism) Ѳ٤餻ȤˤĤƤϡʲޤ¿εǼ夲ƤΤǡȤmonitoring γƵ⻲ȡ
#386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 ([2010-05-18-1])
#430. Ѳ˳װ ([2010-07-01-1])
#622. ѸʸˡѲŪʸŪ ([2011-01-09-1])
#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1])
#795. ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® ([2011-07-01-1])
#1430. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ (2) ([2013-03-27-1])
#1874. ٸθݼ ([2014-06-14-1])
#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1])
#2631. Curzan ۩ָǤꡤϼɤǤס ([2016-07-10-1])
#2641. Ѳ®٤ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2016-07-20-1])
#2670. դݼˤĤơ ([2016-08-18-1])
#2756. ɤ߽ǽϤϸѲ®٤ˤ뤫 ([2016-11-12-1])
#3002. ѸˤѸǻߤޤäƤޤäΤ褦˸ͳ (3) ([2017-07-16-1])
¼ ˡäդܻˡ١ʸۡ2011ǯ
ɸˤĤƤϡʲεϤȤƲ٤ƤθѲؤδؿΥˤǤ롥
#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ܳŪ˹ Hopper and Traugott (213) ˡؤθڤ롥
. . . distinctions are often made in historical work between "internal" and "external" factors in change. Roughly speaking, "internal" change is associated with child language acquisition in a relatively homogeneous speech community, and "external" change with contact, whether with communities speaking dialects of the "same language" or other languages. This distinction is essentially similar to the contrast regarding the locus of change between mind/brain and grammar (= "internal") and social interaction and use (= "external"). . . . [S]uch a polarization obscures the realities of language change, in which structure and use, cognitive and social factors continually interact: "speakers' mutual accommodations can draw materials from either the same linguistic system or separate ones" (Mufwene 2001: 15). This is nowhere clearer than in pidgin and creole situations, where the notion of "homogeneous speech community" is typically not appropriate, and where, as we will see, second language acquisition plays a significant role in structural innovation.
ѲǤŪװȳŪװʬ뤬ζΤǤϤʤˤξԤȤ߹蘆äƸѲʤळȤ¿ȤޤäȤʸȻפ¿θѲˤϡmultiple causation ͿƤ롥
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Mufwene, Salikoko S. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
#2867. Ѳζɬ ([2017-03-03-1]) 嵴¤Ρض٤ɤǡƤˤĤƹͤƤߤ
ɬ餫Ω복ǰǤ롥䤿ϤȤˡֶɬפɬŪפʤɤΥˤ롥ʤΤ褦̷⤷ɽǽʤΤ
嵴 (74) ˤСŪɬŪŪϷӤĤ䤹ŪŪŪɬϷӤĤ䤹Ĥޤְۼפ䤹Ȥ
褽ѤϤŰ줷ˤƤϰŪɬΤߤǧʤäưŪ¸ߤ;ϤϤʤŪŪɬꤷη̤ȤơŪŪǧ롥ʳŪѤϤηɽƤ롥ȿơŪѤŰŪʷäˤϡŪŪɬˤäƤΤ߰ڤ褦Ȥ롥äŪŪ¸ߤʤˡŪɬη̤ȤơŪ¸ߤ뤳ȤǤ롥Ķؤΰջ֤ˤäƤ٤Ƥ硤Ụ̄ؤ¸ߤǧΤϤδط˴𤤤Ƥ롥ΰ̣ˤơŪɬŪŪȷ礷䤹ŪŪɬϰŪȷ礷䤹ֶɬפȤ褦ʵŪθϤβǽ˴ŤΤǤ롥
Ĥޤꡤ븽ݤɬǤ⤢Ǥ⤢פȤ1Ĥβϡ줬ŪˤɬŪŪˤ϶ǤȤȤΰۼβϡŪ (teleology) ǤϤʤ (mechanism) ΩβǤ롥äơŪСѲޤɬǤ⤢Ǥ⤢ݤʤΤǤ롥
ΰۼȴϢơ嵴 (244) ̤βսǡֶȱ̿פˤĤͤƤʰʲ˵ϲ֤ˡ
ФŪðۤ̿Фðۤη뤳Ȥ롥ʹ֤μ¸ˤȤäƳ˿ŪͳỤ̄ͭĤȤϱ̿ȸƤФΤǤ롥Ʊ̿ȤƤζϡɬȤΰۼˤäơɬԡפι¤ĶŪϤäƸȤƿʹ֤¸פΤǤ롥
ιͤˤС̿ȤϡͤˤȤäơֳ˿ŪͳỤ̄פġŪˤɬŪŪˤ϶Ǥ븽ݤǤʿСͤˤȤäƤƽפʷ̤⤿餵줿硤ŪŪ˶ǤäȤƤ⡤ŪŪɬǤ뤫Τ褦ˤȤ館Ƥޤꡤ̿ȸƤӤȤȤ
ѲˤơȤ˱̿ɽ뤳Ȥ⤢ drift ήˤˤĤơδͤƤߤȤ⤷²ǤϿǯδ֡ޤοȤ drift ³ƤȤ뤬ζưϤθǤ뤫ˤĤƤΤʽФƤʤäơα̿ǤȤȤ館Ԥ롥Τ褦Ԥϡdrift ²ˤȤäơֳ˿ŪͳỤ̄פĤΤȿƤꡤ椨ŪŪɬθݤǤ뤫Τ褦˴ơ̿ȸƤǤΤǤϤʤĤޤꡤdrift Ȥݤ¿ʲͤƤ뤫餳ҤäȤȶνˤʤΤ̿ȤĤ̾ǡðۤäƸƤӤʤΤǤϤʤ
Ѳζɬ̿ˤĤƤϡinvisible_hand spaghetti_junction ιͤ⻲Ȥ줿
嵴 ¤ض١ȽŹ2012ǯ
#3176. ȤưŪʿˤ륷ƥफ (1) ([2018-01-06-1])#3177. ȤưŪʿˤ륷ƥफ (2) ([2018-01-07-1]) εǡưŪʿ (dynamic_equilibrium) ιͤȤƥ˱ѤǤ뤫ȤˤĤ
ʡοǤϡưŪʿդʪʳؤα㤬¿Ƥ㤨СưŪʿȿפưŪʿշݽפʤɡˡưŪʿշݽפꤹ륨åˤơʡ (170--71) ϰȤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥Ѳΰ̴ط (causation) ǼŪǤ롥
ΤǤϡߤϢؤ٤Ƥ¿δطǷҤꤢäƤ롥Ĥޤˤ⡤Τˤ衤ʬϤʤʬȸƤӡʬȤڤФΤʤΤҤϡߤ¾Χ뤤䤷Ƥ롥ΤȤˤϡִ֤ªƤߤȡȼ꤬褦˸롥ʬνִ֤ȡȷ̤ϵžƤ롥뤤ϡޤ̤ʿդưƤ롥Ĥޤꡤˤϡΰ̣ǰ̴طȸƤ֤٤Τޤ¸ߤʤʬʤȤˤϤ狼ʤʬƤ狼ʤΤǤ롥䤿ϳΤ˺ѥࡦեȤɬפʤΤμ꤬ϤɤˤΤ
ʡưŪʿˤƤϡ̿ɮƬȤưŪʿդˤ륷ƥˤȤäơ֤ܼŪʥѥǤ롥֤ΤʤDzƯ³Ƥ뤫餳ǽݤäƤȤͤäơǤϥѥȤץŻ뤵뤳Ȥˤʤ롥֤ǤϤʤư֤֡ǤϤʤ̻֤νŻȤ
塼θؤˤƤ⡤ѥ֤֡餫ˤ뤳Ȥ饨ͥ륮䤵Ƥǡץư̻֤֡θϤʤˤƤȤäƤ褤ԤԤȤˤȤäƤϡؤˤѥࡦեȤɬפΤ褦˻פ롥ȤϤʬʤȤˤϤ狼ʤʬƤ狼ʤפȤȤΰ̣Ǥ롥ѥࡦեȤȤäƤǤ롥
ʡ 졡ưŪʿ3Ͻ줿ˤΤ߹ߤΩġ١ڳڼҡ2017ǯ
#3162. Ű ([2017-12-23-1]) #3172. 饤ҥ㡼ηŪȯۤϥǤϤʤʸؤ ([2018-01-02-1]) ǻȤƤˤСʹ֤ιԤʤʪʬˡϡʬ͡ (group thinking) ȡַ͡ (tree thinking) ̤ȤȤʬहȽļηطȤʬहΤ (107) Ϥ줾˴ŤʳؤʬʳءפȡָŰʳءפȸƤӡξԤΤ褦оȤƤ롥
| ʬʳ | ʬ | ե | 硿 | ǧΥƥ |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Űʳ | | ȥ˥ߡ | Ρʬ | ˡʥ֥ |
| ǰŪ | Ū | |
|---|---|---|
| ηϳ (Systematik) | (Phylogenetik) | |
| (Formverwandtschaft) | ط (Blutsverwandtschaft) | |
| (Metamorphose) | ȯ (Stammesentwicklung) | |
| ηϳŪʳ (systematischen Stufenreihen) | (Ahnenreihen) | |
| (Typus) | (Stammform) | |
| (typischen Zuständen) | Ū (ursprüngliche Zuständen) | |
| Ū (atypischen Zuständen) | Ū (abgeänderte Zuständen) |
| ʬʳ | Űʳ |
|---|---|
| ¤ (structural linguistics) | Ӹ (comparative linguistics) |
| (typology) | ˸ (historical linguistics) |
| (linguistic area) | ² (language family) |
| ܿ (contact, borrowing) | (inheritance) |
| (space) | (time) |
| (synchrony) | ̻ (diachrony) |
| ط (paradigm) | Ϣط (syntagm) |
| ѥ (pattern) | ץ (process) |
| ???? (variation) | ???? (change) |
| (type) | ȡ (token) |
| ե (metaphor) | ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) |
| How | Why |
ʲͤƴĤȤƹ⤯Ǥ뤿ˤϡ䤿ʬͤйϤĤ⤦ĤλȤȤƥԡ뤹ɬפ롥ȤСܤˤΤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡƤΤʻװˤ˴ؤ뵿ϼºݤ̿ץʬʪؤؤȤߤʤ롥ФơΤ֤ʤפΤ褦ˤäΤʵװˤ˴ؤ뵿ϿʲʪؤȤ٤
ѲΡ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפȡ֤ʤפ (how_and_why) ˤĤƤϡ#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1])#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1])#2642. ѲμȻȤߤν̡ ([2016-07-21-1])#3133. Ѳ "how" "why" ([2017-11-24-1]) ǰäƤʪؤθˤ꿷ȯۤ줿롥
ؿʲͤҥȤϿݤɤηϲ뤫١NHKǡ2010ǯ
1220դǡѸϢָܴѸѸˤλͤ12ε֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡޤ
κǸǤϡɸε֤ʤѸ϶Ż뷿Ż뷿θؤڤؤꡤκݤˤʤܸSVOȤ줿ΤפȤؤȥѥե졼ޤȾǤϤ褤褳䤤ܳŪޤڤɤ褦5W1HΥߥƥΩƤäŸޤ
Ѳˤ餺˸ݤεˤ䤤 Why Ǥεˤ˶Ťˤϡˤʳ4W1Hä겡ڵѤ߾夲ƤɬפޤξǡŪ Why ؤβƤȤǤϡαʸˡ˾ǤŪѲ1ĤλȸΩơ5W1H˥ߥƥΩƤꤿȻפޤ
ϢܵŸϲǤͭϤʲǤϤޤ˾λǤŪ뤳ȤϤۤԲǽȸ虜ޤϺε˸¤ޤѲݤˡ¤褯Ĵ١λ¤ȿʤǰ̴طΥȡȤΩƤ뤳ȤϲǽǤ⡤λߤ1ĤȤƤФȻפޤʲϢܵΰѤǤ
ѲϷ褷ƶ櫓ǤϤʤȤ狼äȻפޤѲظˤϸŪŪʽװʣŪ˺ѤƤꡤΤˤΰĤҤȤĤͤߤ뤳ȤΤǤWhat, When, Where, Who, How ¤ɤƤСǸˤϵˤ䤤 Why ˤ᤹ܶ뤳ȤǤΤǤ
ϢܵȤƤϺǽȤʤޤ줫ܥ֥䤽¾ΤǡѸѤʵˤäƤȻפޤΤǡȤꤤ夲ޤ
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1]) ۤ¿εǿƤƸѲ "multiple causation" θ§ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤThomason ϡܿ˴ؤϥɥ֥åεΤʤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . a growing body of evidence suggests that multiple causation --- often a combination of an external and one or more internal causes --- is responsible for a sizable number of changes. (32)
The search for internal and external causation should proceed in parallel, because of the strong possibility, an actuality in many cases, that both internal and external causes influenced the linguistic outcome of change. (46)
ǡThomason ϸˤ⡤Ȥ "multiple causation" Ȥˤ衤ѲεˤΡ֤ʤפ뤳ȤԲǽǤƤ롥ϤäսʤΤǡΤޤްѤ롥
. . . in spite of dramatic progress toward explaining linguistic changes made in recent decades by historical linguists, variationists, and experimental linguists, it remains true that we have no adequate explanation for the vast majority of all linguistic changes that have been discovered. Worse, it may reasonably be said that we have no full explanation for any linguistic change, or for the emergence and spread of any linguistic variant. The reason is that, although it is often easy to find a motivation for an innovation, the combinations of social and linguistic factors that favor the success of one innovation and the failure of another are so complex that we can never (in my opinion) hope to achieve deterministic predictions in this area. Tendencies, yes; probabilities, yes; but we still won't know why an innovation that becomes part of one language fails to establish itself in another language (or dialect) under apparently parallel circumstances. there is an element of chance in many or most changes; and there is an element of more or less conscious choice in many changes. Even if we could pin down macro- and micro-social features and detailed linguistic features to a precise account (which we cannot), accident and the possibility of deliberate change would derail our efforts to make strong predictions. This assessment should not be taken as a defeatist stance, or discourage efforts to find causes of change: recent advances in establishing causes of changes after they have occurred and in tracking the spread of innovations through a speech community have produced notable successes. More successes will surely follow; seeking causes of change is a lively and fruitful area of research. But the realistic goal is a deeper understanding of processes of change, not an ultimate means of predicting change. (32--33)
ޤäƱǤ롥Ѳ˴ؤˤ Why 뤳ȤԲǽ How ФȤϲǽǤ Why ˶ŤƤϤϤ٤Ǥcf. #3026. ˤˤ How Why ([2017-08-09-1])ˡϢ Thomason ν긫ϡʲεǤƤΤǻͤޤǤˡ
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#2113. ʸˡѤξ ([2015-02-08-1])
ˡ#2589. ѲưΤϷǽ (2) ([2016-05-29-1]) Ǥ "multiple causation of language change" Ż뤹٤Ȥ˿ƤΤǡεȤŽäεɤ
Thomason, Sarah. "Contact Explanations in Linguistics." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 31--47.
Ѳ "why" ϡ˸ؤˤƵˤ䤤Ǥ롥˾ǤŤˤϡ¾4W1H䤤ؤ¤Ѥ߽ŤͤƤۤʤǤ "why" ˴ˤɤ夯ΤϤۤȤԲǽǤꡤ "how" 餫ˤΤؤλǤ롥 "how" Ǥ顤ΰФʤȤ¿
ܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ѳ how_and_why ˤĤƤϡ#784. ˸ؤ abductive discipline ([2011-06-20-1])#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1])#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1]) ʤɤǰäƤ
ε#3130. ʣϸء ([2017-11-21-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Kretzschmar (251--52) ϡʣϤѤƸѲʶŪˤϥꥫѸνѼȤˤ뤳Ȥˤꡤ"why" 䤤ˤʤȤƤ⡤"how" 䤤ФƤͭͿ뤳ȤǤȼƤ롥
We cannot answer the question "why" American English is as it is --- there is never a good answer to the "why" question in linguistics --- but it is now possible to address more adequately the question "how" it came to be as it is.
Kretzschmar θոˤȡ츽ݤŪ褦Ȥݤ䤤 "why" ǡ̻ŪŪ褦Ȥݤ䤤 "how" Ǥ褦ˤⴶ롥뤤ϡѲθ䤦Τ "why" ǡѲη䤦Τ "how" ǤȽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˤʹ롥
Ԥˤä "how" "why" ȤˤäƲؤΤϤ˰ۤʤȤȤǧǡѲ how_and_why ˤ³Ƥ
Kretzschmar, William A., Jr. "Complex Systems in the History of American English." Chapter 4 of Developments in English: Expanding Electronic Evidence. Ed. Irma Taavitsainen, Merja Kytö, Claudia Claridge, and Jeremy Smith. Cambridge, 2015. 251--64.
˸ؤϸѲʬʤѲΤȤ (causation) õ椹ȤĤߤˤĤƤ͡Ω줬롥ܥ֥ǤѲ (language_change) Ρָסװסֶưϡפ͡Ƥ֤ʤפФϤ⤽¸ߤΤȤǰˤĤޤȤäƤ롥Ϳ줿餷ΤϡѲΡ֤ʤ (Why?) ФǤϤʤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡ (How?) ФˤʤΤǤϤʤȡѲ How Why ˤĤƤϡ#2123. Ѳڤ ([2015-02-18-1]) ȡ#2255. Ѳθɵ椹ͤˤĤơ ([2015-06-30-1]) ̡䤤Ǥ뤫Τ褦˰äƤ2Ĥ䤤ϤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤ
ϢȤƤ Harari (265--66) ϡ˳ؤΩ줫餳ƤꡤWhy Ф How ν⤤Ƥ롥
What is the difference between describing 'how' and explaining 'why'? To describe 'how' means to reconstruct the series of specific events that led from one point to another. To explain 'why' means to find causal connections that account for the occurrence of this particular series of events to the exclusion of all others.
Some scholars do indeed provide deterministic explanations of events such as the rise of Christianity. They attempt to reduce human history to the workings of biological, ecological or economic forces. They argue that there was something about the geography, genetics or economy of the Roman Mediterranean that made the rise of a monotheist religion inevitable. Yet most historians tend to be sceptical of such deterministic theories. This is one of the distinguishing marks of history as an academic discipline --- the better you know a particular historical period, the harder it becomes to explain why things happened one way and not another. Those who have only a superficial knowledge of a certain period tend to focus only on the possibility that was eventually realised. They offer a just-so story to explain with hindsight why that outcome was inevitable. Those more deeply informed about the period are much more cognisant of the roads not taken.
Ǥϡˤ Why ǤϤʤ How ƧߤȤɤޤʤ˳ؤȤϲΤˤΤHarari (48) ϲΤ뼡Τ褦ʸդǸڤ롥
So why study history? Unlike physics or economics, history is not a means for making accurate predictions. We study history not to know the future but to widen our horizons, to understand that our present situation is neither natural nor inevitable, and that we consequently have many more possibilities before us than we imagine. For example, studying how Europeans came to dominate Africans enables us to realise that there is nothing natural or inevitable about the racial hierarchy, and that the world might well be arranged differently.
̤ͽ¬˳ؤŪǤϤʤƱ褦ˡѲ˸ؤ⡤̤ͽ¬ŪȤƤʤ
ͽ¬ǽˤĤƤϡ#843. Ѳͽκ ([2011-08-18-1])#844. Ѳͽۤ뤳Ȥϴݤ ([2011-08-19-1])#1019. Ѳͽ¬ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2012-02-10-1])#2154. Ѳͽ¬Բǽ ([2015-03-21-1])#2273. Ѳͽ¬ǽˤĤƺơ͡ ([2015-07-18-1]) ϤȤ (prediction_of_language_change) εȤ줿
Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. 2011. London: Harvill Secker, 2014.
ʵڤӤΩȤƤɬˤȤϲȤ䤤ůؾѲθõݤˤ̤櫓ˤϤʤ׳ؼԡΨԤǤˤֶפ˴ؤ뿷ɤǤߤ
ϡֶɬŪʪ (139) ȤɽƤ褦ˡɬΩ복ǰȤϡषȤ߹蘆äƸݤϢ³ŪưǤȹͤƤ롥㤨СʪʲˤĤơѰۤεˤϤʤΰϤΤȤǡѤ߽ŤͤˤפȽҤ٤Ƥ (138) ѰۼΤϤޤǡֶפζθΤäΤˤäơΰ褬ޤꡤ褬ФΨޤ롥Τ褦˲⤫ʤǤˡǽŪˤ褬1Ĥ˹ʤ졤Ψ1ʤɬפȤʤ롥ʤֶפȯʤ⡤ˡפʤ졤ĤˤϡɬפؤϢʤ롤Ȥ櫓
̤ȹ̤2ĤλԤͤƤߤ褦ޤ1λԡˤƱ̤ȹ̤äƤȤ롥̵٤1ĤФ̤̤Ͽ᤹ȤȤ֤줫ζ̤ФΨϡˡ§ˤ1/2Ȥʤ뤳ȤϼǤ롥Ǥϼ2λԡǤϡ̵٤1ļФˡƱΤ⤦1Ĥζ̤ä᤹ȤȤ֤Ƥߤ롥ǽμФǤοФ뤫γΨ1/2㤨Фޤ̤ФȤơ᤹ݤˤϡ⤦1Ĥ̤ä᤹ΤǡμФ˺ݤƤγΨηϡ̤ͭʼؤѤμ㴳ͭ椨˼ºݤ˼β̤ФȤȡμβˤϤ̤ͭȤʤŤͤ뤴Ȥ̤ͭǽŪˤ̤ФΨϸ¤ʤ1˶ŤƤϤǤ롥ǽ϶äΤǸˤϤۤɬȤʤäƤޤǤ롥
2ĤλԤ顤Ѥˡ2ढ뤳Ȥʬ롥1ܤǤϤĤޤǤäƤ1/2ȤΨѤ餺ष㲽ƤΤ褦Сȥԡ硤뤤Ͼ̤θǤ롥2ܤϡǽζˤˤФäƤǽŪɬ˶ŤƤϡȥԡθ뤤Ͼ̤Ȥ (74) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Τʶ̤ˤơ֥ȥԡˡ§פȡ־ˡ§פȤƯƤȻפĤޤꡤˤɬȤʤȤΤ¸ߤƶˤˡ§Ω褦ʡ˸¤ˤƴʰ⤿餹ΤΤȡѤ뤳ȤˤäƾȤƯδĶβǿФ褦ʤΤȤब롥Ԥζϥȥԡ⤿餹ԤϾ̤⤿餹ΤǤ롥ܤС˺Ф줿ƥˤäª뤳Ȥˤäơꤷݻ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ롥
븽ݤǤ⤢ɬǤ⤢ȤΤϰ츫̷⤷Ƥ뤬Τ褦˹ͤĴ¤롥θϡѲˤ¿μͿƤ롥㤨СѲ˴ؤˡunidirectionality invisible_hand spaghetti_junction ȸƤФ벾⤬ʡ#2531. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" ([2016-04-01-1])#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) ([2016-04-03-1])#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ʤɤȡˡޤˤ륨ȥԡˤĤƤ entropy γƵǰäƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
ضȤϲѶỤ̄١ȽŹҴȿӡ2010ǯ
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