ε#6158. Powell ˤʸʬ ([2026-03-07-1]) ǻȡѤ Powell ϡʸˤˤž3ĤäȵƤ롥ʸʬ⤷ľˡʸϤ³ (51--52)
Although this is a structural description, it is also a rough outline of the history of writing, understood as a technology that underwent broad and radical changes over millennia and came to serve ever more efficient and complex forms of communication and thought. The major changes were three.
First was the discovery of the phonetic principle, the representation of the sounds of speech by graphic means. This discovery appears to have been applied three times in a more or less systematic way: in southern Mesopotamia, in China, and in Mesoamerica. But all these systems are only partly phonetic.
The second major discovery was of a wholly phonetic writing. We cannot date the discovery, but perhaps as early as 1800 BC in the Near East and rather earlier in Crete, c.2100 BC (for the earliest "Cretan hieroglyphs"). While such writings are wholly phonetic, that is, most signs refer to sound and are not meaningful, they still cannot be pronounced except by a native speaker. Wholly phonetic writings made possible an immense constriction in the number of signs over the earlier logosyllabaries (made up of logograms and syllabograms) by focusing on a single semantic aspect of communication, namely sounds of the human voice speaking some "language." This advantageous constriction was gained at the loss of clarity provided by the many semantic nonphonetic elements of the earlier logosyllabaries.
The third major shift was the invention of the Greek alphabet around 800 BC, a system that atomized the sounds of human speech, utilized symbols for these sounds, and made possible the approximate reconstruction of the sound of human speech, even by someone who does not speak the language.
In studying the history of writing we must remember that a continuity of forms can mask an extreme shift in inner structure, while two sets of completely differing forms can function in the same way.
1Ĥνפʶ̤ϡɽΤΤȯס2Ĥϡִɽʸȯס3ĤϡֲʸδѤȯפƤƤ褤Powell ʸʸѤƶƤ롥ʸηкѹ¦̤ΤߤܤƤ褦˸롥
2Ρִɽʸȯפζ̤ˤĤơǤΥե٥åȤȯǤʤᤤʳǤΥ쥿ΥҥդˤڤƤΤϱԤ
Powell, Barry B. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

嵭ϡPowell ʸܤ礭Ƥ "THE CATEGORIES OF WRITING" Ǥ롥ʸʬ1Ĥιͤʬβϡp. 52 ˤޤȤƤ롥
1 Semasiography: Writing in which the signs are not attached to necessary forms of speech. Sematograms, the elements of semasiography, may be arranged in any conventional way.
2 Lexigoraphy: Writing in which the signs are attached to necessary forms of speech. They are (usually) arranged in a linear sequence corresponding to sounds in speech. There are two divisions.
(i) Logography: the signs represent words (but not sounds), significant segments of speech. A logography would be a system in which logograms, the elements of logography, predominate (sometimes logograms do not follow the same order as words in speech).
(ii) Phonography: the signs represent sounds. Such sounds are ordinarily nonsignificant elements of speech. There are two kinds of phonographic systems.
Syllabography: the signs represent syllables, the smallest apprehensible elements of speech. A Syllabography would be a system in which syllabograms predominate.
Alphabetic writing: the signs represent elements of speech smaller than syllables, although such sounds do not exist in nature as separable elements of speech. In alphabetic writing letters predominate.
ǸΥե٥åȡñʸˤβˤơñʤɤȤñ̤ϼˤ¸ߤʤΤפȤ˥ϥäȤ줿ñʸפȤϡֲʸפªۤ褤Τ (phoneme) Ͽʹ֤ˤݲλʪǤꡤʸƤȤȤˡե٥åȤκθŪʰյȲͤΤȻפ
Powell, Barry B. Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
ܥ֥Ǥ doubt <b> sign <g> ʤɤˤȤۻ (silent_letter) ȤѸΤ褦˻ȤäƤʬ䤹ѸǤ롥ŬʤΤѸǤȤơѤʤֻԤ⤤롥
ѸΤɤ꤬ΤõäƤȻפΤޤ Carney "2.6.5 Auxiliary, inert and empty letters" ꤹƬȤϤ (40)
All letters are 'silent', but some are more silent than others
Opinions are sharply divided on whether to allow the use of 'silent letters' in a description of English orthography so as to cater for spellings such as the <b> in debt, doubt. If we are to find our way in this controversy, we clearly need to clarify our terminology. The term 'silent letters' is an extension of a metaphor commonly used in the teaching of reading, where letters are often supposed to 'speak' to the reader. When a simple vowel letter, as the <a> in latent has its long value /eɪ/, 'the vowel says its name'. A commonly-used classroom rule for reading vowel digraphs, such as <oa>, <ea>, is: 'when two vowels go walking, it's the first that does the talking' --- a comment on the greater phonetic transparency of the first element in a complex graphic unit. But, as Albrow (1972: 11) pints out, all letters are silent: 'the sounds are not written and the symbols are not sounded; the two media are presented as parallel to each other'. He suggests the term 'dummy letters' for letters with no direct phonetic counterpart but, as far as possible, tries to do without them in his analysis.
Albrow θʬϡʸȯʤ椨ˤ٤ƤʸۻפȤȤϤΥ硼Τ褦ˤʹ뤬ΡʸȯפȤǰեɽʸǤ륢ե٥åȤȤʸȤԤο˿߹ޤƤ뤳ȤƤȤϡ¤϶ˤƽפǤ롥ȤΤϡʸֻεäƤϡȯʸäդȽդ§ȤưۤʤǥǤ뤳ȤǧƤɬפ뤫ξǥϡѼԤ͡ˡǸߤϢ礪ȤƤΤϻ¤ܼŪ˰ۤʤ2ĤΥǥؤ餻褦ȤĤߤʤΤǤꡤˤޤԤ櫓ǤϤʤषбطޤԤʤΤȤΩ줫饹ȤƤߤۤͭפ⤷ʤΤ
silent letter ȤѸˤĤƤϡͤ³Ƥ
Carney, Edward. A Survey of English Spelling. Abingdon: Routledge, 1994.
Albrow, K.H. The English Writing System: Notes toward a Description. London: Longman, 1972.

1228Τˡμͭץåȥե mond ƤX 礭ȿƤǤޤդǥץå100ĶīޤǤ358ãƤޤѸʸκ˴ؤʸǡ츫̣ʥơޤǤ夬äƤޤäȤȤˡʬؤŪʴؿι⤵Ƽ´Ƥޤ
ȤʤäƤΤϡmond ˴줿1ĤμǤܸǤϡʹƲʬäɽʬʤ硤Ȥꤢ̾ǽȤˡȤ뤳ȤǤޤѸǤ֤꤬ʬʤȤ⤽ƻĤȤǤޤʬ뤬֤꤬ʬʤȤϡɤн褷ƤΤǤȤ䤤Ǥ
Фǡϡ֥ե٥åȤ̾Τ褦˻ȤФפȤȡֱѸΥڥϴΤ褦ʤΤפȤŸޤ
βФ X Υץ饤̤˳ȯʵ蘆ƤޤȿƤƵŤ줿ΤϡΡ䤤Τ˹¿ŪǤȤǤʸǤϡŪˤɤξ̤ꤷƤΤ1ޤޤ餳ּʬʤ餳פȤ¿ͤʰոФƤ櫓Ǥ
ΡֱѸ˲̾ϤʤΤᤰƤΤǡǸȻפޤΰտޤʤ٤դ뤿ˡʤȤʲ6ĤۤɤΥѥθɬפȸǤϹͤƤޤ
1. ïнˡҤͤƤΤ
A. ѸüԡʤϤɤн褷Ƥޤ
B. ܸüԤDZѸؽԤγʤϤɤн褷Ƥޤ
2. ֻӤϡ
A. ¾ͤȶͭʤǤΥեޥʥΤ
B. ¾ͤȶͭǤΥեޥʸΤ
3. ɤޤˡˤ뤫Ϥ˽Ȥפ뤤ϤȤꤢãǤнʬ
A. §ȤƤñƥȡعΥݡȡʸʤɡ
B. ۤɤʤʥ⡤ƤǤʤɡ
4. ֻΤꤿñμϡ
A. ̸̾
B. ̾
5. ñȯֻˤɤ夯ˡϡ
6. ñΰ̣ʬäƤ롤뤤Ϥٿ¬Ǥ뤫
ʸȤϲȤϲεǮ䤵³ƤФȻפޤ
Ϣơ29θˡʶꤹ heldio ˤۿ֡152Ķmond ΡֱѸ˲̾ϤʤΤޤޤ
ޤ30Τˤϡ³ԤȤʤ mond ؤβƤƤΤǡ⤴
NZE ˤϡޥ줫μѸ줬¿äƤ롥̾̾ʤɤθͭ̾Ϥ̸¿ήƤ롥Ѹʸ̮ǥޥѸɤΤ褦ȯ뤫ȤˤĤơBauer (398--99) ̣Ƥ롥
The proper pronunciation of Maori is currently a controversial issue in New Zealand, and it is a subject on which feelings run high. The issue is at heart a political rather than a linguistic one, since it is clear linguistically that there is no good reason to expect native-like Maori pronunciation in words which are being used in English. None the less, it has the linguistic consequence that there is a good deal of variation in the way in which Maori loanwords are pronounced in English, with variants close to native Maori norms at the formal end of the spectrum, and much more Anglicised versions --- sometimes irregularly Anglicised versions --- at the other. To give some idea of the variation this can lead to, I present below a few place-names with a Maori pronunciation and one extreme English pronunciation. Variants are heard anywhere on the continuum between these two extremes.
ʸϤθ˶㤬ĤƤ뤬ȤХޥǥ˥塼ɤɽ魯 Aotearoa ĹϡˤϡޥȯǤ /aːɔtɛːaɾɔa/ ȤʤꡤȯѸüԤ⤤С鴰˱Ѹ첽 /eɪətiəˈɹəʊə/ ȤȯԤ⤤롥ޤ2ĤξˤȤơŪȯ¿ȤΤ顤ɤη㤷롥
ɤطʤˤϡѸȥޥβηϤκۡޥΥƥ饷ǥؤθޥؤΩ֤פ졤ײ衦Ωʤɡ͡ʸŪƤʤҲŪװѤƤΤȯ1ĤȤäƤ⡤üԤ٤Ω줬ǻȿǤƤǽȤȤ
ʤޥɽݤֻϡ1830ǯȾ1840ǯޤǤˤɸಽƤȤ (Bauer 398) ճᤫäΤʡȤݤ
Bauer L. "English in New Zealand." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5. Ed. Burchfield R. Cambridge: CUP, 1994. 382--429.
New Zealand Christchurch 夤2ּ夬вᤷäˤʤäƤ뤤ĤΥѡޡåȤ1Ĥ"NZ's Lowest Food Prices" NZΥѡ PAK'n'SAVE Ҹ˷ε祹ѡǡ·į⤯Ǥ֤˺롥NZŪڡϤܿޤᥢΤΤ롥ŪʥΤۤɱѸǤɽФƤʤΤʤΤǡŹ⤭Τñ˱Ѹؽˤ褤
ܿêįƤȤظêˤץ륷åפ볦äʲμ̤̿Υ٥ɤǤߤȡΤ褦ˤ롧"PAMS FINEST / MPLE SYRP / CNDIAN A GRD / 250ML"

٥εΤǡֻάʤDzά뤫ȤСŵŪ첻Ǥ롥Ҳϲιʤ뤿ᡤ줵ĤɤˤȤäƽʬʥҥȤˤʤ뤫ºݤ˱ѸμСʤΤΤ⤽ˤ뤿ᡤƬŸΤѰդեŸ "PAMS FINEST / MAPLE SYRUP /CANADIAN A GRADE / 250ML" Ȥʤ롥
ѡαѸֻˤ뤳Τ褦ʾάϡե٥åʸǤϹΤ٤ߤгƸβṽ¤ֻηϤ˰¸ΤȻפ뤬ҲĤΤܤǤ롥
ηϡʸȤ櫓ɽʸȯŸηаޤϢưƤ̣ĹʸȯŸɽʸϡʤʸʸˤơɽʸؤȯŸɽʸϡޤʸϤޤΤ̤㤨 /ka/ Ȥ֤פȲ̾1ʸǽ褦ȯۤΤ褦ʲʸϡФ첻̵뤷ƻҲΤߤɸˡȯã֤פȽƤʤ顤 /k/ ȤñȤλҲȤɤޤ첻ΡɤΤơפǤ롥
ʤߤˡե٥åȯãˤįƤ⡤ҲŻ뤹ӤƤ롥ˤϡե٥åȤȤñʸҲŻβṽ¤ĥե²ˤȯȯã¤طƤŪ첻Ϸڻ뤵ƤΤǤ롥ե٥åȻˤǤ褯ΤƤ褦ˡ첻ѶŪˡֽߤưФΤϡե˥ʸ饮ꥷʸȤäʹߡŸФơʸǤ⡤§Ȥ첻ɽֻդ
ץ륷åפΤ褦ˡɽڡʤȤȤʤ𤬤ˡҲĤ첻ΤƤȤΤϡ̣ʸˤ̤äƤ뤫Τ褦ʸݤʤΤǤ롥֤äץ륷åפêǡ鷺ˡ˥ե٥åȻ3700ǯ֤ä补
597ǯKent ˥ꥹȶ⤿餵줿аޤˤĤƤϡ#5444. űѸθʸɤ --- 597ǯɤǥꥹȶ۶Ϥޤ ([2024-03-23-1]) εǼ夲Ƥɻ˾塤ƱѸ˾塤ƽʽäȤäƤ褤
͡ʥѥȤäΤ1ĤϥꥹȶȤȤ˥ (Roman alphabet) Ƴ줿Ȥ衤ޥ̱²ϥȿ̴طˤä롼ʸ (runic script) äƤ˻ʸؤȾ괹ƤȤˤʤä
ΥμƤξħŪǯȤơ602ǯ뤳ȤǤ롥Lucas and Mulvey (19) "CANTERBURY --- The adoption of the Roman alphabet (602)" ꤹᤫ顤Ƭ3Ѥ롥
The Jutish kingdom of Kent is the first region of post-Roman Britannia to leave evidence of an organized realm. That is because Kent was the first area to be reconverted to Christianity. Sent by Pope Gregory, Augustine and fellow monks arrived in Canterbury in 597, bringing not only Christianity but also writing in the form of Roman script. In 602, King Ethelbert of Kent had the monks write down the laws of his people in that script.
Those laws, called 'dooms', had been brought to Kent from Continental Europe 150 years before. They are the first surviving example, in any Germanic language, of a legal document. They are the starting point of the Anglo-American common law and tradition. They are also of great importance in the history of the English language.
First, they show that within five years of the arrival of the Roman script, it had been adopted in place of the runic alphabet . . . . Second, they provide evidence of Kentish, a dialect of English that was to disappear altogether. Third, they are the beginning of regular and widespread written records in English, as the script of the dooms spread rapidly west and north.
Ȳ Ethelbert 602ǯˡΧǽȤΤθαѸΥѤˤȤäƷŪʽäȤˤʤ롥ˡˤδ˽פǯäȤʬ롥
ˤƤιᤤ®597ǯΤ5ǯΤȤǤ롥ϴְ㤤ʤꥹȶȤȤˤ⤿餵줿ΤʤΤ

Lucas, Bill and Christopher Mulvey. A History of the English Language in 100 Places. London: Robert Hale, 2013.
1620俷ʹīˤơ֥ϥإܥ礦ʸģ֤ǤספȤǺܤƤˤȡʸģϡܸΥɽˤĤƽΡַἰפѸȯ˶ᤤ֥إܥפܤȤˤžǰƤޤȤ1954ǯչ衤70ǯ֤礭ʸθľȤʤ롥
žطʤˤϡҲˤإܥιϤʿƩȤ֤롥ѥݡȤ̾ƻϩɸʤɡŪʾ̤ˤƥإܥѤƤǡعǤչ˴Ťἰ˻ƳƤꡤΡ֤ͤפĹǯβȤʤäƤ
ξԤμʰ㤤ϡἰ֤פ si֤פ ti֤ġפ tu֤աפ hu ɽΤФإܥǤϤ줾 shi, chi, tsu, fu ȡܸüԤǤϤʤѸ¾ΡüԤˤȤäȯ䤹ֻѤƤˤ롥ǰƤϡμҲŪ֤ǧɽ뤳ȤŪȤƤȤ
Ĺ餯ξʻ¸ƤȤˤĤƲƻפᤰ餻ƤΤ褤ȤΤϡDZѸˤˤֻɸಽ (standardisation) ĹפФ뤫Ѹˤϡ¿δΰ㤤顤1Ĥñ¿ֻthrough 516̤ΰֻäȤϡܥ֥Ǥ⤷Фм夲Ƥ̤Ǥcf. through) θ塤Ѥڤ伭ʸˡԻФơֻ경ɸಽƤäβǤϡ츻Ż뤹ΩȯŻ뤹Ωδ֤ǶĥطäΥɽθľ⡤ܸβηϤ¤ʷἰȡŪŻ뤹إܥȤδ֤ΡĹǯˤ錄ĥط1Ĥεȸ뤳ȤǤ
ʤǰƤǤϡĿͤΤĹǯѤƤɽºŤ졤ľѹΤǤϤʤȤƤ롥Ū˿ʤƤˤܤ
hellog ǤϡޤǤɽᤰϷ֤夲Ƥcf. romaji)) ʸģžǡʲβ⻲ͤˤ줿
#1612. ƻϩɸѸɽء ([2013-09-25-1])
#1879. ܸˤˡ ([2014-06-19-1])
#1892. ֥ΤĤŤס ([2014-07-02-1])
#1893. إܥ <sh>, <ch>, <j> ϤɤΤ餤Ѹ ([2014-07-03-1])
#3427. ἰܼإܥΥĤŤоɽ ([2018-09-14-1])
#4905. ְΡפ Aichi Aiti ([2022-10-01-1])
#4925. ɽɤȱѸ쥹ڥ ([2022-10-21-1])
#5034. إܥɽ˱ѸǤƤ롩 ([2023-02-07-1])
ɸϡŪäƹͤƤɬפΤǤ롥رμȤˤƴϢŸΤǡDzƸƤƤ
ǯѸ˸ˤƥѥѤ뤳ȤϡμˡȤʤäƤ롥ѸۤɤǤϤʤαѸˤƤ⤽ʤεϤΥƥȥǡ˥Ǥ褦ˤʤäȤǡθ츽ݤҴŪŪʬϤ뤳ȤǽȤʤꡤ¿βŪθ⤿餵Ƥ롥
ѥ˴ŤѸ˸δϡ´߽ФƤ⤤롥ϡǡΤʤʤȤ˥ѥϡ¸줿ƥȤ鹽롥ϡűѸ줫ѸФƽѸޤǤθϡդǤĤƤʤȤŪʾ塤פΤʤȤǤϤ롥˱ѸȾϡ§ȤäդǤϤʤդξͿƤʤΤ
ϡŤѸŪܤƤФۤɡ˺䤹ΤǤ⤢롥˥ѥˤϡαѸΤʤդظˤȲꤵäդޤѸƤ뤫Τ褦ʺФ˴٤䤹ΤºݤˤϡѥΤʤˤϡäդϡʤȤľŪˤϼƤʤˤ⤫餺ƱͤˡդդˤθѤ䡤ҲŪ˼ﲽ줿͡θ⡤ѥ˴ޤޤƤʤȤ¿ѥѤƤ⡤ʤä쥸αѸˤˤϥǤʤΤѥѤѸ˸ԤϡʤäΤˤ뤳ȤƤνռƤɬפ롥
Τ褦˵Τϡѥθ³ͥƥ˻Ŧƽ뤿ǤϤʤषѥ䴰¾λĤȤνĴ뤿Ǥ롥 ŪܡʸŪμҲŪطʤʤɤȤ߹碌뤳ȤǡѥǡǤϸƤʤˤ˸Ƥ褦Ȥ뤳ȤפǤ롥
Ϣơʲε⻲ȡ
#307. ѥѤ ([2010-02-28-1])
#367. ѥѤ (2) ([2010-04-29-1])
#428. The Brown family of corpora Ѿա ([2010-06-29-1])
#1280. ѥɽ ([2012-10-28-1])
#2584. ˱Ѹ쥳ѥɽ ([2016-05-24-1])
#2779. ѥϱѸ˸˻Ȥ뤱ɤ ([2016-12-05-1])
#3967. ѥѤ (3) ([2020-03-07-1])
#4915. ѸˤΥǥ --- رΥǥ롦ҥ塼ޥ˥ƥֵ ([2022-10-11-1])
#4916. ǥѤθˤĤƵޤ ([2022-10-12-1])
#5280. ǯ٤رȥǥѤθˤĤƵޤ ([2023-10-11-1])
Ʊ۵ (homonymic_clash) Ȥβ˴ؤĤƲƹͤƤߤ뵡ꡤդĴ٤Ƥ롥Ѹޤθ١ܸƱ۵ᤰ礭ۤʤΤǤϤʤȤФ롥ܸظŵ٤ǡƱ۵פƤߤȡδ鶽̣⤬ä (143)
ܸͭǤϡμबʤˡβۤȤɻǤ뤿ˡοϤʤϤ¤졤ޤܸȤѤ줬ۤȤǡ¤줿βȯƤ뤳Ȥʤɤ顤Ʊ۵줬ܸɬŪ¿ʤäƤ롥ޤ䤹Ʊ۵ζ̤ʸ̮ꡦ١ޤɤꡦʹμʤɤˤäƹԤäƤΤ̤Ǥ뤬Ѹ夬⤯ĶƱ۵ζ̤ưפǤϤʤäȤФǤϡȤǶ̤Ǥϡ㤨СֻΩסֻΩפ̤뤿ˡ֥勵ġס֥ġפȸʬֲءסֲʳءפǤϡ֥ХΥפʤɤȸäƶ̤Ƥ롥ʹȤФʸˤܶᤷĸʡֳسزסʡʡסּŵŵסؿ͡͡פʤɡˤäΰտޤȿǽ¿ǤϡΤ褦ʸ䤢ޤ䤹ʤäˤϡĤˤϰθ줬Ѥˤʤ뤳ȤꡤƱͤˤѤȾΤƤ롥ܸǤϤΤ褦ʾͤƤȤߤ롥ϡɽΰȼ뤿ᡤȯƱǤʸ㤨оͤʤȤߤ졤ǽʤ鶦¸Ƥ롥ʤ츻ŪƱǤäΤȤФǤϰۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥˤäƶ̤ԤƤ롥㤨С֥ĥפϡƱθǤ뤬ϼȤơֽ뤤פϡִפФѤǮפϡ䤿פФѤ롥ǤƱ֥פǤַٴ˴̴֡ʴѡפΤ褦ˡΰ㤤ˤäơ̤ǽˤʤäƤ롥Τ褦Ʊ۵¿ѶŪѤơ²Ρ졦̡ͤޤäʤɤǸϤ碌ˤ뤷졦ϸݻ줬Ԥ졤ɽѤΰĤȤѤƤ롥
ܸǤϡɽΰȼפȤʬ祤ѸʤɤǤ⡤ḽ˴ؤ¤ꡤɽΰȤФϳ̵ǤϤʤΰռϡܸ٤ΤǤФä㤤褦˻פ롥ޤܸϡ֤Τ褦Ʊ۵¿ѶŪѤơפȤλŦˤǼä
ܸˤƤƱ۵ͤϤषӻǤꡤȤꤿƤƴĥäƲ褦ȤưŤ夤褦˻פ롥˺ȤϡषФѶŪ˳ڤäƤ餢롥ϡѸʤɤˤƱ۵͡ʲˤǡΤ褦ʤΤȤưռƤ
Ϣơ#285. Ѹֻȴζ (2) ([2010-02-06-1]) #2919. ܸƱ ([2017-04-24-1]) ȡ
ܸظŵ١ ʸۤ ԡ2007ǯ
ظλŵ٤įƤȤѲ (language_change) Ȥδؿʬ˴ؤ͡ʵܤӹǤѲˤĤƤϻܥ֥¾͡˹ͤƤԤ10ͤ10̤θѲѤ롥ϡظλŵ٤ pp. 560--62 ˵ܤƤ롤ԻˤָѲװȤΥᥫ˥פꤹ1Ѥ롥
ѲװȤΥᥫ˥
ȤФϻήѲ³ΤǤꡤ˶٥ǤѲ˵ŤˤϤƤ֤ȤФפȤª졤оݤȤʤ롥Ȥʿ»ʸغʤ䡤ñʸȯΤʤɤСѲïܤˤ餫Ǥ롥äơޤȤФѲΤޤǤȤȯΩäƸ츽ݤƤȤפǤ롥Ĥƥ塼Ferdinand de Saussure, 185--1913ˤذ̸عֵ (Cours de linguistique générale)٤̻ (diachronic linguistics) ȶ (synchronic linguistics) ̡˸椹٤ǤȽҤ٤ΤϡޤǯʸˡɤŰ줷ˡ§õ˷پĤ餹ǤäȻפ뤬ɤʸǤ⤵ޤޤʥ٥ǾѲοʹʳˤΤǡŪԤʤǤ̻Ūʻ³뤳ȤڤǤ롥
ǤϤʤȤФѲΤǤŪװȤƤϻҶθ콬βҲŪѰۡŪװȤƤϸܿͤ롥Ҷͤζʤȯäʹʤû֤Τ˸ʸˡηϤ뤬ͤˤʤäƤϤۤɴñˤѲʤĤޤҶθ콬β˸ѲװǤȻפ롥ޤθ츽ݤवޤޤʼҲŪѰۤɤ줬ˤɤΤ褦ʷǺѤƤΤͽǤʤɤ⡤ȤΡ֥ɡפϡ֥ԲפȤιήؤȸָסֿ٤פʤɤΡ֤ȴաפ夷ƤΤ⤷ʤʬβˤϡָ콬פּҲءפθ̤ԲķȤ롥ܿˤѲϡŪܤ֤ʤɤȯѤ뤤¿Ѥˤ륳ɴ֤δĤˤäͶȯ롥ܺ٤ˤĤƤϸҤ롥
ƶ٥ǸѲβ˵ŤȤ⤢뤱ɤ⡤Ѳɴǯǯñ̤ǸˤꤤäϤäǧ롥λ庹ѻ뤿ˤϲʸԲķǤ롥ĤޤꤽΤ褦ʸäƽƸѲװȤΥᥫ˥βǽˤʤȤ롥λŪ椬ˤ礭ȯŸΤ⡤¾θ²ʤʸϿ¿¸ߤǤ롥ʸϲ٤ݼŪǤʤɡɬ줬ΤޤϿƤ櫓Ǥʤαդ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥
ûʸϤΤʤˡѲκǤפǻ̩˵ͤޤƤ롥ǽפΤ٤Ƥ夷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ̩٤϶ä٤䤬ǤͤȽǤ5ȴФ
(1) ֤ȤФѲΤޤǤȤȯΩäƸ츽ݤƤȤפǤ
(2) ֶŪԤʤǤ̻Ūʻ³뤳ȤڤǤ
(3) ֤ʤȤФѲΤǤŪװȤƤϻҶθ콬βҲŪѰۡŪװȤƤϸܿͤ
(4) ֤ʬβˤϡָ콬פּҲءפθ̤ԲķȤ
(5) ʸϲ٤ݼŪǤʤɡɬ줬ΤޤϿƤ櫓Ǥʤαդ뤳ȤɬפǤ
ԡָѲסظλŵ١ ʿԡˡīҽŹ2005ǯ560--82ǡ
ǯ12ꡤYouTube ֤ΤۤإͥˤԹʷ̾ˤȤˤơ4ˤ錄ָإХפۿƤޤ
#292. ¤ϡǧθؤäƤȻפäƤʤ --- ԹפʸǧθزĹˡ (2024/12/11)
#294. Թפʷ̾ˤιμȴؿ߽ФŻ (2025/12/18)
#294. 椷Ƥϡؤ꼫乩طϤϤ뤫¿ --- Թפ軰 (2024/12/25)
#295. ؤΰ˸ --- ȤФǧβʳؤ --- Թפʷ̾ˡ (2025/1/1)
μϿκݤꡤȤν줿ִ̾ɽˡǧβʳءפȤͤҲ𤷤Ƥޤܸδ̾ʸɤ߽ˤĤơǧβʳؤδͻ줿ؤŪʸǤƬ˶ᤤפʵҤѤޤ (102--03)
ޤܸνȤФˤޤĤŪʵϹءܸءܸ춵ؤʤɤΰǽפʹͻ¿ʤƤƤ롥Ʊˡ¤ѻ뤤ܸʿ̾Ȥ褦ʸŪʵ⤢롥ʸɸಽкѤʸҲưΤʤǤ뤿ᡤʵΤϤʤ롥¾ǡܤǤ̾οпŪ椬Ѥ߽ŤͤƤƤꡤΰǤϴ̾Ѥ¦ƳƤˤ롥ޤ20ȾФȯˤʤäǧβʳؤȯŸȼ̾ѤˤĤƿΰ貣Ūʳغݸ椬Ԥ褦ˤʤäºݡʸǧβʳؤˤƤθԤζ̣椭ĤƤ롥Ǥϴ̾ι餫ˤĤĤꡤܸʸ϶̣äȤ롥츦Ͽʹ֤ʲǤĤꤢǧεǽڤȤưյ롥̾ʻ¸븽ܸϤΰ̣˲ͤΤ륵ץ줾θˤϡθʸѤ߽ŤͤƤʸˤȼȤڤäƤڤʤͤ뤬ˤȤɤޤ餺Ͽʹ֤ȤʪŪǽפüȤʤ롥ǤϤޤǤζ̣ʸܸδ̾ɽˡˤĤƤοʻغŪΰյˤĤƽҤ٤
϶Ф顤ʸνޤǰ쵤ɤ߹Ǥޤޤޤ˲椬դꡥϢơ heldio #745. ܿͤ衤ʸܳФ (2023/06/15) ⤪İС
סִ̾ɽˡǧβʳءסؤȤФʸ14桤ܤΥҡ2021ǯ4102--13ǡ

οʪǯɽʥӥ奢ǡˡ٤ѥѥįƤ롥2020ǯ˱ѸǽǤ줿 Timelines of Everone ΤǡäƤdzڤˤοʪǯɽŵǤ롥
Ƭˤۤɶᤤ pp. 10--11 ˡֿˡפꤹ븫Υեեå롥龮ФΤߤȴФƤߤ롥˾15βŪʽӽФƤ롥
| 250ǯ | ǽƻ |
| 80ǯ | |
| 40ǯ | Ǽ |
| 44000ǯ | ƶɲ |
| 4ǯ | ǡд |
| 2ǯ | ƫ |
| 15000ǯ | Τ |
| 14000ǯ | ȥҥ |
| 12000ǯ | |
| 9000ǯ | ° |
| 8009ǯ | Ի |
| 3400ǯ | ʸ |
| 1500ǯ | β |
| 1750ǯ | |
| 1990ǯ | ԥ塼 |
ε#5643. ܤʸϻĶ --- 2023ǯٷʸֺ¡ֱ۶ʸפ ([2024-10-08-1]) ơɲäǤ
ǯ71ˤθֺ¤ŤΤǤ·ۡ칶ˤȤ̤ΩΤۤ30ʬۤɡʸפˤĤƹֱ餵Ƥޤ
ֺ¤κҤϤǤȯԤƤΤǤɬв櫓ǤϤޤǡιֵȤˡݤ markmap Ȥ֥ġˤޥɥޥåײΤޤʲȤƤɤˡפǤС

ν°ƤʸǤϡǯճش3ۤɸֺ¤Ƥޤǯ٤θֺ¤ơޤֱ۶ʸǤ
2023ǯ71ˡ3θֺ¤ĥѥˤƳ졤ۡ칶·Ȼ䡤δʸ칶ˤˤֱ顦̤¸ޤϡܤʸϻĶפǤ줫μޤ2֤ۤɤäޤ
θֺ¤θ塤·ȤƱơޤ Voicy heldio ˤ̼ϿԤʤ#768. ܤʸϻĶ --- ·Ȥ̡ȤۿƤޤҤİhellog ȤƤ#5185. ʸܤβĤΤĤΤ --- ·Ȥ̡ ([2023-07-08-1]) εǤ⤷ޤ
ơֺ¤1ǯʾ夬Фޤֱ顦̤ʸԽäҤȯԤޤ3Ĥθֺ¤ϿƤޤ
ؤȻƻ --- ǽܿͤͤסʲ ҡ ˡʻʲ ɧ (pp. 3--32)
ֻ䤿ɤߤƤΤ --- Ȥ̤ƹͤסʿ ɰϯ ʻʲ ʡ (pp. 33--64)
ܤʸϻĶס δ졦· ʻʲ (pp. 65--95)
ʸ餷¿ͤʥơޤθֺ¤Ȥʤޤ
ʤߤ2024ǯ٤θֺơޤϡָήʸפǤʤǤ˽λƤޤˡ2025ǯ٤θֺ¤⤪ڤߤˡ
δ졦· ʻʲ ܤʸϻĶסر۶ʸ١ʶڷҴֺ¡ʸֺ2023ˡʸ2024ǯ32965--95ǡ

#5601. ܸʸΰۤʤ ([2024-08-27-1]) εǡѤƴʸͤΤʤǡִפȤѸ줬äо줷ܸˤǡ֤פѸǤ공ǰȳؤ䤿ŪˡִϸפȤƤȤ館Ƥ롤ŵŪˤϴ2ۤɤʤɽΤȤǤ롥
ϡִפȤƶƳˤäơȤơʿפƤ롥̤˹ͤСϡ֥إᥤפȲɤߤɤ߲ϸäǤ롥12ȾФȤǹͤȡδ2ʸʤִפϡɤߤΡ֥إᥤפΤߤʤ餺ɤߤǡ֥ۥΡפȤɤ߲ȤǤ줬¿ȤƤʸǤϡ֥إᥤפɤ߲ǽ⤯¸줬¿ȤƤʸǤϡ֥ۥΡפβǽ⤫äˤʤ2ʸϢʤϡŪˤ1ĤɤߤޤʤäΤǤꡤˤˡʤäȤΤ
ơδ2ʸΰ֤Ȥʤ롥δ2ʸƷŪˡִפȸƤǤɤΤ褦ɤ߲̤Ȥơɤ߲η˸ڤˡ̵̣ʡִפθƾΤϰճǤ롥ɤ߲η̤ˤ餺ȤѸ졦ǰ
ޤ褿Ȥǡ (44--45) Ƴ褦äȤѸ졦ǰͭפʬ
Ȥˤ⤫ˤ⡤ѻ褦ȤƤΤˡߤƤʤ路Ƥ뤫狼ʤȤܸˤƤϵ롥Ȥˤ뤳Ȥ褦ȤˤʤȤ夭뤤ˤ夭Τ뤵Τˤ餫Ǥä뤿ˡʤ路Ƥ뤫狼ʤΤˡִפȤ̾ĤƤ줬ʤ路Ƥ뤫Ƚ顤¸ȤȤϤäȤƤФ褤ޤĶñ̤ǤäƤ⡤¤ǤΤϤ٤ơִפȸƤ֡
Τ褦ˡִפȤǰꤷƤȤܸˤδѻʬϡҤͭǤȹͤ롥뤤ͭǤ뤳ȤĶơִפܸˤˤȤäƤΥɤΰĤ⤷ʤĤޤꡤִפȤǰȤäȡޤǤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤܸȤȤˤʤ롥ΤȤǤ뤬ʸ˴ȤäƤʤˤĤƹͤˤäƤϡִפȤǰɬפʤɽʸΤߤȤδѻˤ¸ߤʤǰȤäƤ褤
ʸˤȤäơƼ٤ƶǤϤʤ
ܸȴ --- ˡʤդˡ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2024ǯ

ˡܸȴ٤ɤƤ롥ʸˤĤƹͤ뤳Ȥ¿ܽϤǤˡ#5576. ɸͤ --- ܸˤȱѸˤζ ([2024-08-02-1]) ȡ#5590. ܸ쵭Ҥ¬ --- סִס ([2024-08-16-1]) Ǥ夲Ƥ
ϡƱϴǤ⡤줬§ŪǤɽʸȤơܸǤɽʸ˲äɽʸȤƤѤ롤Ȥ夲롥ܤϤۤƱǤäƤ⡤ʸ䤬ۤʤȤƶǤ롥 (40--41) λݤʲΤ褦˲⤷ƤƤ롥
ˡʸδϴŪɽʸȤƵǽƤפȽҤ٤ʸȤƤδʴŪˡбƤȤȤȸƤ褤ܸˤƤϴפĤ¸֥פʸƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤȤϡɽʸȤƵǽƤʤ礬뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ܸˤϡɤ餫ȤС路ƤʤȤ¿
פϡҤӤȤäƤΤǡܸ֥ʸŸˡפʸˤȤ롥֥ޥפθϡҽʬʤȡӤǤ롥֥ޥפθΤʤͤפפȡפȤʬơ줾б·Ȥäơ֥ޥפθҤߤӤȿ¬뤳Ȥ뤫⤷ʤƤǤ⤤Ȥˤʤ롥פΡפ·֥פˤä뤳ȤǤΤ顤פϤٸƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Ρ֤ٸƤ롦̣ƤפȤɽաפȸƤ֤ȤˤȡξδϡɽʸפȤƵǽƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥˽Ҥ٤褦ˡ֥פȤפˤäʸƤδϡɽʸפȤƵǽƤΤ顤ܸʸδϡɽʸפξ硤ɽʸפξ礬뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ŪŪʻǤȤϤˤɽʸŪʻȤΤˤ롥ˤܸˤƤϤޤ뤳ȤˤĤơԤϡפơפƤ롥ԤϥåȸñȯƸƤꡤԤ¸ο̾ȯʸƤ롥
Ĥޤꡤܸ˴ؤ¤ꡤϻȤǡɽŪɽŪɽŪˤǤⵡǽȤȤˤʤ롥¤ΤȤǤϸ§ȤɽŪѤȤϤܸξ٤κϤ¾̤Ȥ⤢롥դ̯ǤϤ뤬ԤܸˤΤʤΤʤΤԤɵ椷Ƥ롥
ܸȴ --- ˡʤդˡ١ȽŹҴȿӡ2024ǯ
ܥ֥ǤϱѸֻȯЪΥ (spelling_pronunciation_gap) ¿夲Ƥΰ1ĤȤȤ⤢뤬Ȥ櫓ܤαѸؽԤؿ䤹ȥԥåȤȤиΤäƤ뤫Ǥ⤢롥
ѸֻȤˤᤰäƤϡޤޤʸ̽ǤƤǶΩäȤǤ Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013. ꡤإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯȤƻ伫ȤȤƽǤƤаޤ⤢롥
ϡɤߤ䤹ѽȤܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤ѡȤƤ Vivian Cook ˤ The English Writing System (Hodder Education, 2004) Ҳ𤷤̤꤫⤭Ѹֻˡˡˡֻؽˤ꤬ڤ֡㼨ꡤ§ɽɡʸƤꡤɤͥʲܼ

1 Ways of writing
1.1 Meaning-based and sound-based writing
1.2 Two ways of processing written language
2 The multi-dimensions of spoken and written English
2.1 Differences between the visual and acoustic media
2.2 Special features of written English
3 Approaches to English spelling
3.1 Basic rules for English
3.2 Venezky: correspondence rules and markers
3.3 Albrow: three systems of English spelling
3.4 Noam and Carol Chomsky: lexical representation
4 Punctuation and typography
4.1 Grammatical and correspondence punctuation
4.2 The typography of English
5 Learning the English writing system
5.1 English-speaking children's acquisition of spelling
5.2 Acquisition of English spelling by speakers of other languages
6 Historical changes
6.1 Before English
6.2 Old English
6.3 Middle English
6.4 From Early Modern English to Modern English
7 Variation in the English writing system
7.1 Differences of region: 'British' and 'American' spelling styles
7.2 Novel spellings of pop groups and business names
7.3 Adapting English to modern means of communication
References
IPA transcription of English phonemes
Index
ѸֻθѤܤǤ
Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ۥӥˡ δˡإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯ
ѸΥɤϥޥʼҲäݥꥰʼҲȤäƤ褤̤ơɤ̱äդϾ˱Ѹäդϡ쥸ˤꡤƥ졤ե졤ѸΤ⤢դȤƤαѸϡѸˤƤäȤǤϤ뤬¤¸ߴ褦ˤʤäƤ
Fisher et al. (xiii) ϡɤˤ뤳3Ⱦθ1ʸϤΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥ʲ˰Ѥ롥
Until the 14th century there was little association between Chancery and Westminster. Like the rest of his household, Chancery followed the King in his peregrinations about the country, and correspondence up to the time may be dated from York, Winchester, Hereford, or wherever the court happened to pause (as the King's personal correspondence---the Signet correspondence---continued to be throughout the 15th century). It is important to observe that in its movement about the country, the court as a whole must have reinforced the impression of an official class dialect , in contrast to the regional dialects with which it came in contact. For two centuries this court dialect was spoken French and written Latin; after 1300 it gradually became spoken English and written French. The English spoken in court then and for a long time afterward was quite varied in pronunciation and structure. But written Latin had been standardized in classical times, and by the 13th century written French had begun to be standardized in form and to achieve the lucid idiom that English prose was not to achieve until the 16th century. Increasingly as the 14th century progressed, this Latin and French was written by clerks whose first language was English. Latin was the essential subject in school, but the acquisition of French was more informal, and by the end of the century we have Chaucer's satire on the French of the Prioress, Gower's apologies for his own (quite acceptable) French, and the errors in legal briefs which betoken Englishmen trying to compose in a foreign language. By 1400 the use of English in speaking Latin and French in administrative writing had established a clear dichotomy between colloquial speech and the official written language, which must have made it easier to create an artificial written standard independent of the spoken dialects when the royal clerks began to use English for their official writing after 1417.
ʤǸ˵Ƥ1417ǯȤϡ#3214. 1410ǯ夫30ǯˤƤ Chancery English ˨ ([2018-02-13-1]) ǿƤ̤ꡤHenry V νʤ̼ (Signet Office) ˤѸȯԤϤǯΤȤǤ롥
Fisher, John H., Malcolm Richardson, and Jane L. Fisher, comps. An Anthology of Chancery English. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1984. 392.
ܸδˤСʿ̾Ρ֤פФơ֤ס֤פˤơ֤ס֤פФơ֤פΤ褦ˤդ롥˳ˤĤơФ뤿ȯʹ (diacritical_mark) ϹԻҲ㳰Ȥơ§Ȥ̵Фͭ뤿εȤ롥ΤλˤϤۤܰӤƤꡤηŪǤ롥
Ѹ3 [f]/[v], [s]/[z], [θ]/[ð] ˤĤƤϡˡɤΤ褦ʽʬʤƤˤĤƤϡ1ۤ Mond ˴줿ܤγФ褦ʼؤβΤʤʬŪ˵
boss äƤʤ s դĤʤΡ8̼˼䤵ޤʤǤǤ

[f] [v] ˤĤƤϡ줾 <f> <v> ֤Τ縶§ǤꡤۤܰӤƤ롥of [əv] Τ褦ʸϤ뤬㳰Ū
[s] [z] νʬ˴ؤƤϡ嵭βǤ⡤ʤǤ뤳ȤŦ<s>, <ss>, <se>, <ce>; <z>, <zz>, <ze> ʤɤֻʣ߹äƤΤʤ٤ʬȤ̣Ϥ뤬˰Ȥϸ
[θ] [ð] ˻äƤϡ <th> Ȥ1ֻǽɽ蘆졤ʬѤϤʤŪˤСʬ褦ȤտޤϤⴶʤäȤ餤롥
ʾĤС
̾Ѥʬϡ֥ȥåʡ
[f]/[v] νʬϡֹʡ
[s]/[z] νʬϡ֥ꥮ
[θ]/[ð] νʬϡ
Ȥʤ롥νŤΥԥ졼ͿƤ줿Τ Daniels (64) μ1ʸǤ롤
Phonemic split sometimes brings new letters or spellings (e.g. Middle English <v> alongside <f> when French loans caused voicing to become significant; cf. also <vision> vs <mission>), sometimes not---English used <ð> and <þ> indifferently, even in a single manuscript, for both the voiced and voiceless interdentals, a situation persisting with Modern English <th> due to low functional load. Japanese, on the other hand, uses diacritics on certain kana for the same purpose.
ʤˤĤƤϡԤ Voicy ΥץߥꥹʡۿֱͥѸˤء (helwa) ۿ֡ڱѸˤ #95boss äƤʤ s 2ĤʤΡ217ۿˤǼ夲Ƥ롥
Daniels, Peter T. "The History of Writing as a History of Linguistics." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 53--69.
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