ѸΥɤϥޥʼҲäݥꥰʼҲȤäƤ褤̤ơɤ̱äդϾ˱Ѹäդϡ쥸ˤꡤƥ졤ե졤ѸΤ⤢դȤƤαѸϡѸˤƤäȤǤϤ뤬¤¸ߴ褦ˤʤäƤ
Fisher et al. (xiii) ϡɤˤ뤳3Ⱦθ1ʸϤΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥ʲ˰Ѥ롥
Until the 14th century there was little association between Chancery and Westminster. Like the rest of his household, Chancery followed the King in his peregrinations about the country, and correspondence up to the time may be dated from York, Winchester, Hereford, or wherever the court happened to pause (as the King's personal correspondence---the Signet correspondence---continued to be throughout the 15th century). It is important to observe that in its movement about the country, the court as a whole must have reinforced the impression of an official class dialect , in contrast to the regional dialects with which it came in contact. For two centuries this court dialect was spoken French and written Latin; after 1300 it gradually became spoken English and written French. The English spoken in court then and for a long time afterward was quite varied in pronunciation and structure. But written Latin had been standardized in classical times, and by the 13th century written French had begun to be standardized in form and to achieve the lucid idiom that English prose was not to achieve until the 16th century. Increasingly as the 14th century progressed, this Latin and French was written by clerks whose first language was English. Latin was the essential subject in school, but the acquisition of French was more informal, and by the end of the century we have Chaucer's satire on the French of the Prioress, Gower's apologies for his own (quite acceptable) French, and the errors in legal briefs which betoken Englishmen trying to compose in a foreign language. By 1400 the use of English in speaking Latin and French in administrative writing had established a clear dichotomy between colloquial speech and the official written language, which must have made it easier to create an artificial written standard independent of the spoken dialects when the royal clerks began to use English for their official writing after 1417.
ʤǸ˵Ƥ1417ǯȤϡ#3214. 1410ǯ夫30ǯˤƤ Chancery English ˨ ([2018-02-13-1]) ǿƤ̤ꡤHenry V νʤ̼ (Signet Office) ˤѸȯԤϤǯΤȤǤ롥
Fisher, John H., Malcolm Richardson, and Jane L. Fisher, comps. An Anthology of Chancery English. Knoxville: U of Tennessee P, 1984. 392.
Ѹäͤ륷diglossia ѼȤʬˤ5ƤȤʤ롥ޤǤΡ#5306. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (1) ([2023-11-06-1])#5311. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (2) ([2023-11-11-1])#5315. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (3) ([2023-11-15-1])#5326. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (4) ([2023-11-26-1]) ٤ʤ顤 Pearce αѸѸ켭ŵȤ (143--44) "diglossia" "polyglossia" ιܤȤꡤ̣ŪǤ롥
Polyglossia A situation in which two or more languages exist side by side in a multilingual society, but are used for different purposes. Typically, one of the languages (usually labelled the 'H' or 'high' variety) has greater prestige than the others, and is used in formal, public contexts such as education and administration. The other languages in a polyglossic situation (usually labelled the 'L' or 'low' varieties) tend to be used in informal, private contexts (and also in popular culture). England was a triglossic society, with English as the 'L' variety, and French and Latin as 'H' varieties. As French died out, England became diglossic in English and Latin (which was maintained as the language of education and the Church).
Ǹ˱Ѹˤˤ triglossia diglossia ʤ polyglossiaˤڤƤΤϡֱѸءѸ켭ŵǤ롥Ѹˤˤ polyglossia ݤˤϡΤ褦Ѹθ𤬻Ф뤳Ȥ¿ξ1դɬפǤ롥
Τ褦ʵǤϡѸΥɤ triglossia μҲȤƤȤ館뤳Ȥ¿Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ3Τ٤ƤΤϡԥߥåɤκǾؤνŪŪȤΤߤǤ롥Ѹȥե2λȤȤʤС⤦ԥߥåɤβޤDz뤬ȤƤԥߥåɤΤˤϵڤФʤĤޤꡤѸɼҲ3ع¤Υԥߥåɤؤơ뤯 triglossia diglossia ȤȤǤȤƤ⡤ɼҲιʤ뤤¿ˤʣ櫓ǤϤʤȤȤषѸΤߤΥ뤬Ū¿ȤȤõƤƤ褤
ǻפФΤϡŵŪ diglossia ҲξǤ롥ˤȡȤ櫓 H Ѽν٤ˤĤƤ٤κϤȤϤҲʤ뤤¿ˤ L H ΤθѼäȤäɥĸɸɥĸ졤쥢ӥȸŵӥ졤ϥ쥪ȥե㤬Ƥ
ŵŪ diglossia Ҳ˾Ȥ餹ȡѸɤ diglossia/triglossia ȸƤǤ褤ΤȤ䤬ͯˤѸȤϡdiglossia ȤǰγѤαפȤʤΤȤʤΤդ꤬ռǤ롥
Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.
#5306. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (1) ([2023-11-06-1])#5311. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (2) ([2023-11-11-1])#5315. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (3) ([2023-11-15-1]) ³diglossia ѼȤʬˤ͡ʲɤ٤륷˸ؤѸ켭ŵܤѤ (45--46)
diglossia The situation in which a speech community has two or more varieties of the same language used by speakers under different conditions, characterized by certain traits (attributes) usually with one variety considered 'higher' and another variety 'lower'. Well-known examples are the high and low variants in Arabic, Modern Greek, Swiss German and Haitian Creole. Arabic diglossia is very old, stemming from the difference in the classical literary of the language of the Qur'an, on one side, and the modern colloquial varieties, on the other side. These languages just names have a superposed, high variety and a vernacular, lower variety, and each languages (sic) has names for their high and low varieties, which are specialized in their functions and most occur in mutually exclusive situations. To learn the languages properly, one must know when it is appropriate to use the high and when the low variety forms. Typically, the attitude is that the high variety is the proper, true form of the language, and the low variety is wrong or does not even exist. Often the feeling that the high variety is superior derives from its use within a religion, since often the high language is represented in a body of sacred texts or esteemed literature. Diglossia is associated with the American linguist Charles A. Ferguson. Sometimes, following Joshua Fishman, diglossia is extended to situations not of high and low variants of the same language, but to multilingual situations in which different languages are used in different domains, for example, English is regarded as 'high' in areas of India and of Africa and local languages as 'low' or vernacular. This usage for diglossia in multilingual situations is resisted by some scholars.
嵭2ŦH L 2Ѽ郎ˡθ춦ƱǤϡH θǤꡤL ϥ֥ԴѼȤߤʤ䤹ȤΤϡδΤǤ롥ƱΤˤȤäơH ˤϸҤδФտ路ƤΤ
⤦1ĤϡǸ˸ڤƤ褦ˡŵŪ˱Ƥε쿢̱ϤθҲˤơѸ줬ѼȤơϸ (vernacular) ѼȤѤƤ硤 diglossia Ƥ٤ǤϤ뤬ѸλȤ˰븦ԤȤ¤Ǥ롥diglossia ϡäʤΤ
Campbell, Lyle and Mauricio J. Mixco, eds. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2007.
#5306. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (1) ([2023-11-06-1])#5311. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (2) ([2023-11-11-1]) ˰³diglossia ѼȤʬˤͤ롥 Crystal Ѹ켭ŵܤβ
diglossia (n.) A term used in SOCIOLINGUISTICS to refer to a situation where two very different VARIETIES of a LANGUAGE CO-OCCUR throughout a SPEECH community, each with a distinct range of social function. Both varieties are STANDARDIZED to some degree, are felt to be alternatives by NATIVE-SPEAKERS and usually have special names. Sociolinguists usually talk in terms of a high (H) variety and a low (L) variety, corresponding broadly to a difference in FORMALITY: the high variety is learnt in school and tends to be used in church, on radio programmes, in serious literature, etc., and as a consequence has greater social prestige; the low variety tends to be used in family conversations, and other relatively informal settings. Diglossic situations may be found, for example, in Greek (High: Katharevousa; Low: Dhimotiki), Arabic (High: Classical; Low: Colloquial), and some varieties of German (H: Hochdeutsch; L: Schweizerdeutsch, in Switzerland). A situation where three varieties or languages are used with distinct functions within a community is called triglossia. An example of a triglossic situation is the use of French, Classical Arabic and Colloquial Tunisian Arabic in Tunisia, the first two being rated H and the Last L.
ŵŪʻȤƥӥʥ˥ɥĸ˲äơꥷ Katharevusa ʸ奮ꥷϤäʸΡˤ Dhimotiki ʼȯã¯ΡˤƤΤϵŤǤcf. #1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-20-1])ˡ
ʣѸ켭ŵεҤ٤ȡѸ졦ǰˤĤƲͭƤŪʾʤΤǧǤ뤷դμŵˤƤʤƤȤˤäơμʤȤǤ롥ŵ⼭ʣȤ§Ȥ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
#5306. Ѹ켭ŵǤߤ diglossia (1) ([2023-11-06-1]) ˰³diglossia ѼȤʬˤ뤿̤Ѹ켭ŵäƤߤ褦 McArthur Ѹ켭ŵ (312--13) ɤࡥ
DIGLOSSIA [1958: a Latinization of French diglossie, from Greek díglōssos with two tongues: first used in English by Charles Ferguson]. A term in sociolinguistics for the use of two or more varieties of language for different purposes in the same community. The varieties are called H and L, the first being generally a standard variety used for 'high' purposes and the second often a 'low' spoken vernacular. In Egypt, classical Arabic is H and local colloquial Arabic is L. The most important hallmark of diglossia is specialization, H being appropriate in one set of situations, L in another: reading a newspaper aloud in H, but discussing its contents in L. Functions generally reserved for H include sermons, political speeches, university lectures, and news broadcasts, while those reserved for L include everyday conversations, instructions to servants, and folk literature.
The varieties differ not only in grammar, phonology, and vocabulary, but also with respect to function, prestige, literary heritage, acquisition, standardization, and stability. L is typically acquired at home as a mother tongue and continues to be so used throughout life. Its main uses are familial and familiar. H, on the other hand, is learned through schooling and never at home. The separate domains in which H and L are acquired provide them with separate systems of support. Diglossic societies are marked not only by this compartmentalization of varieties, but also by restriction of access, especially to H. Entry to formal institutions such as school and government requires knowledge of H. In England, from medieval times until the 18c, Latin played an H role while English was L; in Scotland, 17--20c, the H role has usually been played by local standard English, the L role by varieties of Scots. In some English-speaking Caribbean and West African countries, the H role is played by local standard English, the L role by English-based creoles in the Caribbean and vernacular languages and English-based creoles in West Africa.
The extent to which these functions are compartmentalized can be illustrated by the importance attached by community members to using the right variety in the appropriate context. An outsider who learns to speak L and then uses it in a formal speech risks being ridiculed. Members of a community generally regard H as superior to L in a number of respects; in some cases, H is regarded as the only 'real' version of a particular language, to the extent that people claim they do not speak L at all. Sometimes, the alleged superiority is avowed for religious and/or literary reasons: the fact that classical Arabic is the language of the Qur'ān endows it with special significance, as the language of the King James Bible, created in England, recommended itself to Scots as high religious style. In other cases, a long literary and scriptural tradition backs the H variety, as with Sanskrit in India. There is also a strong tradition of formal grammatical study and standardization associated with H varieties: for example, Latin and 'school' English.
Since the term's first use in English, it has been extended to cases where the varieties in question do not belong to the same language (such as Spanish and Guaraní in Paraguay), as well as cases where more than two varieties or languages participate in such a relationship (French, classical Arabic, and colloquial Arabic in triglossic distribution in Tunisia, with French and classical Arabic sharing H functions). The term polyglossia (a state of many tongues) has been used to refer to cases such as Singapore, where Cantonese, English, Malay, and Tamil coexist in a functional relationship.
ܤͤùˤʤäƤȻפޤdiglossia ˤĤơƱΰۤʤ2ѼδطȤǤϤʤۤʤ2δطȤΤۤȤƤܤ롥Ĥޤꡤǽ餫 Fishman β diglossia ªƤ롥
ޤMcArthur ϱѸؤλŵȤȤ⤢ꡤѸˤѸ줫 diglossia λ褯Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
ˡݡѸ (singapore_english) ˤ polyglossia ؤڤƤꡤdiglossia ȤεȤʤäƤ롥
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ܥ֥ǤϡѼȤʬפ (diglossia) ˤĤơ͡˼夲ƤνѸϡԤǤ Ferguson ꥸʥΡʶ˰̣ѤȡFishman ȯỴ̈Ѥ礬롥 triglossia polyglossia ȤѸƤ줾ԤˤäŬϰϤۤʤꡤäСդꤲפѤ⤢ꤽŪˤʪǤ롥
Τ褦ʾˤϡ͡Ѹ켭ŵ٤ƤߤΤ褤1ƤȤơŪ Trudgill (38--39) μҲѸ켭ŵ
diglossia (1) A term associated with the American linguist Charles A. Furguson which describes sociolinguistic situations such as those that obtain in Arabic-speaking countries and in German-speaking Switzerland. In such a diglossic community, the prestigious standard or 'High' (or H) variety, which is linguistically related to but significantly different from the vernacular or 'Low' (or L) varieties, has no native speakers. All members of the speech community are native speakers of one of the L varieties, such as Colloquial Arabic and Swiss German, and learn the H variety, such as Classical Arabic and Standard German, at school. H varieties are typically used in writing and in high-status spoken domains where preparation of what is to be said or read is possible. L varieties are used in all other contexts. (2) Ferguson's original term was later extended by the American sociolinguist Joshua Fishman to include sociolinguistic situations other than those where the H and L varieties are varieties of the same language, such as Arabic or German. In Fishman's usage, even multilingual countries such as Nigeria, where English functions as a nationwide prestige language which is learnt in school and local languages such as Hausa and Yoruba are spoken natively, are described as being diglossic. In these cases, languages such as English are described as H varieties, and languages such as Yoruba as L.
ź diglossia ŵ㤬Ƥ롤Ferguson Υꥸʥβ Fish γŪƳƤʤɡؤˤޤȤޤäҤȤʤäƤ롥ޤϤդ꤫ǧƤΤ褤
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פǡΩ̿ؤܹ̤ʤ̻̤ޤ#386. ܹȤλ̡ۥӥαѸܤˤĤƸǤ
ˤ#173. Ω̿ءܹȤ̡ݱѸȤϲꤷ̤ƤޤΤǡФ⤪İ
ơλ̤ϡSimon Horobin The English Language: A Very Short Introduction äƤä褦ȤĤǻϤΤǤ̤ǤΤήή vernacular äˤɤ夭ޤȤϤ¤ϰ٤ȵƤߤäǤΤǡ٤꤬ߤޤʤʤäƤޤޤ
ˤˤɤ夤櫓Ǥ⤢ޤΩ̿عݸʸΥץȡ֥ʥ顼ʸפ˽°ƤΤǤTwitter ˤȯ⤷ƤȤȤǡɤ
vernacular ϱѸˤѸʸؤݤˤϽפʥɤǤ21ѸäƤͭʳǰѸȤʤ뤫⤷ޤhellog Ǥ̤夲ȤϤʤäΤǡβȤλ̤ˡ줫龯ĹͤƤȻפޤ
Ѹˤʸ̮ǽФƤ vernacular ϡˤƸǰҿι⤤ݸȤƤΥƥФơɤο͡ȤŪѤƤȤƤαѸؤΤѤޤפ vernacular ȤϡֱѸפΤȤؤ櫓Ǥ˥ƥȤ椬ռƤΤȤƤΡֱѸפؤȤΤݥȤǤdiglossia ѸǤСH(igh variety) ΥƥФ L(ow variety) αѸȤޤǰƬ֤ L ΤȤ vernacular ȸƤǤ櫓Ǥ
ĤƤߤޤ礦
noun
1 (usually the vernacular) [singular] the language spoken in a particular area or by a particular group, especially one that is not the official or written language
2 [uncountable] (technical) a style of architecture concerned with ordinary houses rather than large public buildings (OALD8)
noun [C usually singular]
1. the form of a language that a regional or other group of speakers use naturally, especially in informal situations
- The French I learned at school is very different from the local vernacular of the village where I'm now living.
- Many Roman Catholics regret the replacing of the Latin mass by the vernacular.
2. specialized in architecture, a local style in which ordinary houses are built
3. specialized dance, music, art, etc. that is in a style liked or performed by ordinary people (CALD3)
noun [countable] [usually singular]
the language spoken by a particular group or in a particular area, when it is different from the formal written language (MED2)
n ϤȤСϸ졤ԳФơռ졨졨Ԥ뿦ȎĤͭΡοȡϸ졤֤ȤСưʪʪФϤθƤ̡̾¯̾ʡ~ nameˡϡλ塤ġϤͭʷͼԷێݤʤɤΡ̱̣̱ʡإ¼ŵ3ǡ١
¾ؿ缭ŵ6ǡ٤ vernacular θФΤȤ˵ƤʸѸˤʸ̮ǤŵŪʻȤȤʤޤ"Latin gave place to the vernacular." "In Europe, the rise of the vernaculars meant the decline of Latin." Τ褦ˡޤؿԱ³缭ŵ٤ "English has given place to the vernacular in that part of Asia." Ȥ̣ĹʸĤޤ
嵭֥ʥ顼ʸפ Twitter θФѤƤޤ礦
ԥʥ顼դȤϸҤݸƤʤΡȶư¯ʤΡή塥ܸϡƤ³ʸγϤ롥
vernacular Ȥϲͤ³ƤȻפޤ
Horobin, Simon. The English Language: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: OUP, 2018.
Horobin, Simon. How English Became English: A Short History of a Global Language. Oxford: OUP, 2016.
ε#4504. ƥ褷ȱѸιԤ ([2021-08-26-1]) ˰³פȤƤξԤɤäƤˤ٤뤳ȤˤѸ̤ꤦȤǤȤˤĤơ
ƥȱѸᤰ˼ҲŪʾˤĤơפĤޤޤ˥֥쥹ȤƤߤ
Ρ
äդȤƤ͡ʡʤФиߤ̤ʤ˸ѼʬդȤƤ1ĤɸŪѼˤ褽«Ƥ
ŪɸѼ norm-producing ̤ʶȤˤƥޥϳơϤĤ˻äƱƹȤΡ֡ѸפŪȤʤĤĤ
ƥ¿ΤҤ衼åѤˤäƥեȤƵǽѸ¾ΤҤˤäƥեȤƵǽƤ롥
Ρ
ƥϻǤѲʤѸϸθǤѲ³
ƥεϤŪŪѸεϤϲŪήưŪ
ƥϽդäդγ֤꤬礭ԤŪѤͤϤʤʥŪˡѸˤĤƤϡɸѸüԤ˴ؤ¤ǤϤ뤬դäդγ֤ŪԤ˶ᤤѼŪѤͤ⤤Ū
ƥŪ˥衼åѤΤߤĤƤѸʤäƤ
ƥˤʹüԤʤäѸˤüԤ
ƥϳؽѡ濴Ȥ¤줿ʸŪ٤ι⤤ʬˤƼȤƽդȤѤ줿ѸʬˤƤΤˤƤѤ
ƥεϤΤϻѼԿΰǤҲŪ˹⤤ؤο͡ѸεϤΤ⡤18Ȥ¤ꡤѼԿΰǤҲŪ˹⤤ؤο͡ǤꡤǤϻƤȤ뤬21αѸεϤäƤΤϤ餯ĤƤȰۤʤΤǤϤʤ̤αѸѼԤŪ˵˴ͿƤΤǤϡ
ۤʤΤǡΤȤʤϤäȵ뤳ȤǤ롥㤨СؤäƤüԿʤɤӤС23ۤʤ̹ФˤϹ٤Ūʻͤɬפǡñˤϥǥ⤫ФʤǤ礦
Ѹ̤ͤǡѸˤϤۤΩʤȻפäƤޤʹ֤θ̤ͤǡѸˤΩĤȻפäѸˤθ³Ƥޤ
The Guardian ˤơѸä3ع¤˴ؤɸεƤʵˡ *
Ѹä3ع¤ˤĤƤܥ֥Ǥ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) 䤽ĥäεǤȲ⤷ƤΤǡǾܤ֤ȤϤʤפΤ߽Ҥ٤ƤȡѸä3ʤΥԥߥåɤƤꡤ̤ˤϺDzؤ˱Ѹ줬ؤ˥եѸ줬Ǿؤ˥ƥѸ줬ޤäƤ롥Ūʸܿΰ仺ǤȤȤˡΥɼҲˤƱѸüԡեüԡƥüԤγơʤҲؤ°ƤǤФǤ⤢롥ñ㲽ƤСؤؤ˸äơ"those who work" or "workers", "those who fight" or "clerks", "those who pray" or "the powerful"ȤĤ°ƤȤȤˤʤ롥
ɸεƤϡŪʳضʬˤĤơEUΥæʤɤäʬǤƤ븽奤ꥹҲˤбʪȤݤǤꡤˤȺDzؤ "workers" ȤΤѤʤؤ "the middle class" ˡǾؤ "the clerkly class" бȤ"the clerkly class" ˴ޤޤΤϡ"academics, thinktankers, lawyers, writers, many artists, scientists, journalists and students, some comedians and politicians, even some entrepreneurs, as well as actual clerics --- anyone whose sense of self depends on an abstract frame of reference" ȤȤ餷
νϡμҲءμҲءѸθóؤʿʤӡȤʿˤŦʤ鸽奤ꥹҲɾƤꡤƤϸŪȤϡ餫ŪǤ롥ä3ع¤ˤĤ1ĽפʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥"[French and Latin] seeped into what we call English and made themselves at home, giving the language its fantastical redundancy, creating something half-Germanic, half-Romance. Trilinguality was internalised." ȤȤȤϼҲŪʸݤǤ diglossia ˤ岼طˤựŪ register ξ岼طؤȡָⲽפΤȤΤĹ餯ռʤΤǤä "internalised" ȽҤ٤Ƥ븽ݤζŪʥץΤꤿΤǤ롥
̤ǤϤ뤬ϢʲΤ褦ʵǰäƤΤǡȤ
#1583. swine vs pork μҲŪյ ([2013-08-27-1])
#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1])
ε#3752. եΥȼѸ ([2019-08-05-1]) ǡեˤ륱ȼѸѤϤȱѸΥȼѸȤӡоȤ褦
ѸΥȼѸοۤΰ찮Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ#3740. Ƚ줫μѸ ([2019-07-24-1])#3750. Ƚ줫μѸ (2) ([2019-08-03-1]) ǸƤեǤϺεǸ褦ˡʤȤ100ۤ륱ñ줬ѤƤŪˤϱʩδ֤˺Ȥ⤤ŪˤߤСۤ礭ʿǤϤʤʸ̤ꡤɴȤäƤ褤μҲˤƤ⡤ȸϼҲŪ˰ҿ㤤äȤȤǤ롥
ȼѸμŪʺۤˤܤ٤Τ롥ѸäƤñˤȤ٤ΤϤۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤եΥȼѸˤϡDurkin (85) λŦ̤ꡤʲΤ褦˹ٸޤޤƤʤˡΤĤѸϥե줫ѤƤˡ
. . . changer is quite a high-frequency word, as are pièce and chemin (and its derivatives). If admitted to the list, petit belongs to a very basic level of the vocabulary. The meanings 'beaver', 'beer', 'boundary', 'change', 'fear' (albeit as noun), 'to flow', 'he-goat', 'oak', 'piece', 'plough' (albeit as verb), 'road', 'rock', 'sheep', 'small', and 'sow' all figure in the list of 1,460 basic meanings . . . . Ultimately, through borrowing from French, the impact is also visible in a number of high-frequency words in the vocabulary of modern English . . . beak, carpentry, change, cream, drape, piece, quay, vassal, and (ultimately reflecting the same borrowing as French char 'chariot') carry and car.
μŪʺۤϲˤΤʤΤŪʸˤС֥ƥΥ֥ȥͤϥͤοˤŪû֤Ƕव졤Ѹؤθ (language_shift) ®˿ʹԤȹͤƤ롥ꥢΥͤϡƥ졦ޥĸüԤ˰Ϥ줿ȤϤĹ֤ˤ錄궦¸ˤǤԻԤǤϥƥ첽ʤȤƤ⡤Ǥϥ줬ä³졤diglossia ξĹ³ϤޤǤäȿʹԤƤΤǤ롥θ塤եˤˤϥޥ⻲Ƥ뤬ǤŪʸϤʤäȤ롥ɤ顤ʩˤ륱ȼѸμκۤϸܿ (contact) ȸμҲŪΰ㤤˵褦ˤĤơDurkin (86) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . whereas in Gaul the Germanic conquerors arrived with relatively little disruption to the existing linguistic situation, in Britain we find a complete disruption, with English becoming the language in general use in (it seems) all contexts. Thus Gaul shows a very gradual switch from Gaulish to Latin/Romance, with some subsequent Germanic input, while Britain seems to show a much more rapid switch to English from Celtic and (maybe) Latin (that is, if Latin retained any vitality in Britain at the time of the Anglo-Saxon settlement).
αʩˤ뺹ۤϡܿǤȤΡ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ζ̤۵ (see #1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]), #1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])) ֥ƥǤ borrowing βꥢǤ shift-induced interference βơͿƤȤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
եˤθƤȡѸˤΥȼѸħ䤫⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥줳оȸˤ̥ϤǤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ܥ֥Ǥϡ (language_shift) ٤夲ƤϸäͤƤߤ褦Trudgill Crystal Ѹ콸ˤС줾켡Τ褦ˤ롥
language shift The opposite of language maintenance. The process whereby a community (often a linguistic minority) gradually abandons its original language and, via a (sometimes lengthy) stage of bilingualism, shifts to another language. For example, between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries, Ireland shifted from being almost entirely Irish-speaking to being almost entirely English-speaking. Shift most often takes place gradually, and domain by domain, with the original language being retained longest in informal family-type contexts. The ultimate end-point of language shift is language death. The process of language shift may be accompanied by certain interesting linguistic developments such as reduction and simplification. (Trudgill)
language shift A term used in sociolinguistics to refer to the gradual or sudden move from the use of one language to another, either by an individual or by a group. It is particularly found among second- and third-generation immigrants, who often lose their attachment to their ancestral language, faced with the pressure to communicate in the language of the host country. Language shift may also be actively encouraged by the government policy of the host country. (Crystal)
ؤϸĿͤ佸Ĥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬奢ɤǼƤȤꡤơ٤äȿʤळȤ¿ϢơؤϤФ bilingualism ʳͳȤ⤢뤬Ȥˤ줬ٲ diglossia ξ֤߽Ф⤢뤳Ȥ˿Ƥ
ޤؤϰ̱δ֤䤹ȤƤ뤬ާƸС͡ưȤ˸ؤϵ䤹ȤȤʡ#3065. ԻԲ¡ء ([2017-09-17-1])ˡ
ɤŪ˵äʤ뤤Ϻ³Ƥ˸ؤˤĤƤϡ#2798. ̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ ([2016-12-24-1])#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#2803. ɸüԿȻϰ ([2016-12-29-1])#2804. ɤˤߤΤͤ츽ݡ ([2016-12-30-1]) ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ҲؤȤƼ夲 diglossia ϡФбѸˤˤŬѤƤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1203. ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ ([2012-08-12-1])
#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1])
#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ ([2015-03-15-1])
#2328. Ѹ¿ѡ ([2015-09-11-1])
ñ㲽ƽҤ٤СűѸ diglossia λ塤Ѹ triglossia λǤ롥νˤϡƥϤޤ礭ʤäꥹȶդƤ椯ˤĤ졤μҲŪʽҲ diglossia ȤʤäNevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272) ˤС
. . . Anglo-Saxon England became a diglossic society, in that one language came to be used in one set of circumstances, i.e. Latin as the language of religion, scholarship and education, while another language, English, was used in an entirely different set of circumstances, namely in all those contexts in which Latin was not used. In other words, Latin became the High language and English, in its many different dialects, the Low language.
פʤΤϡѸΥ衼åѤǤ㳰ŪˡˡΧʸؤȤŵŪ High variety λѤդ路ȤʬˤƤѤ줿ȤǤ롥űѸ diglossia ϡǤ§ŪǤ롥
ѸȡɼҲˤѤʣ롥Ƥ Nevalainen and Tieken-Boon van Ostade (272--73) Ѥ롥
This diglossic situation was complicated by the coming of the Normans in 1066, when the High functions of the English language which had evolved were suddenly taken over by French. Because the situation as regards Latin did not change --- Latin continued to be primarily the language of religion, scholarship and education --- we now have what might be referred to as a triglossic situation, with English once more reduced to a Low language, and the High functions of the language shared by Latin and French. At the same time, a social distinction was introduced within the spoken medium, in that the Low language was used by the common people while one of the High languages, French, became the language of the aristocracy. The use of the other High language, Latin, at first remained strictly defined as the medium of the church, though eventually it would be adopted for administrative purposes as well. . . . [T]he functional division of the three languages in use in England after the Norman Conquest neatly corresponds to the traditional medieval division of society into the three estates: those who normally fought used French, those who worked, English, and those who prayed, Latin.
ΤȸѸˤƥեλѤꡤѸˤϥƥλʬ⤺äȸ¤褦ˤʤꡤ̤Ȥƥɤ monoglossia ҲذܹԤʹߡѸϤषϤ diglossia triglossia ˡ High variety ȤƴͿƤΤǤ롥
Nevalainen, Terttu and Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade. "Standardisation." Chapter 5 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 271--311.
Ѹˤ롤Ѹ졤ե졤ƥ3ѤҲŪŪˤĤƤϡޤǤεǤ¿夲Ƥ㤨Сʲȡ
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1488. -glossia Υʥߥ ([2013-05-24-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2025. ɤϾ¿ä ([2014-11-12-1])
Crespo (24) ϡѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤ŤŪˤϻѰ衤Ρϰ̤֤ǤϤ뤬ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
| LANGUAGE | Register | Medium | Status |
| Latin | Formal-Official | Written | High |
| French | Formal-Official | Written/Spoken | High |
| English | Informal-Colloquial | Spoken | Low |
| ENGLAND | Languages | Linguistic situation |
| Early Middle Ages | Latin--French--English | TRILINGUAL |
| 14th--15th centuries | French--English | BILINGUAL |
| 15th--16th c. onwards | English | MONOLINGUAL |
ε ([2015-06-03-1]) ˰³ޥ륿αѸˤĤơޥ륿 ESLǤȤäƤ⡤ɤʥꥢΤ褦ŵŪ ESLȤϰۤʤꡤĤðäƤ롥衼åѤ˰֤ESLǤ뤳ȡ衼åѤͣѼαѸĤȤϺεǿ줿̤Mazzon (593) Ϥ˲ä3ޥ륿θðŦƤ롥Ȥ櫓ꥢȤ diglossia Ĺˤȥޥ륿Ωˤβ⤬פǤ롥
There are various reasons for the peculiarity of the Maltese linguistic situation: 1) the size of the country, a small archipelago in the centre of the Mediterranean; 2) the composition of the population, which is ethnically and linguistically quite homogeneous; 3) its history previous to the British domination; throughout the centuries, Malta had undergone various invasions, its political history being intimately connected with that of Southern Italy. This link, together with the geographical vicinity to Italy, encouraged the adoption of Italian as a language of culture and, more generally, as an H variety in a well-established situation of diglossia. Italian has been for centuries a very prestigious language throughout Europe, since Italy has one of the best known literary traditions and some of the oldest European universities. Maltese is a language of uncertain origin; it was deeply "restructured" or "refounded" on Semitic lines during the Arab domination, between 870 and 1090 A.D. It has since then followed the same path as other spoken varieties of Arabic, losing almost all its inflections and moving towards analytical types; the close contact with Italian helped in this process, also contributing large numbers of vocabulary items.
ߤΥޥ륿ȱѸ2ѾطʤˤϡåʸȤƤαѸؤοƶᴶ롥¿ESLϰˤơѸФ븫ɬŪȤϸ¤ʤޥ륿ǤϾۤʤäƤ롥ˤϡ̱ "integrative motivation" ͿƤȤ
The role of this integrative motivation must always be kept in mind in the case of Malta, since the relative cultural vicinity and the process through which Malta became part of the Empire made this case somehow anomalous; many Maltese today simply deny they ever were just a "colony"; young people seem to partake in this feeling and often stress the point that the British never "invaded" Malta: they were invited. There is a widespread feeling that the British never really colonialized the country, they just "came to help"; the connection of the Maltese people with Britain is still quite strong, not only through the British tourists: in many shops and some private houses, alongside the symbols of Catholicism, portraits of the British Royal Family are proudly displayed on the walls. (Mazzon 597)
Τˡޥ륿ESLϰΤʤǤðۤ¸ߤΤ褦Ǥ롥ޥ륿θʱѸ˻ϡҲ˸Ū˶̣Ǥ롥
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
ޥ륿¹ (Republic of Malta) ϡ#177. ENL, ESL, EFL ϰΥꥹȡ ([2009-10-21-1])#215. ENS, ESL ϰαѸ첽ǯ ([2009-11-28-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ衼åǤ ESL (English as a Second Language) ιǤ롥Ʊ衼åѤǤϢˮ˽°ƤǤ⤢ (cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1])ˡ˥衼åѤͣȤäƤ褤ѼαѸ줬äƤǤ⤢롥ޥ륿ȱѸȤζ̩ʴؤˤϡ1814ǯʻ礵줿ȤŪطʤ (cf. #777. Ѹάǯɽ ([2011-06-13-1])ˡŪˤŪˤ⡤¾ ESL ϰȤϰۤʤäƤȤܤͤ뤬ޥ륿αѸˤĤƤξܤϤޤ긫ʤϢʸ1ɤൡäΤǡ˴Ťƥޥ륿αѸάҤ
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[S]ince the year 1950, the most important steps in language policy have been in the direction of the promotion of Maltese and of the extension of its use to a number of domains, while English has been more and more widely learnt and used for its importance and prestige as an international language, but also as a "fashionable, chic" language used in social gatherings and as a status symbol . . . .
Mazzon, Gabriella. "A Chapter in the Worldwide Spread of English: Malta." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 592--601.
ѸҲѸȥեˤ diglossia ƤȤϡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) #1203. ɤˤʩλȤʬμҲ ([2012-08-12-1]) ʤɤεǸƤȤǤ롥2Ѿ֤ľܸڤ褦ʵҤõΤɬ⤿䤹ʤޤƤ䡤2ˤĤɾ褦ʥȤϸĤˤΤʤǤ⤳λ˸ڤͭ̾ʰ롥Robert of Gloucester (fl. 1260--1300) Chronicle ΰǡʲCorpus of Middle English Prose and Verse The metrical chronicle of Robert of Gloucester 곺սѤ褦
& þe normans ne couþe speke þo / bote hor owe speche (l. 7538)
& speke french as hii dude atom / & hor children dude also teche
So þat heiemen of þis lond / þat of hor blod come (l. 7540)
Holdeþ alle þulke speche / þat hii of hom nome
Vor bote a man conne frenss / me telþ of him lute
Ac lowe men holdeþ to engliss / & to hor owe speche ȝute
Ich wene þer ne beþ in al þe world / contreyes none
Þat ne holdeþ to hor owe speche / bote engelond one (l. 7545)
Ac wel me wot uor to conne / boþe wel it is
Vor þe more þat a mon can / þe more wurþe he is
ΥޥͤϥɤˤäƤȤˤϥեΤߤѤƤꡤλ¹ "heiemen" եݻƤȡΰ "lowe men" ϱѸΤߤѤƤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Ϥޤ diglossia ˤ H (= High variety) L (= Low variety) ζ̤ؤľܤθڤǤ롥ޤեΤʤȼҲŪ㤯ȤȤƤ롥ˡѤνΤۤǤϡξΤäƤۤ褤ΤۤҲŪ˲ͤ⤤Ȥߤʤȡʩ bilingualism ʸ륳ȤդƤ롥
ºݤΤȤChronicle 줿13ˤϡ²λǤ⤢ƳؽʤХե˻ȤʤʤȤ֤ˤʤäƤ²λΥեϤοꤨϡ#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ13ޤǤˤϤǤ˸ˤʤäƤ褦եμҲŪϰ̤ϰȤƹ⤫äᡤ;פ˥եؽ夵줿ȤȤˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤ Robert of Gloucester ϡξ뤳Ȥڤ⤤ΤǤ롥
ε#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1]) Ǽ褦ˡɽθϡŪʻʣǤ롥ˤʬˤꡤ礴Ȥ˻Ūʸ줬ۤʤȤٴ֤ϰŪϢȤȤʤäƤ롥ΩȤȱʩμΤȤߤƤ뤳Ȥ⡤ϰΰݤˤװȤʤäƤ롥ΤȤơϰǤϵ콡θ줬ŪΤۤ˼ȤƱѸե١Ȥ쥪ʡ#1531. pidgin creole ʬۡ ([2013-07-06-1])ˡ̱θԤƤꡤϹäƤ롥ʲEncylopædia Britannica 1997 εȤƤޤȤ롥
쥪ˤĤƤСJamaica ˤѸ١Υ쥪줬褯ΤƤ롥Jamaica Ǥϡ饸⡤ʤɤǥ쥪줬ѤƤꡤФɸѸԺߤǤ롥ʷϵˤꡤ쥪ɸѸȤΤϤޤڤؤ뤳Ȥ̾ǤJamaican creole ζˤĤƤϡJamaican Creole Texts Ȥ줿ˡJamaica ˸¤餺æ̱ϲФ the Commonwealth Caribbean Ǥ⡤̤˱Ѹ١Υ쥪줬Ƥ롥
ե١Υ쥪ѤˤĤƤϡHaiti ŵȤƵ롥Jamaica ξƱͤˡHaiti Ǥ⥯쥪줬Ϥ˻ѤƤꡤºݤ¿ι̱ɸեʤ#1486. diglossia ˤä Chaucer ([2013-05-22-1]) Haiti ˤ diglossia ˤĤƿ줿褦ˡ쥪ϡѼɸեФƲѼȤư֤ŤΤΡٹ礤ǤФषͥǤ롥Guadeloupe Martinique ʩΥƥǤϡեܹȤ߹ޤƤ뤿ˡɸեλѤŪǤ롥
ڥ١Υ쥪ϡCuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic ʤɤμפʥڥϰˤƤȯãʤäAruba, Curaçao, Bonaire ʤΥƥǤ Papiamento ȸƤФѸκ쥪줬äƤ롥Puerto Rico Ǥϡ̱ˤꡤꥫѸαƶڥ줬äƤ롥
̱θȤƤ Hindi, Urdu, Chinese ԤƤ롥ѻ߸ˡ̱Ȥƥɤ餳ϰˤäƤ͡θǤ롥üԤ¿ϡ줾ϰˤŪʸؤȽƱƤäƤ롥㤨СTrinidad and Tobago ǤϹ̱4䤬ɷϰ̱δ֤ Hindi Urdu λѤϾʤʤäƤƤȤؤʹȤȤ
Luxembourg ϡ#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1]) ˤ줺¿ѹǤ롥Ʊθ¾¿ιʣǤ롥Luxemburgish, German, French 3ˤ롤diglossia ʤ triglossia ҲȤƸڤǤ
Luxembourg Ͽ50ͤۤɤιǡ̱¿ƱΥǥƥƥô륯֥륯ȤäθϸŪˤϥɥĸ1ѼȤȤǽʤۤɤεΥüԤΩ1Ǥȼĥ롥ޤܤ⤽Τ褦ʸƤ1984ǯ衤3ѸȤƤˡ֤СɸɥĸʤɤθҤѼܤ (Ausbau language) ϡΩ뤿ᡤݻĥ뤿ˤϹȤθ⤬ɬפȤȤʴϢơ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ӡ#1523. Abstand language Ausbau language ([2013-06-28-1]) εȡˡ
Τ褦˥륯֥륯ϥ륯֥륯μפȤƵǽƤ뤬ޤDz̸ȤƵǽƤȤդФ̸ɸɥĸǤ롥ƸʸءʹХ륯֥륯줬뤳ȤϤʤ̩ˡʤŪɤ߽ΤɸɥĸǤꡤΤ˻Ҷɸɥĸعǽɬפ롥عǤϡɸɥĸ϶ȤƤƳ뤬˿ʤȺ٤ϥե줬Ȥʤ롥ιǤϥեϺǾ̤θȤƵǽƤꡤΤۤIJ¿θɸǤե줬Ѥ롥ĤޤꡤŵŪʥ륯֥륯ͤϡäˤϥ륯֥륯̾ɤ߽ˤɸɥĸIJǤϥեѤʾʤȤ3ѼԤǤȤȤˤʤ (Trudgill 100--01) Wardhaugh (90) ѤƤ2002ǯοͤˤС˥륯֥륯üԤ80%ɥĸüԤ81%եüԤ96%Ȥ
嵭Τ褦ˡ륯֥륯ϥ륯֥륯ˤƼפ줫IJ̸ȤƵǽƤ櫓ƱΤĤ⤦1ĤνפʼҲŪǽǤ "solidarity marker" εǽ˺ƤϤʤʤ
륯֥륯θˤĤƤϡEthnologue Luxembourg ȡ

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ε#1627. code-switching code-mixing ([2013-10-10-1]) ǡcode-switching طʤˤ͡װѤƤȽҤ٤ϡcode-switching ϤʤΤɤΤ褦ʤȤΤȤˤĤơȤ (27--36) ˵ʤ顤ҲŪʴꤿ
ޤջ̤μ¤ˤ뤿 code-switching ȤΤ롥㤨Соݤؼ礬פ⤫Фʤˡ̤θθȤȤȤ롥ŵŪʸѤư1Ĥcode-switching ξˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤޤ롥referential function ȸƤФ뵡ǽ
⤦1İջ̤˴ؤưȤƤϡñʹΤڤؤȤ code-switching 뤳ȤǤ롥Ūʿǡ٤˺¤äƤܿͤˤܸä٤αѸüԤޤ3ͤäˤϱѸڤؤȤä̤פ⤫٤Ф褤ޤκ٤οͤʹ줿ʤ褦٤ܿͤˤΤȤˡƤܸڤؤȤȤ⤢ꤦ롥Τ褦 code-switching εǽϡdirective function ȸƤФ롥
嵭2ĤΤ褦ˡջ̤ΤΤˤʤ code-switching Ȱۤʤ code-switching ¿¸ߤ롥θäƤߤ̤ˤ⤫餺code-switching 뤳Ȥ롥ˤϡ4ĤưŤƤƤ롥
(1) ˱Ƥ code-switching (situational code-switching)
̡ꡤäʤɡʣŪ domain ȸƤФˤ˱ƻѸڤؤƤ椯Ǥ롥㤨Сdiglossia ΤҲˤơѼ (high variety) ȲѼ (low variety) Ȥ domain ˤäƻȤʬ뤬꤬ŪʤΤŪʤΤذܹԤ˱ơѤڤؤȤä㤬롥ŪˤϡParaguay Spanish Guaraní diglossia ˤơǰǤɤϺǽϲѼǤƤߤΤ Guaraní DzäƤ륳뤬äƤȾѼǸҤ丢ϤȷӤĤ Spanish ڤؤȤäȤꤦ (Wardhaugh 96)
ܸǤ⡤ͧ2ͤɸäƤȤܾοͤä뤳ȤǡȤͧ2ͤδ֤Ǥɸˤä蘆ϤȤä㤬롥⡤code-switching ˤĤʤȹͤ롥
(2) СåפΩ뤿 code-switching
¿졦¿̱²Ҳˤơϰζ̸ȼȤ뤳Ȥˤäơdual identity Ȥ㤬롥㤨СϥꥫͤϡѸäȤǥꥫҲΰǤȤȤƱˡܸäȤϿͤǤȤ̱²Ū°Ȥ롥ξΥǥƥƥݻ뤿ˡäξǤʶޤƤȹͤ롥act of identity 1Ȥ
Ʊ褦 code-switching üԤδ֤ǤϡƱ dual identity ǷФ줿ķ봶ʬƱ code-switching ǽϤͭԤϡʬƱθĶǰäƤˤʤǤ롥 code-switching ϡߤְռơݤѶŪ䤬롥ȤϤ¿ξ硤 code-switching ̵ռ˹ԤƤȤȤˤդɬפ롥
û䡤äܸξˤϽä뤳Ȥˤꡤdual identity ɽ륿פ code-switching 롥"You don't have to do that 补" Ȥ"He's so nice ͤ" ʤɡϡemblematic switching ʾħŪءˤȸƤФ롥
(3) طθĤμʤȤƤ code-switching
줫θѶŪѤơüԤˤȤä˾ޤФȤ륱롥ʲϡ˥ļĮΥСǡפΤ礤βҰˤ̵̤Ǥ롥ϸθǤ륤ɸ졤Ǥ륹ҥȱѸ줬ڤؤ롥
ס
Inzala ya mapesa, kambuli ʥ륤ɸ
ʤ⤬ʤƺäƤ
Ұ
You have got land. ʱѸ
Una shamba. ʥҥ
Uli nu mulimi. ʥ륤ɸ
ȪäƤ
ס
Mwana mweru . . . ʥ륤ɸ
ʿƤ礸ʤ
Ұ
Mbula tsiendi. ʥ륤ɸ
ʤʤʤ补
Can't you see how I am heavily loaded? ʱѸ
ʼ꤬դʤ衤狼
Ұפ̵魯Τ˱ѸѤϤƤ롥ϡ֤θǤ륤ɸȤȡפƱˤʤꡤķްդΤǡ̵˶䤹ʤäƤޤǤ롥⤤ܤ丢Ҥħ̸ǤѸѤ뤳ȤˤäơפȤδ֤˿ŪʵΥФ̵ݤˤʤ롥
ȤơʥӤοõƤԤȸѼԤθ˴ؤƤߤ褦 (Graddol 13)
Young man: Mr Muchuki has sent me to you about the job you put in the paper.
Manager: Ulituma barua ya application? [DID YOU SEND A LETTER OF APPLICATION?]
Young man: Yes, I did. But he asked me to come to see you today.
Manager: Ikiwa ulituma barua, nenda ungojee majibu. Tukakuita ufika kwa interview siku itakapafika. Leo sina la suma kuliko hayo. [IF YOU'VE WRITTEN A LETTER, THEN GO AND WAIT FOR A RESPONSE, WE WILL CALL YOU FOR AN INTERVIEW WHEN THE LETTER ARRIVES. TODAY I HAVEN'T ANYTHING ELSE TO SAY.]
Young man: Asante. Nitangoja majibu. [THANK YOU. I WILL WAIT FOR THE RESPONSE.]
ǤϡԤ϶ܤǽϤħѸ̤פबѼԤϤ˱̸Ǥ륹ҥǤβäƤ롥Ĥ˱ʤȤˤ꼨Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǸˡդμԤϸѼԤΰϤ˶ơҥڤؤƤ롥줾줬ʬͭʾФˡȤάѤƤΤǤ롥
ܸǤ⡤ޤɤĴDzäƤ̵̼̼ξ̤ˤʤäơ줬֤ϰڤޤפȲޤäɽֻ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤäɽѤ뤳ȤˤäơȤδ֤˵ΥФݤλƤȹͤ롥ȤοŪΥѼ "we-code"礭Ѽ "they-code" ȸƤ֤Ȥ뤬 (cf. Wardhaugh 102) ̼Ф we-code they-code ڤؤȤˤʤ롥
(4) ɤθˤ뤫õ뤿 code-switching
ʬ¿ѼԤǤ硤ɤθѤƲäʤФ褤ꤹ뤿ˡĤθõȤ롥ߤ˺Ǥ⤷ä꤯֤٤ȿʤĤΤܸǤ⡤ФƷɸФ٤ݤ¤äƤȤˡɸɸŬΨǿä礬롥ˤäơνõꡤɤΤ褦äDzäʤƤ椱Ф褤ˤ褦ȤƤ롥
嵭ΤưŤˤĤƤ⡤ҲŪʰ̣뤳Ȥ狼롥code-switching ϡʹִطιۡݻȤ٤˼ҲŪôäƤ롥
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
#331. ưʪȤɽñ ([2010-03-24-1]) εǡѸˤͭ̾ calf vs veal, deer vs venison, fowl vs poultry, sheep vs mutton, swine (pig) vs pork, bacon, ox vs beef θޤˤ줤ʡֱѸ vs եѸפȤʤäƤꡤʤۤɤεǰˤκ뤳Ȥϡ#332. ưʪȤɽñפοá ([2010-03-25-1]) ǤߤȤܤä줿եäȤŪʸճؤιޤȤƤβͤѤʤʱѸäع¤εȡˡ
[2010-03-24-1]εǤ줿Ȥꡤưʪθͭ̾ˤΤ Sir Walter Scott (1771--1832) Ǥ롥Scott ϡ1819ǯ˾ Ivanhoe Τʤоʪ˼Τ褦˸餻Ƥ롥
"The swine turned Normans to my comfort!" quoth Gurth; "expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull, and my mind too vexed, to read riddles."
"Why, how call you those grunting brutes running about on their four legs?" demanded Wamba.
"Swine, fool, swine," said the herd, "every fool knows that."
"And swine is good Saxon," said the Jester; "but how call you the sow when she is flayed, and drawn, and quartered, and hung up by the heels, like a traitor?"
"Pork," answered the swine-herd.
"I am very glad every fool knows that too," said Wamba, "and pork, I think, is good Norman-French; and so when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman, and is called pork, when she is carried to the Castle-hall to feast among the nobles what dost thou think of this, friend Gurth, ha?"
"It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got into thy fool's pate."
"Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba, in the same tone; "there is old Alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and bondsmen such as thou, but becomes Beef, a fiery French gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to consume him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in the like manner; he is Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment."
ʩóؤϡѸʻˡˤ˴ؿΤ¿ο͡˥ԡ뤹뤬䤬˴ؿƤΤϡȤ櫓ҲŪ diglossia ȸŪ register δؤ礤εˤƤǤ롥#1489. Ferguson diglossia ʸɤ triglossia ([2013-05-25-1]) ڤӡ#1491. diglossia borrowing δط ([2013-05-27-1]) 褦ˡѸ diglossia ˴ŤҲŪʾ岼طκפŪ register ξ岼طȤüԤθ (lexicon) ΤʤȿǤƤ̣ҲŪʡʤ쳰ŪΩɤΤ褦ˤηŪʡʤŪΩžΤϡ#1380. micro-sociolinguistics macro-sociolinguistics ([2013-02-05-1]) Ǽ夲ޥҲ (macro-sociolinguistics or sociology of language) ȥߥҲ (micro-sociolinguistics) Ȥˤ̤롥Ҳ¤ȸηϤϤɤΤ褦Ϣ³ƤΤ뤤ϤɤΤ褦䤷ƤΤ
Scott λŦ swine vs pork Ω켫ΤϡŪʺۤȤϰ̣ŪʡʻؼоݤΡ˺ۤŪʾ嵭˴Ū˴ؤäƤ롥
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