䤿ѸȸƤǤΤϡƤ˴ŤȯŸƤɸѸ (Standard English) ˤۤʤޤ̤žåȥɤäƤѸѼ (Scots or Scottish English) ܤȡˤɸѸΥѥɤȤ٤ˤäƤޤ
ܵǤϡåȥɤ餷餷ƤиΤܤƤ뤳ȤǧĤġʤ Scots ȤˤˤĤΤäƤȤ褤ΤݥȤƤߤȻפޤ
Scots Ȥˤܤ٤1ͳϡScots ɸѸв뤿ζˤʤȤǤScots ϡɤαѸѼСűѸľͳ褹ͣαѸѼǤ٤ɾСScots ӸŪ English ȺǤᤤȤΤǤ䤿ؽɸȤƤѸ줬ߤλѤˤʤäΤϡˤɬǤϤʤη̤ˤޤ㤨СScots Ǥ첻 (gvs) ʬŪˤäƤ餺house űѸβ˶ᤤ [huːs] ȯꡤĹɽΤ <i> 첻źȼֻäƤꤷޤޤ߷ưˤϡο;Τ˸¤餺¤ -is ʤɡScots ʸˡ̤ǤȼѲ뤲ƤƤޤˤۤʤäƤСɸѸ⤢뤤ϤʤäƤ⤷ʤȤλѤ Scots ˸뤳Ȥǡ䤿ɸѸл뤻Фᤫį뤳ȤǤΤǤ
2ˡScots ˤ English ˤ餱餺ܿθ̤ɾʹκǤ롤ȤǤScots θäɽˤϡ8Ⱦ11ΥȴϢťΥɸαƶ13--14ΥåȥΩưȴطοեȤΡָƱסAuld Allianceˤ⤿餷ȼΥեѸ졤15˲ֺ餤ƥȤʸ (aureate diction) ߹ޤƤޤ˸Ťϡȸδפ⤢櫓ǡScots ϤϤˤѸˤʣθ¸ߤȤʤäƤΤǤ
3ˡScots ˤ˭ʸŪޤRobert the Bruce William Wallace Ȥäαͺ˴ؤʪ줫顤Ǥ15--16 Robert Henryson William Dunbar ʤɤΥåȥɤˤ硼ͤƸι̱Ū Burns Scott ˻ޤǡOlder/Modern Scots ǽ줿̤κʤĤäƤޤScots ؤ֤ȤǡΤ褦ʸդΤḷ̌臘ȤǤӤϳ̤ǤScots ͭβŪʶϡñʤãƻĶ̥Ϥ䤿˶Ƥޤ
ˤСScots ˤϥåȥɤȤȤĶˤȤĤʤäƤޤScots-Irish ꥫ̱ˤ˲̤ϡޤǤʤפǤޤܤ˷פΤʤŪкŪƶͿThomas Blake Glover ϤȤ륹åȥɤεȲȤפͤȤطʤˤäŪǥƥƥ̵뤹뤳ȤϤǤޤScots ȤѸѼˤϡȥǥƥƥȸδط뤤ϽդäդۤʤǥȤƤ˵ǽ뤫ȤҲŪ꤬Ž̤ƤȤäƤ褤Ǥ礦
Scots Ȥˤؤ֤Ȥϡñ1ĤɸѸѼ˾ܤʤ뤳ȤǤϤޤϡѸȤ줬̤βǽѥɤ˻פڤܿءϲβȽŪªľǤ⤢ΤǤ
ʾ塤åȥޤܤܤϢơ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) ⻲ȡ

ļ̦ءˤˤ롤ɤθ˴ؤҡرѸȤɤκ١ʴȽŹ2016ǯˤˤĤơ#2798. ̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ ([2016-12-24-1])#2803. ɸüԿȻϰ ([2016-12-29-1])#2804. ɤˤߤΤͤ츽ݡ ([2016-12-30-1]) ǻȤƤ
ϡƱγפĤिܼƤ
ϢܺΤԡˡʣθƻ̡١ʤǡ2022ǯˤȤƤ ([2023-04-17-1], [2023-04-19-1]) ްȤäŤäƤΤåɤߤ䤹Ƥ뤿ᡤᤷ䤹ƾդ줿ʸͭѤǤ롥

Ƭ1ϡ̴äʤ --- οȤȡסʻܺΤˤΥơޤϡɸ˵褦ˡް̾괹ƻǤ롥۸줬۸˰äȤϸźǤߤ뤬βϤۤñǤϤʤ (12--14) Ѥ롥
Ѹžϡްη̤Ǥ⤢С뤳ȤˤĤƤμȯŪȿǤƤΤ⤢뤬¿ξˤϡĤξäΤ̱Ԥϡ̤ˤϡϸ䤷ˤ٤ųݤ櫓ǤϤʤϸ꾯ʤΰȵǽؤȥƥޥƥå˸ꤷƤޤŪʡʳΡ˸˴ؤŪʸѤ롥ΤȤˤäơϸ¸ߤʤʤäƤΤ (Migge & Léglise 2007, p. 302)
äȡֲΤȡפȸͤ⤤롥ֺϤ⤦̱ϼʤ¸ߤʤåȤᤵȤȺϹԤʤפȡζʤǤɸ줬Ѥ뤳Ȥξʤ̱²サϰ¼ˤƤ⡤ձǤɸѤƸƱײȯɽΤǯΤȤɸȤȤǡˤ錄ȯŸδäĤ뤳ȡפָġͤĹס¼οס̱²ƱΰռηפʤΤȤڿ̱¹2021ˡ
ָϸפ֤꾯ʤΰȵǽؤȥƥޥƥå˸פƱˡֻŪʡʳΡ˸˴ؤŪʸפήۤȤ֤ϡۤϪǤϤʤȤ⡤絬ϤˡȯƤ롥Сޤ줿Ķǽβͤ㲼ۤθʲXȤˤΰҿ궯Ȥ֤Ǥ롥ȤХޥߤǡǡʤɸξǡˤX줬Ȥ褦ˤʤäƤ顥ǤϸϤθǤϤʤXȤ褦ˤȡ顥XΤǤ̥ͤŪʻŻ˽褦ˤʤäʤ顥
줬֤꾯ʤΰȵǽؤȥƥޥƥå˸פƤ domain_loss ȸƤФcf. #4537. Ѹ줫ΰϤˤ̲ "domain loss" ([2021-09-28-1])ˡǤ졤˸äƥ兩ȼäƤǤ롥
ָλ (language_death) Ȥơޤϡ¾δϢڤΥʤ㤨и (language_shift) (linguistic_imperialism)츢 (linguistic_right) (revitalisation_of_language) (ecolinguistics) ʤɤȤ̩ܤ˴ؤ롥ƼҲؤ礭Ǥ롥
Τԡˡʣθƻ̡١ǡ2022ǯ
ܿ (contact) ˴ؤɸ3ĤνפѸ⤹롥Τ褦ѸѤݤդ٤ϡԤˤäƲؤۤʤ뤳ȤǤʬȤǤ Hickey (486--87) Ѥ
(1) Borrowing. Items/structures are copied from language X to language Y, but without speakers of Y shifting to X. In this simple form, borrowing is characteristic of "cultural" contact (e.g. Latin and English in the history of the latter, or English and other European languages today). Such borrowings are almost exclusively confined to words and phrases.
(2) Transfer. During language shift, when speakers of language X are switching to language Y, they transfer features of their original native language X to Y. Where these features are not present in Y they represent an innovation. For grammatical structures one can distinguish (i) categories and (ii) their realizations, either or both of which can be transferred.
(3) Convergence. A feature in language X has an internal source (i.e. there is a systemic motivation for the feature within language X), and the feature is present in a further language Y with which X is in contact. Both internal and external sources "converge" to produce the same result as with the progressive form in English. . . .
3Ĥζʬϡܿ˵ agentivity X, Y Τθü¦ˤΤ뤤ξ¦ˤΤбȤäƤ褤 agentivity δˤĤƤϡ#3968. ܿ2סimitation adaptation ([2020-03-08-1])#3969. ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶӤ ([2020-03-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Hickey, Raymond. "Assessing the Role of Contact in the History of English." Chapter 37 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. New York: OUP, 2012. 485--96.
ʱѸ춵ˤǤܸζʹ춵ˤʤˤƤΤϡ椷ȤǤ롥Τ褦ʵˤȤºݡѸΤܸ줬ˤʤäƤޤȤϺ˻Ϥޤä櫓ǤϤʤŪǶεС㤨С#3010. ָο̱ϲܤ̵ۤФʹϤʤס ([2017-07-24-1]) #3011. Ǥ٤ƤŤϵǤ ([2017-07-25-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
ŪˤܤǤϤΤ褦ʷǰϤۤɶʤԹѸ줬ƩƤ餺ڼ¤ȤʤʤषѸѤҲ˹äƤꡤѸ줬դȤϰǤڼ¤Ǥ롤줬Ѹ˿Ƥޤǽ̣ӤӤ뤫㤨С̲Ūˤ EFL ϰʬव뤬ҲǤαѸѤμºݤ˾Ȥ餻 ESL ϰ˶ᤤ֤Ťˤꡤ˱ѸΰϤƤ (#56. Ѹΰ֤ŤѤĤĤ ([2009-06-23-1]) ȡˡΤ褦ϰǤϥӥͥڡؽѤʬDZѸ줬ƩƤꡤѤΰ褬ʤäƤƤȤĤޤꡤ"domain loss" Ƥ褦ʤΤPhillipson and Skutnabb-Kangas (325) Ѥ롥
One might think that European countries with strong national languages are unaffected by greater use of English, that its use and learning represent merely the addition of a foreign language. However, the international prestige and instrumental value of English can lead to linguistic territory being occupied at the expense of local languages and the broad democratic role that national languages play. An increasing use of English in the business, entertainment and academic worlds in Scandinavia has led to a perception of threat that tends to be articulates as a risk of "domain loss." This term tends to be used loosely, and minor empirical studies suggest that there has been an expansion rather than a contraction of linguistic resources hitherto.
ºݡ̲ "domain loss" ζҤơ2006ǯˡ̲פǧƤ롥ʸ̲Τ٤Ƥν̱θ츢 (linguistic_right) 𤤤Ƥ롤طʤˤθ˰ݤˤʤ뤳Ȥ褦Ȥʣ (plurilingualism) λۤ롥
̲Ǥ顿餳嵭Τ褦ʾ롥ܤξäƤ¾ȤӤפ
Phillipson, Robert and Tove Skutnabb-Kangas. "English, Language Dominance, and Ecolinguistic Diversity Maintenance." Chapter 16 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 313--32.
8Ⱦ11ˤƥαѸϸťΥɸǻܿθܿ (contact) ϸαѸη˿ʱƶڤܤѸ˾ΰյ礭ˡ¿θ椬ʤ졤ѤƤܥ֥Ǥ⡤ťΥɸ˴ؤ old_norse ¿εǼ夲Ƥ
θܿħϡñʤüѤˤȤɤޤ餺٥ˤƶڤǤˤ롥˶ñ㲽 (simplification) ʿ (levelling) ˴ؤơܿιäȤŦƤ롥θܿܿΥݥΤʤǤɤΤ褦ʰ֤ŤˤΤ͡ʵ롥
ʬ˱ƶϤΤ Thomason and Kaufman (97, 281) θΩƤǤϡθܿοϡ (borrowing) 뤤ϸ (language_shift) ˤƶȤäˤȤϡξθüԤǤϤʤθüԤǤȤ
ξüԤȤ˼餸Ƥ륿פθܿǤȤ롥2ʤ뤤2ˤüԤߤŶĤ֤ʿƤ͡ (koineisation) βǤϤʤȤΩˤĤƤϡǤˡ#3972. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation ([2020-03-12-1]) ȡ#3980. űѸȸťΥɸܿη̤ koineisation (2) ([2020-03-20-1]) ǤҲ𤷤Ƥ Winford (82--83) Dawson ˰͵ĤIJ⤷ƤʬѤ
Hope Dawson (2001) suggests that the variety of Northern English that emerged from the contact between Viking Norse and Northern Old English was in fact a koiné --- a blend of elements from the two languages. The formation of this compromise variety involved selections from both varieties, with gradual elimination of competition between variants through leveling (selection of one option). This suggestion is attractive, since it explains the retention of Norse grammatical features more satisfactorily than a borrowing scenario does. We saw . . . that the direct borrowing of structural features (under RL [= recipient language] agentivity) is rather rare. The massive diffusion of Norse grammatical features into Northern Old English is therefore not what we would expect if the agents of change were speakers of Old English importing Norse features into their speech. A more feasible explanation is that both Norse and English speakers continued to use their own varieties to each other, and that later generations of bilingual or bidialectal speakers (especially children) forged a compromise language, as tends to happen in so many situations of contact.
ܿؤγǤϡ͡ΩԤƤƤ褦˻פ롥
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Dawson, Hope. "The Linguistic Effects of the Norse Invasion of England." Unpublished ms, Dept of Linguistics, Ohio State U, 2001.
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
ŪˤХɱѸ䥤ɱѸΤ褦 "indigenised Englishes" ϡظȱѸȤθܿӸ (language_shift) η̤ȤѼǤꡤѸȤΰŪʴطݤƤȤ롥ʥ Saramaccan Τ褦 "English creoles" ϡѸȤθܿȤƤ뤬ǤѸȤľܤΰŪʴطΤʤѼȤ (cf. #463. Ѹ١Υԥȥ쥪ΰ ([2010-08-03-1]))
嵭 indigenised Englishes English creoles 椵ݤνλǤ롥פ˥쥪ܿ㳰ŪʥȤȤ館ΩɽŪԤȤ Thomason and Kaufman Ƥ
ǯǤ indigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤ϡθĥ褦ܼΰ㤤ǤϤʤ٤ˤʤΤǤϤʤȤäƤƤ롥Τ褦ʸѤ Winford (196) ˼褦
This recognition has led to a growing rapport between the study of the New Englishes and the study of English-lexicon creoles in the last couple of decades. It has given impetus to an earlier tradition of research concerned with the relationship between the two types of contact Englishes, which dates back to the 1980s . . . . The links between the two fields have more recently been reaffirmed in the work of scholars . . . . It is now generally acknowledged that the creation of the New Englishes shares a great deal in common with creole formation, with regard to both the socio-historical circumstances and the processes of change that were involved. The challenge facing us is to show how these two dimensions of language shift---the socio-historical and the linguistic---interact in the emergence of contact varieties. On the one hand, the diversity of outcomes that resulted from the spread of English to various colonies provides support for Thomason and Kaufman's claim that 'it is the sociolinguistic history of the speakers, and not the structure of their language, that is the primary determinant of the linguistic outcome of language contact' (1988: 35). At the same time, the emergence and evolution of contact Englishes supports the view that different outcomes are also constrained by the same principles and processes of change that operate in shift situations generally. All of this suggests that the division between 'indigenized English' and 'creoles' is essentially an artificial one, since we find diversity within each group and significant overlap between the two.
Winford ˤȤäƤϡindigenised Englishes English creoles ΰ㤤٤ǤꡤѤκǸˤ̤ꡤŪʶʬˤʤ褦Winford Ϥ1θ塤Schneider "Dynamic Model" ȤƵ³ƤΥǥˤĤƤϡ#4497. ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ Schneider Dynamic Model ([2021-08-19-1]) ȡ
Winford, Donald. "World Englishes and Creoles." Chapter 10 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 194--210.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
ܿ (contact) θǡǯäȤƶϤäȤ Thomason and Kaufman Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) źθܿλƤ͡ʴ褦Ȥ˲ͤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤ʲΤ褦ʵǾҲ𤷤Ƥʤۤεɤˡ
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
Winford (23--24) Thomason and Kaufman ʬŪ˰͵Ĥ "Major outcomes of language contact" ꤹɽäƤ롥ָܿη̤˴ؤ礭ʸޡפȤäƤ褤ܿݤ˾˼긵֤ƤȤĤǡʲ˼ *

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Ҳؤμǡָλ (language_death) ˿ȡؿij¿ܲ121ȤϥڡǸ줬ƤȤ¤Τȡʤ饷åΤΤȤ٤ΩˤܸȤѤƤꡤ٤ؤĶǤѸ̳ΤʤdzؽƤԤˤȤäơǴΤ줬ˤۤ¿¸ߤȤȤϡưפǤʤˤʤʿŪܿͤˤȤäơָλפȤϤ̣DZä
ܹˤΤʣ롥ޤȸСλࡤʤȤοȤʹȤ
ѸɮƬȤŪʱƶϤĶʸϡ¿μ微λƤΤݤȤ⤢롥⤷ȤСѸΤ褦ʸϻŪʸǤꡤԤȤߤʤ٤ʤΤ⤷微ߤȤΤǤСïɤΤ褦˵ߤΤ⤽ߤɬפΤʤΤ餬Ѥָ֡סʸ츢ˤĿͤǧȤʤСθĿͤ˲ݤֵ̳פϲˤʤ
Τ褦ˡָλפͤϤȡ٤³ȵäƤ롥ҲؤȤΥơޤǤ롥˻뻲͵Ȥָλפεåɤ
ܿ (contact) ʬह͡뤬 (borrowing) ȸˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ̤ˡΤƤ롥#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) ǤߤȤ褽Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤƤ褤
ΩϢưΤȤơimitation adaptation Ȥ̤ͤ롥ѸˤˤܿλͤƤߤ褦Ѹ͡ʸ줫ƶƤξˤϱѸ켫ȤϱƶμǤ뤫 recipient-language ȤȤǤ롥θϱƶθǤ뤫 source-language ȤȤǤ롥
ơѸüԡʽġˤŪ source-language üԡʽġˤ鲿餫θäȤγư (imitation) ȸƤФ롥source-language üԡʽġˤѸظ夹Ȥβ餫θѸػۤȤȤ뤬ˤȤäƤϱѸؤν뤤Ŭ (adaptation) ȸƤǤ褤ư̤γ٤ߤСξѸϱƶμǤϤΤΡɤ¦ѶṲ̄Ƥ뤫ˤꡤrecipient-language agentivity source-language agentivity Ȥʬ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ϡ¦ dominant ȤˤؤäƤ
Van Coetsem ϤνǰӤĤƹͤFischer et al. (52) ڤơVan Coetsem θƤߤ褦
One important distinction is between 'shift-induced interference' or 'imposition' ... and 'contact-induced changes' (often termed 'borrowing' in a more narrow sense). Contact-induced changes are especially prevalent when there is full bilingualism, and where code-switching is also common, while shift-induced interference is usually the result of imperfect learning (i.e. in cases where a first language interferes in the learning of a later adopted language). To distinguish between contact-induced change and shift-induced interference, Van Coetsem (1877: 7ff.) uses the terms 'recipient-language agentivity' versus 'source-language agentivity', respectively, and in doing so links them to aspects of 'dominance'. Concerning dominance, he refers to (i) the relative freedom speakers have in using items from the source language in their own (recipient) language (here the 'recipient' language is dominant), and (ii) the almost inevitable or passive use that we see with imperfect learners, when they adopt patterns of their own (source) language into the new, recipient language, which makes the source language dominant. In (i), the primary mechanism is 'imitation', which only superficially affects speakers' utterances and does not involve their native code, while in (ii), the primary mechanism is 'adaptation', where the changes in utterances are a result of speakers' (= imperfect learners) native code. Not surprisingly, Van Coetsem (ibid: 12) describes recipient-language agentivity as 'more deliberate', and source-language agentivity as something of which speakers are not necessarily conscious. In source-language agentivity, the more stable or structured domains of language are involved (phonology and syntax), while in recipient-language agentivity, it is mostly the lexicon that is involved, where obligatoriness decreases and 'creative action' increases (ibid.: 26).
Ѹ졦ǰмΤ褦ˤʤ
| imitation | vs | adaptation |
| recipient-language agentivity | vs | source-language agentivity |
| borrowing or contact-induced change | vs | shift-induced interference |
| full bilingualism | vs | imperfect learning |
| mostly lexicon | vs | phonology and syntax |
ε³ޥ֥ƥθˤĤơDurkin (58) ϡΥꥢθӤʤ顤ͻƤ롥
One tantalizing comparison is with Roman Gaul. It is generally thought that under the Empire the linguistic situation was broadly similar in Gaul, with Latin the language of an urbanized elite and Gaulish remaining the language in general use in the population at large. Like Britain, Gaul was subject to Germanic invasions, and northern Gaul eventually took on a new name from its Frankish conquerors. However, France emerged as a Romance-speaking country, with a language that is Latin-derived in grammar and overwhelmingly also in lexis. One possible explanation for the very different outcomes in the two former provinces is that urban life may have remained in much better shape in Gaul than in Britain; Gaul had been Roman for longer than Britain, and urban life was probably much more developed and on a larger scale, and may have proved more resilient when facing economic and political vicissitudes. In Gaul the Franks probably took over at least some functioning urban centres where an existing Latin-speaking elite formed the basis for the future administration of the territory; this, combined with the importance and prestige of Latin as the language of the western Church, probably led ultimately to the emergence of a Romance-speaking nation. In Britain the existing population, whether speaking Latin or Celtic, probably held very little prestige in the eyes of the Anglo-Saxon incomers, and this may have been a key factor in determining that England became a Germanic-speaking territory: the Anglo-Saxons may simply not have had enough incentive to adopt the language(s) of these people.
ĤޤꡤαƶĹ³ʤä֥ƥˤƤϡƥ¸ߴϤۤʤ轻Υȿͤ⡤褷Ƥޥͤ⡤礭ʸŪƶ뤳ȤϤʤäޤƤƥظ (language_shift) 뤳ȤʤäꥢˤƤϡαƶĹ³ƥʤƥޥˤȤθܿ³ˡǽŪ˴ؤΥȸȯΥե⡤ƥݤ߹ޤ褦ˤƾǤƤȤˤʤäȤ櫓
֥ƥȥꥢϡȷϸδؤξ˥ƥ줬֤äƤȤǤ϶̤ˤͭƤ褦ˤߤ뤬ƥȤܿδ֤̩٤ȤǤϺꡤ줬ơϰˤθˤפʥѥȤͿȤȤκϡʬŪˤϥޤεΥκƥФƤҿκؤԸǤΤ⤷ʤ
ξϰμҲŪʾκϡäƱѸȥեˤ륱ȼѸμ̤κˤƶͿƤ롥ˤĤƤϡDurkin ˤ#3753. ʩˤ륱ȼѸӡоȡ ([2019-08-06-1]) Ȥ줿
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ε#3752. եΥȼѸ ([2019-08-05-1]) ǡեˤ륱ȼѸѤϤȱѸΥȼѸȤӡоȤ褦
ѸΥȼѸοۤΰ찮Ǥ뤳Ȥϡ#3740. Ƚ줫μѸ ([2019-07-24-1])#3750. Ƚ줫μѸ (2) ([2019-08-03-1]) ǸƤեǤϺεǸ褦ˡʤȤ100ۤ륱ñ줬ѤƤŪˤϱʩδ֤˺Ȥ⤤ŪˤߤСۤ礭ʿǤϤʤʸ̤ꡤɴȤäƤ褤μҲˤƤ⡤ȸϼҲŪ˰ҿ㤤äȤȤǤ롥
ȼѸμŪʺۤˤܤ٤Τ롥ѸäƤñˤȤ٤ΤϤۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤եΥȼѸˤϡDurkin (85) λŦ̤ꡤʲΤ褦˹ٸޤޤƤʤˡΤĤѸϥե줫ѤƤˡ
. . . changer is quite a high-frequency word, as are pièce and chemin (and its derivatives). If admitted to the list, petit belongs to a very basic level of the vocabulary. The meanings 'beaver', 'beer', 'boundary', 'change', 'fear' (albeit as noun), 'to flow', 'he-goat', 'oak', 'piece', 'plough' (albeit as verb), 'road', 'rock', 'sheep', 'small', and 'sow' all figure in the list of 1,460 basic meanings . . . . Ultimately, through borrowing from French, the impact is also visible in a number of high-frequency words in the vocabulary of modern English . . . beak, carpentry, change, cream, drape, piece, quay, vassal, and (ultimately reflecting the same borrowing as French char 'chariot') carry and car.
μŪʺۤϲˤΤʤΤŪʸˤС֥ƥΥ֥ȥͤϥͤοˤŪû֤Ƕव졤Ѹؤθ (language_shift) ®˿ʹԤȹͤƤ롥ꥢΥͤϡƥ졦ޥĸüԤ˰Ϥ줿ȤϤĹ֤ˤ錄궦¸ˤǤԻԤǤϥƥ첽ʤȤƤ⡤Ǥϥ줬ä³졤diglossia ξĹ³ϤޤǤäȿʹԤƤΤǤ롥θ塤եˤˤϥޥ⻲Ƥ뤬ǤŪʸϤʤäȤ롥ɤ顤ʩˤ륱ȼѸμκۤϸܿ (contact) ȸμҲŪΰ㤤˵褦ˤĤơDurkin (86) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . whereas in Gaul the Germanic conquerors arrived with relatively little disruption to the existing linguistic situation, in Britain we find a complete disruption, with English becoming the language in general use in (it seems) all contexts. Thus Gaul shows a very gradual switch from Gaulish to Latin/Romance, with some subsequent Germanic input, while Britain seems to show a much more rapid switch to English from Celtic and (maybe) Latin (that is, if Latin retained any vitality in Britain at the time of the Anglo-Saxon settlement).
αʩˤ뺹ۤϡܿǤȤΡ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ζ̤۵ (see #1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]), #1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])) ֥ƥǤ borrowing βꥢǤ shift-induced interference βơͿƤȤߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
եˤθƤȡѸˤΥȼѸħ䤫⤫Ӿ夬äƤ롥줳оȸˤ̥ϤǤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
ߥȾäƥ饤ʶ¹ɤƤ롥ܲ饤ʤκäƤԤȿƤϩȤǤϰפƤ롥
饤ʤȥϡߤ˥Ȥ졦̱²ʸζ뤬椨Τ褦ʹޤϸźդƤ뤬դƤ뤫ȤäƲ褬䤹櫓ǤϤʤषդΤȤ¿
饤ʸȥδطˤĤƤС#1469. Хȡָɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-05-05-1]) ǿ줿ȤUkrainian ϥ饤ʤ5000ͤˤääƤǤŪ˰ҿΤȶ礷Ƥꡤ̱²Ūʱưˤ줫ζ̲ܻؤƤפȤ褦ˡ饤ʸüԤΰռŪʥ줫Υȿ롥"sociolinguistic distancing" ŵȤäƤ褤Ūˤϥ饤ʸ줫ؤθ (language_shift) ƤˡߤޤǾʣƤΤǤʡ#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1]) ǴϢ˰Ƥˡ
Υ饤ʤˤʬۤˤĤơŤ2001ǯιĴη̤329俷ʹī˷ǺܤƤӥΡեեդʤɤǤϥ饤ʸ줬ݤƤ뤬ΥǥåǤϤۤȾǤꡤΥɥͥĥܲΥߥ¹Ǥϥ줬ݤƤ롥ΤȤƤߤС饤ʸ줬2/3ȾäƤ뤬ҲŪꤵưפͽۤΨǤ롥 *
饤ʤȤСĸθϤͭϸȤʤäƤꡤ˸ؤǤ̾Τ줿Ǥcf. #637. 륬ʸĸ ([2011-01-24-1])ˡޤѸäȤߤǤС#834. 饤ʸ줫μѸ ([2011-08-09-1]) ˤդȤǤ롥ơˤҤ٤褦ˡճ⤷ʤüԿǤ3ͤĶ롤30٤˥Ǥ뤳ȤõƤ
饤ιܤ
#131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1])#2562. Mugglestone ԡˤαѸǯɽ ([2016-05-02-1])#3214. 1410ǯ夫30ǯˤƤ Chancery English ˨ ([2018-02-13-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤ1422ǯ˥ɥ¤ȹ (Brewers' Guild of London) ĻϿȷʸˤƥ줫Ѹؤڤؤη꼫ΤϥƥǵϿƤ뤬ݤϰʲΤ褦ʤΤäFisher (22--23) ¹Chambers and Daunt αѤ롥
Whereas our mother-tongue, to wit the English tongue, hath in modern days begun to be honorably enlarged and adorned, for that our most excellent lord, King Henry V, hath in his letters missive and divers affairs touching his own person, more willingly chosen to declare the secrets of his will, for the better understanding of his people, hath with a diligent mind procured the common idiom (setting aside others) to be commended by the exercise of writing; and there are many of our craft of Brewers who have the knowledge of writing and reading in the said english idiom, but in others, to wit, the Latin and French, before these times used, they do not in any wise understand. For which causes with many others, it being considered how that the greater part of the Lords and trusty Commons have begun to make their matters to be noted down in our mother tongue, so we also in our craft, following in some manner their steps, have decreed to commit to memory the needful things which concern us [in English]. (Chambers and Daunt 139)
Henry V ˸ڤƤ뤳Ȥ¬̤ꡤκǤˡȥåץǽդαѸ첽ϩȤƤ餷ޤΤɨ Chancery ˤơ "Chancery Standard" ̾դ뤳ȤˤʤɸѸνդ˨Τ褦ʤΤиƤȻפ롥դαѸ첽äơˤȽ̱ȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤäΤ϶̣ˤ1422ǯϡ15ȾαѸ˾žˤƾħŪʰ̣ǯȤϢơ#3225. īαѸ첽Τ⤯ߤ Chancery Standard ([2018-02-24-1]) ⻲ȡ
Fisher, John H. "A Language Policy for Lancastrian England." Chapter 2 of The Emergence of Standard English. John H. Fisher. Lexington: UP of Kentucky, 1996. 16--35.
Chambers, R. W. and Marjorie Daunt, eds. A Book of London English. Oxford: Clarendon-Oxford UP, 1931.
ܥ֥Ǥϡ (language_shift) ٤夲ƤϸäͤƤߤ褦Trudgill Crystal Ѹ콸ˤС줾켡Τ褦ˤ롥
language shift The opposite of language maintenance. The process whereby a community (often a linguistic minority) gradually abandons its original language and, via a (sometimes lengthy) stage of bilingualism, shifts to another language. For example, between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries, Ireland shifted from being almost entirely Irish-speaking to being almost entirely English-speaking. Shift most often takes place gradually, and domain by domain, with the original language being retained longest in informal family-type contexts. The ultimate end-point of language shift is language death. The process of language shift may be accompanied by certain interesting linguistic developments such as reduction and simplification. (Trudgill)
language shift A term used in sociolinguistics to refer to the gradual or sudden move from the use of one language to another, either by an individual or by a group. It is particularly found among second- and third-generation immigrants, who often lose their attachment to their ancestral language, faced with the pressure to communicate in the language of the host country. Language shift may also be actively encouraged by the government policy of the host country. (Crystal)
ؤϸĿͤ佸Ĥ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬奢ɤǼƤȤꡤơ٤äȿʤळȤ¿ϢơؤϤФ bilingualism ʳͳȤ⤢뤬Ȥˤ줬ٲ diglossia ξ֤߽Ф⤢뤳Ȥ˿Ƥ
ޤؤϰ̱δ֤䤹ȤƤ뤬ާƸС͡ưȤ˸ؤϵ䤹ȤȤʡ#3065. ԻԲ¡ء ([2017-09-17-1])ˡ
ɤŪ˵äʤ뤤Ϻ³Ƥ˸ؤˤĤƤϡ#2798. ̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ ([2016-12-24-1])#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#2803. ɸüԿȻϰ ([2016-12-29-1])#2804. ɤˤߤΤͤ츽ݡ ([2016-12-30-1]) ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ޥˡر¤ˡ٤ΤʤǡԻԤ濴Ȥʸϱ¤ȤˤζҤˤ餵ƤꡤԻԵǽΰݻΤ˾˼դοήɬפȤȽҤ٤Ƥ (116)
ޤˤξʤʤȤϡŪκ¤ʸȤĶѤƤϤӤµȤ䤨ܿ餯ιŪʸˡбΤȤʤͤФʤʤäȤȤǤ롥ԻԤȤΤϡǶޤǡϤıӤʿή̱䤨ƤʤСݻƤ椯ǤʤäȤ⤫ԻϽ̱ηˤȤäƤۤɴ礭äΤ
ԻԤؤοήˤꡤȤˤԻԤˤƸ (language_shift) äƤȤ⤤㤨Сݥߥǵ3000--2000ǯΤˡΥ֤ˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ֶ餯μοưľܤη̤Ǥ롥¬ˡä̱̤˥νԻԤήΤǡŤä̱ݤƤޤäΤάͤθװȤƤޤͤΤϡԻԤεĥǤꡤ˲ǽΤµ衤ˤԻԽ̱ΰ۾ʸݤǤ롥 ʥޥˡ롤p. 118ˡ
ޥˡ (119) ϡ19첤Ƥ롥
褽Ȭǯʹߤä˰Ȭޡǯʸ塤ԻԤε®ĥȿα¤Ǥ륳̢ȤĤװޤäơϥץ֥륯˱ǯδֳΩƤʸŪ¤äܥإߥȥϥĮ˰ܤ꽻̱ϲƥɥĸ褦ȤΤĹ֤νäλ¹ϡˤϡˤƤռˤƤɥĿͤˤʤ꤭äƤޤȤΥץϤ롥νԻԤ˰ָܽȥϥä̱οۤȤԤѸȤƥɥĸɬפϤʤʤä䤬ơ̱²ŪǰɥŪǤ뤳ȤŪȤߤʤ롥η̡鷺ȾΤˡץϤϥ졤֥ڥȤϥϥ줬ѤԻԤѤäΤǤ롥
ۤʤä͡餫οưˤ궦¸褦ˤʤȡ˿׳ŪҲŪʥʥߥबޤ졤ؤȤȤϡΤȤֲ餫οưפȤϡ俢̱ϲʤɤȼΤФǤϤʤ¤ˤ碌ǤȤѳ˥뤿ԻԤؤΰĤǤȤ͡ʥפΤΤꤦ롥ޥˡϡΤʤDZ¤ήԤ˴ؤΤˤŪʥѥ1ĤǤ⤷Ƥ롥
ꥢࡦHޥˡˡ סˡر¤ˡ塦١ҡʸˡӡ2007ǯ
ͤȥȤ襤9եå粦Ϥ褯路ΤΡϤȤˤʤäڤ Danelaw ȸƤФ졤ʹ߿ˤ錄äξ̱²ξʸűѸȸťΥɸˤ¸礹ȤʤäʴϢϿޤȤơ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) #1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ ([2014-08-16-1]) ȡˡ
ѸѻƤߤȡξζ¸Ⱥη̤餫˱Ѹ¸ǤꡤťΥɸˤѸִǤϤʤäΤ˸ťΥɸαƶϤ˸뤬 (cf. #1253. ťΥɸαƶܡ ([2012-10-01-1])) ̤ȤƤθϡѲѸפǤѲťΥɸפǤϤʤäΤǤ롥
ʤդθ (language_shift) ʤäΤñ Danelaw ˤ̱²οŪ˵ȤǤΤ뤤ϡ¾μҲŪװ˵٤ŪͿ뤳Ȥ1Ĺθ٤פǤ롥Gooden (38--39) ꡤϢʸϤ
In the long run, . . . it was the Old Norse speakers who ceded to the English language. There was still a large proportion of native speakers in Danelaw, and within a few years of King Alfred's death in 899 his son Edward had begun a campaign to restore English rule over the whole country. For most of the tenth century under leaders such as Athelstan --- the first ruler who could justifiably be referred to as the king of all of England --- the Vikings were defeated or kept at bay. Additionally, the fact that Old Norse was an oral rather than written culture would have weakened its chances in the 'battle' with English.
ѤκǸʬ狼褦ˡͤδ֤夷ƤʸʸνŤߡ⤦ġȼʸ¸ߤťΥɸФƱѸĤ餻װ1ĤǤ롤ȤĥθϡͤƤȻפͤƤߤСۤɻ֤γ֤äƤʤ11ȾФΥΥޥ (norman_conquest) ˤƤ⡤ѸϥΥޥե (norman_french) ֤뤳ȤʤäǤפμҲŪװθʤФʤʤȤϸޤǤʤ#1461. William's writ ([2013-04-27-1]) ǻŦ褦ˡ¦ˤ֤ǤĹդäؤΰΥꥹڥȡפäΤǤϤʤʸβ뤫ꤽˤΤäƤԤϡθǤդ̱ͭ²ȸˤϰܤ֤ʤ褦˻פ롥
Gooden, Philip. The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World. London: Quercus, 2009.
Υޥ (norman_conquest) θ塤ɤ꽻뤳ȤˤʤäΥޥͤȤλ¹ϡФ餯δ֡ʬǤ norman_french ä³ɼҲĺΩĥΥޥͤβ²Ȥ㤿ϡä˸Ūʸ̮ˤơեѤäĹ³ƤȤϻ¤Ǥ롥ˤĤƤϡʲεϤȤơȼ夲Ƥ
#131. Ѹ ([2009-09-05-1])
#661. 12ɿͤäդȽա ([2011-02-17-1])
#1204. 12ΥɲΡֱѸϡס ([2012-08-13-1])
#1461. William's writ ([2013-04-27-1])
#2567. 13ΥɿͤȱѸηӤĤ ([2016-05-07-1])
#2604. 13ΥեʸŪŪϰ̡ ([2016-06-13-1])
äˡ1300ǯ Robert of Gloucester 路 Chronicle ǤϡΥޥͤեѤ³Ƥ븽ˤĤơԤܤ䤤Ƥս꤬ۤɤʡ#2148. Ѹ diglossia ̤ bilingualism ʸ ([2015-03-15-1]) ΰѤȡˡ
ͤʤФʤȤϡ˽Ҥ٤ϡ褽Υޥͤβ²ˤΤƤϤޤäȤȤŪʬ㤤ΥޥͤϡϤˤ¿αѸüԤ륤ɿͤΰϤΤȤǡ˥ե줫Υ졤Ѹؾ괹Ƥ
Τ褦ʸ椨ˡǤ1300ǯˤϡѸüԤΤʤˤϡѸǤΤȤָĿŪʡưŤϽʬˤäϤѸǽȤϼҲŪγˤäΤǡּҲŪˡפȤ𤬤äǤ롥ڤäơѸǤΤ⸽ϤƤ1300ǯǽ줿Ĺ Cursor Mundi Ԥ⡤1ͤǤ롥ʤѸǽΤȤͳƽƤս (Prologue, II, ll. 232--50) Gramley (72--73) ͳǰѤ褦
þis ilk bok es translate
Into Inglis tong to rede
For the loue of Inglis lede,
Inglish lede of Ingland,
For the commun at understand.
Frankis rimes here I redd,
Comunlik in ilk[a] sted;
Mast es it wroght for frankis man,
Quat is for him na Frankis can?
In Ingland the nacion,
Es Inglis man þar in commun;
þe speche þat man wit mast may spede;
Mast þarwit to speke war nede.
Selden was for ani chance
Praised Inglis tong in France;
Give we ilkan þare langage,
Me think we do þam non outrage.
To laud and Inglish man I spell
þat understandes þat I tell.
ѸǽͳƽƤȤȤ顤դˤ줬ҲŪˤϤޤ̤ιԤǤϤʤäȤ롥
Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.
ļ̦رѸȤɤκɤδ֡ɤǿʹԤƤɸ줫Ѹؤθ (language_shift) ʿפʸΤǡܺ٤Ƥ롥եɥ̤ƹ̱οˤޤ⤦ȤĴ١ɱѸθŪʬϡܿ˴ؤŪʹܸ⤦ƤȴʤȤηپʤɡɤߤɤ¿奢ɤθˤĤơΤ褦˰̸ɤߤ䤹줿ܤФȤϴޤ٤Ǥ롥
ԤϡɤˤؤȤʼҲ˸ŪʸԤʤäơŻǤϤʤüԽŻ٤Ȥ뤳ȤƤ롥
錄ϸΤޤޤʸݤȤȤ˹ͤȤޤѼԡʤüԤ濴֤ȤФᤰ뤵ޤޤʸݡʤȤСܿѲѡɡåˤϤ٤üԤβߤΤȤˤ롥Τ褦ʤȤϤޤΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤ٤Τ褦ʸƤ줿ɼԤϡʳθŤ餤⤷ʤºݤƤƤʬӹͻˤƤϡޤޤװΤȤ˸ѤˤüԡפξݤơܼʳŪ˲褦ȤߤΤΤȤۤƤطʤ⤢롥ġp. 55
ѤˤȤꡤؤɮƬȤ˴ؤǤϡüԤμξݡפӻǤ롥Ȥ櫓üԤŻ뤹ϤʬǤҲؤǤ顤ʤǤ֤ˡĤΤޤˤüԤδ餬ʤʤäƤ뤳ȤФФǤ롥
üԡʵڤӥߥ˥˴ؤ뤽¾ο͡ˤʤи줿ꤨʤȤ¤ƳǧȤüԤξݤؤչԤͤޤȤưפǤ롥ؤüԤߤȤɬפʤΤΤȤϡܥ֥Ǥ⼡εʤɤǷ֤Ƥ
#1549. Why does language change? or Why do speakers change their language? ([2013-07-24-1])
#1168. ܿȤüܿǤ ([2012-07-08-1])
#2005. üԺߤθѲؤηپ ([2014-10-23-1])
#2298. Language changes, speaker innovates. ([2015-08-12-1])
ȤϤϰפǤ롥δȤΤϤޤΤǡȴȡüԤδθʤؤäƤޤηϤΤΤΩӤؤΤ٤ƤȤ櫓Ǥʤηϡˤüԡʽġˤͻ硦Ĵ¤ָ (invisible_hand) Τ褦ʸѲܤƤƤʡ#2539. ָפˤѲ ([2016-04-09-1]) ȡˡؤȤƤ⡤ηϡˤüԡʽġˤδطˤĤƺ٤äͤƤߤƤ褦˻פ롥
̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ
ɸˤĤƤϡʲΰϢεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#117. եѸǯʬۡ ([2009-08-22-1])
#1205. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ ([2012-08-14-1])
#1209. 1250ǯȤեѸζʬ ([2012-08-18-1])
#1540. Ѹˤء ([2013-07-15-1])
#1638. եȥƥ줫̸üѤΥߥζ ([2013-10-21-1])
#2069. ؤءˡ ([2014-12-26-1])
˴ϢơRothwell ʸɤRothwell (50) ˤȡѸΤ˸ŪʵϿθ줬ƥ줫եءե줫Ѹܤޤ뤷ڤؤä (language_shift) ȤҲŪʻθʤФʤʤȤ
If the English language appears to embark on a far more extensive campaign of lexical borrowing from the later fourteenth century, this is because French had become the second official language of record in England, alongside and often in replacement of Latin. This means in effect that from the thirteenth century onwards French is called upon to cover a much wider range of registers than in the earlier period, when it was used in the main for works of entertainment or edification. This change in the role of French took place at a time when English was debarred from use as a language of record, so that when English in its turn began to take on that role in the later fourteenth century, it was only to be expected that it would retain much of the necessary vocabulary used by its predecessor --- French. . . . For successive generations of countless English scribes and officials the administrative vocabulary of French had been an integral part of their daily life and work; it would be unrealistic to expect them to jettison it and re-create an entirely new Germanic set of terms when English came in to take over the role hitherto played by French.
13--14ˤơե줬ˡΧطϤȤŪʸȤƤƤȤϡ#2330. 13--14ɤˡΧޤλѸ ([2015-09-13-1]) ǤߤΤ褦˥ɤˤƥեǸŪʵϿ봷ˤ錄äƳΩƤȤˡ14ȾѸ줬ƤΤǤ롥վΥХäȤϤ¿μ̻ˤȤäơ餳θؤˤϸǤääˡΧ˴ؤѸ¿ϡޤǥեñǤޤʤäƤƤꡤбѸϷ礱ƤΤ褦ʾǡ̻դѸؤȥեȤݤˡ줿եѸ¿ѤȤϼä
ѸˤƸμҲŪʰ֤Ťȡ֤θüѤϡΤ褦̩ܤ˷ӤĤƤ롥ϢǶȤơ#2345. űѸ diglossia Ѹ triglossia ([2015-09-28-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rothwell, W. "Stratford atte Bowe and Paris." Modern Language Review 80 (1985): 39--54.
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