ȺX Ƕᴩؤʤ٤ΥȥΰĤȤ2ĤƤݥȤޤˡդ礤Ƥ볧꤬ȤޤεǤϡΥȥƤƤ hellog ξǤ⿶֤ĤġѸˡŪʻ龯äƤߤȻפޤ
夲ơޤϡ㤯Ҥۤʡˡ3ñ sפΤΤǤعʸˡǤФΥ롼Ȥáޤ뤳 s ǤɸѸ줫⳰˽ФαѸѼWorld EnglishesˤܤܤȡۤʤʤäƤޤ
#4902. eWAVE 3.0 ξҲ --- ѸθŪħǼǡ١ ([2022-09-28-1]) ǤߤѸθŪħǼǡ١ eWAVE 3.0 (= The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English) ˴Ťơο;Τľˡߤưη֤˴ؤŪסagreementˤ˴ؤŪʿͤƤߤޤ礦eWAVE Υǡ١ꡤArea եɤ agreement ꤹȡŪפ͡ʸݤˤĤƤξޤΤʤǡѸ3ñ˴ؤ붽̣¤⸫Ƥޤ
ޤ줬3;ñǤäƤư s Ĥʤ3ñΥפˤĤƤǤ No. 170 "Invariant present tense forms due to zero marking for the third person singular" ȡʲΤ褦ʶä٤ͤƤޤ
Attestation ʸΨ: 69%
Pervasiveness Ψ: 72%
eWAVE 3.0 ĴоݤȤƤ77Ѽ69%ǡ3ñΥפ1ʾֳǧ (Attestation) 졤٤ˤŤդθǤΡʿŪʡΨ (Pervasiveness) 72%ãȤΤǤɸѸStandard EnglishˤμҲŪʡֽŤߡפϤǤ̵ˤѸѼΤʤ1ĤѼȤʿ˥ȤʤСs Ĥʤ3ñΥפΤۤ¿ɤˤʤ뤳Ȥη̤ϼޤʤeWAVE 3.0 ˤ Attestation Pervasiveness ӿͤΰˤĤƤϽʬƤɬפΤǡ Introduction ǧˡ
ǤϡդΥѥϤɤǤ礦ľˡߤǤСֿ;Τˤ餺ȤˤˤǤ s ĤפȤѼNo. 171 "Invariant present tense forms due to generalization of 3rd person ?s to all persons"ˤΥǡ⸫Ƥߤޤ礦
Attestation: 35%
Pervasiveness: 45%
줬 I Ǥ they Ǥ s ̲ƤޤѼ⡤Ѽ35%dzǧƤꡤΨ45%˵ڤӤޤη̤ˡפä̤ˤʡȤݤä¿ΤǤϤʤǤ礦
˸ؤδͤȡI love, he loveˤ줹Τ⡤ sI loves, he lovesˤ줹Τ⡤;Υѥ̤ưݤ뤿ᡤåꤷηϤǤȤϤޤ
˰䤿Ū˻ȤäƤɸѸΡ3ñ s ĤפȤȾüʥѥϡƵҴŪįȡƥХӤĤʥƥǤɸѸϡŪˤϡ̤Ǥʤ̯ѼǤȤ虜ޤʤɸѸ줬ӤĤʷ虜虜ݻƤΤȤѸˤ̣ȻפޤˤĤƤϤޤƵƤФȻפޤ
ؤʤ٥ȥƤϺ³ޤSNS Ǥϥå奿 #ʤ դơҰ夲ƤйǤ
δ رѸˤDz ʸˡ --- ʤ֣ñ sפĤΤ NHKǡNHKǿӡ2026ǯ
θδܸȤ櫓 S, V, O 3Ǥ¤ӽΥѥˤĤơʲεʤɤǰäƤ
#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1])
#2786. 칽¤Ͽ --- WALS Online ([2016-12-12-1])
#3124. ܸ (1) ([2017-11-15-1])
#3125. ܸ (2) ([2017-11-16-1])
#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1])
#3129. ܸ (4) ([2017-11-20-1])
#4316. ܸ췿 SOV ϷŪɸѸ췿 SVO Ϥ⤿ʤ ([2021-02-19-1])
#3734. ٥ȸ VSO ε ([2019-07-18-1])
#5585. ػҶβʳء9Ǿ5Ρ֤ʤܸȱѸǤϸ礬㤦ΤǤפ˲ޤ ([2024-08-11-1])
ϡThe World Atlas of Language Structures (WALS Online) Feature 81A: Order of Subject, Object and Verb ˴ŤƺɽǤ#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1]) ǤƱݤεϿŪʸ⤤ĤźΤǡ껲Ȥ䤹ʤäƤȻפ
| SOV | 41% | ܸ졤̸졤ȥ륳졤ҥǥ졤Х |
| SVO | 35% | Ѹ졤졤եɸ졤ҥ졤٥ȥʥ |
| VSO | 7% | ɸ졤ϥ磻졤ޥ |
| VOS, OVS, OSV | 3% | ޥ饬졨ĥХ졨ȥХƥ |
| ܸʤ | 14% | ϥ졤ե졤졤Х |
˴ؤ (typology) θŵŪθҲ𤹤롥Whaley (86) Lehmann (1973, 1978a) Ȥʤ "Lehmann's Consituent Order Correlations" ǤƤ롥
| Word Order | Correlation |
| VO | OV |
| Preposition + noun | Noun + preposition |
| Noun + genitive | Genitive + noun |
| Noun + adjective | Adjective + noun |
| Noun + relative clause | Relative clause + noun |
| Sentence-initial question word | Noninitial question word |
| Prefixes | Suffixes |
| Auxiliary verb + main verb | Main verb + auxiliary verb |
| Comparative adjective + standard | Standard + comparative adjective |
| Verb + adverb | Adverb + verb |
| Negative + verb | Verb + negative |
| Subordinator + clause | Clause + subordinator |
¿θǡ̾ˤޤĤʸˡƥ (category) ¸ߤ롥ɤθǤ̾ο¿Τ餫δʬहȤȤ̸Ū˹ѻ롥Ǥʸˡ (gender) ŵŪ̾쥫ƥǤꡤܸǤϽ줬Ȥʤ롥
θ̾쥫ƥȤ Genders and Classifiers: A Cross-Linguistic Typology 롥Aikhenvald (1) ϡƬ̾쥫ƥΤ褦ƳƤ롥
A noun may refer to a man, a woman, an animal, or an inanimate object of varied shape, size, and function, or have abstract reference. Noun categorization devices vary in their expression, and the contexts in which they occur. Large sets of numeral classifiers in South-East Asian languages occur with number words and quantifying expressions. Small highly grammaticalized noun classes and gender systems in Indo-European and African languages, and the languages of the Americas are expressed with agreement markers on adjectives, demonstratives, and also on the noun itself. Further means include noun classifiers, classifiers in possessive constructions, verbal classifiers, and two lesser-known types: locative and deictic classifiers.
All noun categorization devices are based on the universal semantic parameters of humanness, animacy, sex, shape, form, consistency, orientation in space, and function. They may reflect the value of the object, and the speaker's attitude to it. Their meanings mirror socio-cultural parameters and beliefs, and may change if the society changes. Noun categorization devices offer a window into how speakers conceptualize the world they live in.
Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ǡAikhenvald (2--6) ϡδ顤7̾쥫ƥμʤƤ롥
I. Gender systems
II. Numeral classifiers
III. Noun classifiers
IV. Possessive classifiers
V. Verbal classifiers
VI. Locative classifiers
VII. Deictic classifiers
ĸʸˡ I ˡܸν줬 II °뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. "Noun Categorization Devices: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective." Chapter 1 of Genders and Classifiers: A Cross-Linguistic Typology. Ed. Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald and Elena I. Mihas. Oxford: OUP, 2019.
Ϣ (typology) ȸ (universal) ˤĤˤƤ롥ȤäƤ⡤ζ٤ˤꡤŪ⤢СŪ뤤ϳΨŪ⤢ȽҤ٤ˤСˤϰۤʤΤΤ롥Ҳ𤹤ΤϡCrystal (85) ̤Ƥ3줾ּ¼ŪסַŪסִްŪפƤ
Substantive
Substantive universals comprise the set of categories that is needed in order to analyse a language, such as 'noun', 'question', 'first-person', 'antonym', and 'vowel'. Do all languages have nouns and vowels? The answer seems to be yes. But certain categories often thought of as universal turn out not to be so: not all languages have case endings, prepositions, or future tenses, for example, and there are several surprising limitations on the range of vowels and consonants that typically occur . . . . Analytical considerations must also be borne in mind. Do all languages have words? The answer depends on how the concept of 'word' is defined . . . .
Formal
Formal universals are a set of abstract conditions that govern the way in which a language analysis can be made --- the factors that have to be written into a grammar, if it is to account successfully for the way sentences work in a language. For example, because all languages make statements and ask related questions (such as The car is ready vs Is the car ready?), some means has to be found to show the relationship between such pairs. Most grammars derive question structures from statement structures by some kind of transformation (in the above example, 'Move the verb to the beginning of the sentence'). If it is claimed that such transformations are necessary in order to carry out the analysis of these (and other kinds of) structures, as one version of Chomskyan theory does, then they would be proposed as formal universals. Other cases include the kinds of rules used in a grammar, or the different levels recognized by a theory . . . .
Implicational
Implicational universals always take the form 'If X, then Y', their intention being to find constant relationships between two or more properties of language. For example, three of the universals proposed in a list of 45 by the American linguist Joseph Greenberg (1915--) are as follows:
Universal 17. With overwhelmingly more-than-chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO [=Verb-Subject-Object] have the adjective after the noun.
Universal 31. If either the subject or object noun agrees with the verb in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the noun in gender.
Universal 43. If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun.
As is suggested by the phrasing, implicational statements have a statistical basis, and for this reason are sometimes referred to as 'statistical' universals . . . .
ʾ3θޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ
1. ¼Ū (Substantive universals): ̾졤ʸ;Ρ첻ʤɡʬϤɬפʴŪ (category) Τȡ٤Ƹ˶̤¸ߤǤ⤢Сֻ̤Τ褦ɬŪǤʤǤ⤢롥
2. Ū (Formal universals): ʸι¤뤿ɬפŪʾʸˡ§Τȡ㤨Сʿʸ鵿ʸؤѴ§ʤɤޤޤ졤ॹǤϡΤ褦ѷ§ϷŪȤư롥
3. ްŪ (Implicational universals): ֤⤷ X ʤ YפȤɽ蘆֤δطΤȡŪʷ˴ŤƤꡤ㤨 VSO θǤϷƻ줬̾θ뷹λŦʤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ε#5666. ˸ء ([2024-10-31-1]) κǸˡؤγʬϡָȤΥȥͥۤʤ鷡ʤƤȤ㤤ˤʤפȽҤ٤ (typology) ȸ (universal) θϡˡŪˤ礭ۤʤäƤ롥ԤϤʤ٤¿θĴưƱΤФơԤ϶üʾˤ1Τߤ椹лȼĥ뤫Crystal (85) "BREADTH OR DEPTH?" ꤹ1Ƥ롥
The distinction between typological and universalist approaches to language study is doubtless ultimately an arbitrary one; and both have considerable insights to offer. But the two approaches, as currently practised, differ greatly in their procedures. Typologists typically study a wide range of languages as part of their enquiry, and tend to make generalizations that deal with the more observable aspects of structure, such as word order, word classes, and types of sound. In contrast with the empirical breadth of such studies, universalists rely on in-depth studies of single languages, especially in the field of grammar --- English, in particular, is a common language of exemplification --- and tend to make generalizations about the more abstract, underlying properties of language.
This focus on single languages might at first seem strange. If we are searching for universals, then surely we need to study many languages? Chomsky argues, however, that there is no paradox. Because English is a human language, it must therefore incorporate all universal properties of language, as well as those individual features that make it specifically 'English'. One way of finding out about these properties, therefore, is the detailed study of single languages. The more languages we introduce into our enquiry, the more difficult it can become to see the central features behind the welter of individual difference.
On the other hand, it can be argued that the detailed study of single languages is inevitably going to produce a distorted picture. There are features of English, for example, that are not commonly met with in other languages, such as the use of only one inflectional ending in the present tense (third-person, as in she runs), or the absence of a second-person singular/plural distinction (cf. French tu/vous). Without a typological perspective, some say, it is not possible to anticipate the extent to which our sense of priorities will be upset. If languages were relatively homogeneous entities, like samples of iron ore, this would not be a problem. But, typologists argue, languages are unpredictably irregular and idiosyncratic. Under these circumstances, a focus on breadth, rather than depth, is desirable.
ʬˤäơȥͥǤʤΤΤ礭ۤʤ뤳Ȥǧ´ϤɤΥפǤ礦
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ε#5665. ηȸĬή ([2024-10-30-1]) (typology) γػˤ֤äϢ
ؤǤϡźνȶõߤʤƤ˸ؤؤϡȤ櫓ʬ˴ؿΤǡܤǤ롥븦ϡ塤õ롥̣Ǥϡ֤ˤäƽ֤ȶۤŪŪ뤤ϳΨŪõȤΤȤ⤤롥3ԤδطˤĤơCrystal (84) üŪʲɤǤߤ褦
The languages of the world present us with a vast array of structural similarities and differences. Why should this be so? One way of answering this question is to adopt a historical perspective, investigating the origins of language, and pointing to the importance of linguistic change . . . . An alternative approach is to make a detailed description of the similarities or differences, regardless of their historical antecedents, and proceed from there to generalize about the structure and function of human language.
There are two main ways of approaching this latter task. We might look for the structural features that all or most language have in common; or we might focus our attention on the features that differentiate them. In the former case, we are searching for language universals; in the latter case, we are involving ourselves in language typology. In principle, the two approaches are complementary, but sometimes they are associated with different theoretical conceptions of the nature of linguistic enquiry.
ɡȤΥȥͥۤʤ鷡ʤƤȤ㤤ˤʤΩ֤ΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ߤθήϤΤȻפ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Jankowsky "The Rise of Language Typology" ꤹ (651--54) Ǹ (typology) ηάҤƤ롥
ʥϡճˤӸؤ˸ؤ˷ȤäƤ Friedrich von Schlegel (1772--1829) äŪʴθӤˤؿؤƻή August von Schlegel (1767--1845) Ϥ˿ʤ˹Τ뤳ȤˤʤָΩססֶפȤ˴ŤΤ⡤η Schlegel Ǥ롥
ζʬˡʣפäƲΤWilhelm von Humboldt (1767--1835) Ǥ롥ˡ1920ȾˤƤ⡤ηϺѾƤͼԤ Edward Sapir (1884--1939) ä
20ȾаʹߤϡJoseph Greenberg (1915--2001) ˤ븽Ū졤ػ˾忷ʳäοϡWinfred P. Lehmann (1916--2007), Elizabeth C. Traugott (b. 1939), Bernd Heine (b. 1939), Bernard Comrie (b. 1947) ˤäƷѾȯŸ졤˻롥θĬήˤĤơJankowsky (653--64) βɤäƤߤ褦
The typological work of Joseph Greenberg (1915--2001) constituted a remarkable turning point. He initially dwelled on the 'classical' morphological approach, and started out with a diachronic framework in which language genealogy and historical language development captured his interest. Early in his career he was engaged in fieldwork in Africa, which led him to experiment with classifying the languages he encountered that seemed to him to possess particularly striking and unusual typological features. In later years his attention was directed to Native American languages and, last but not least, also to the Indo-European language family. Greenberg was on the whole appreciative of the early nineteenth-century approach to language typology, which had mainly focused on the individual nature of languages and progressed from there to search for common characteristics. His extensive acquaintance with a great variety of vastly different languages was a determining factor for him to go one decisive step further. Since the large number of existing languages makes it virtually impossible to devise an evaluative system with characteristics that uniformly pertain to all natural languages, he embraced as a way out a 'general' typology, in which he discards the emphasis on holistic grammatical description in favor of a selective characterization process. As a result he succeeded in documenting the fact that there is not, and cannot be, a set of descriptive values which could be meaningfully employed as a measuring rod of all languages.
Utilizing typology confirms the existence of language types; it cannot establish proof for the existence of one single type that would adequately describe key features shared by all languages. In choosing his strategy, Greenberg had implicitly raised the question of language universals, a topic which became a prominent item on his agenda as early as 1961 . . . .
Greenberg ˸ؤؤδؿʤ顤ηŪȴФưؤȿʤߡ˸ؤδؿȤ櫓ؤδؿϡ츫˸ؤΤĸθؤδ㺹ȤȿФΤ褦ˤפ뤬Greenberg ΤʤǤξΩƤȤȤ
ȴϢ hellog Ƥ
#522. ˤ ([2010-10-01-1])
#2125. 르ͥ륲 ([2015-02-20-1])
#4692. 3ĤꡤȸѲδطˤĤơ ([2022-03-02-1])
Jankowsky, Kurt R. "Comparative, Historical, and Typological Linguistics since the Eighteenth Century." Chapter 28 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 635--54.
ȤƤڤ (clipping) ˤĤƤϡ¿εǼ夲ƤȤ櫓Ω줫#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1]) ǾܤҲ𤷤
128 Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ۿˤ#921. 2023ǯαñϥ --- rizzꤷơclipping ˤ¤Ȥܤǿλ夲
ۿǤϡ2023ǯ Oxford Word of the Year rizz ˷ꤷȤ˥塼줬 charisma clipping ˤû̷Ǥ뤳ȤȤ charisma θ츻Ҳ𤷤
rizz charisma clipping ˤǤ뤳ȤȤơȤñθƬǤǤʤʬڤФ줿û̸Ǥɮͤ롥Τ褦ʸϡۤ¿ʤȸޤ뤫#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1]) "Mesonym" Ǽ夲褦ˡ㤬ʤ櫓ǤϤʤϤˤϰ㤤ʤʲβˤ "fore-and-aft clipping" ȸƤǤ褤
heldio ΥꥹʡϢ륳ȡ䤬줿ΤǡȴϢ McArthur αѸѸ켭ŵ "clipping" ѤƤ (223--24)
CLIPPING [1930s in this sense]. Also clipped form, clipped word, shortening. An abbreviation formed by the loss of word elements, usually syllabic: pro from professional, tec from detective. The process is attested from the 16c (coz from cousin 1559, gent from gentleman 1564); in the early 18c, Swift objected to the reduction of Latin mobile vulgus (the fickle throng) to mob. Clippings can be either selective, relating to one sense of a word only (condo is short for condominium when it refers to accommodation, not to joint sovereignty), or polysemic (rev stands for either revenue or revision, and revs for the revolutions of wheels). There are three kinds of clipping:
(1) Back-clippings, in which an element or elements are taken from the end of a word: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)s. Back-clipping is common with diminutives formed from personal names Cath(erine) Will(iam). Clippings of names often undergo adaptations: Catherine to the pet forms Cathie, Kate, Katie, William to Willie, Bill, Billy. Sometimes, a clipped name can develop a new sense: willie a euphemism for penis, billy a club or a male goat. Occasionally, the process can be humorously reversed: for example, offering in a British restaurant to pay the william.
(2) Fore-clippings, in which an element or elements are taken from the beginning of a word: ham(burger), omni(bus), violon(cello), heli(copter), alli(gator), tele(phone), earth(quake). They also occur with personal names, sometimes with adaptations: Becky for Rebecca, Drew for Andrew, Ginny for Virginia. At the turn of the century, a fore-clipped word was usually given an opening apostrophe, to mark the loss: 'phone, 'cello, 'gator. This practice is now rare.
(3) Fore-and-aft clippings, in which elements are taken from the beginning and end of a word: in(flu)enza, de(tec)tive. This is commonest with longer personal names: Lex from Alexander, Liz from Elizabeth. Such names often demonstrate the versatility of hypocoristic clippings: Alex, Alec, Lex, Sandy, Zander; Eliza, Liz, Liza, Lizzie, Bess, Betsy, Beth, Betty.
Clippings are not necessarily uniform throughout a language: mathematics becomes maths in BrE and math in AmE. Reverend as a title is usually shortened to Rev or Rev., but is Revd in the house style of Oxford University Press. Back-clippings with -ie and -o are common in AusE and NZE: arvo afternoon, journo journalist. Sometimes clippings become distinct words far removed from the applications of the original full forms: fan in fan club is from fanatic; BrE navvy, a general labourer, is from a 19c use of navigator, the digger of a 'navigation' or canal. . . .
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
̾ˤ϶ŪŪʴ鳬ΤǤϤʤVan Langendonck (33--34) ǡΤ褦ʶ̣ƤҲ𤵤Ƥ롥
ZERO MARKING, as in city and town names: London, Berlin;
SUFFIXING, as in country names: Fin-land, German-y;
ARTICLE PREPOSING, as in names of, e.g. fields, regions, and rivers: the Highlands, the Rhine;
The use of CLASSIFIERS plus possibly an article, as in names of seas, oceans, or deserts: the North Sea, the Gobi Desert
̾ˤߤͭɸγؤϡʹ֤ȿŪʴͿοϢưƤΤǤϤʤȤʹּҲˤȤäơԻԤϤƽפоݤ٤й衦ʤɤϿʹּҲؤαƶʳ褦˻פ롥嵭γؤϡֿʹ濴ΡϢ³ ("'anthropocentric' cline") ȤäƤ褵 (Van Langendonck 34)
Van Langendonck (34) ϡ괧̵ͭ˴ؤơ٤Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . English shows the humanized place-names (e.g. settlement names) omitting the article, whilst the non-human place-names (e.g. river names) tend to adopt the article. This can be observed where the names of former colonies or regions lose their article when they become independent countries: the Ukraine > Ukraine, The Congo > Congo, the Lebanon > Lebanon.
θѶŪ˼ȤȡɤΤ褦ʲΩƤΤ褤°ˤʤ⡤ۤɶᤷ¸ߤǤϤʤΤˤ괧 the Ĥ䤹ʳ¸ߤǤ the ĤˤȤȤˤʤ̣ĹǤ롥
Van Langendonck, Willy and Mark Van de Velde. "Names and Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 17--38.
ͤϲ̾ĤΤŪˤϡȤΤ̾Ĥ롥ºݾ⡤ͤϸ̤ƿݤ˥٥ŽդƤ줬̾ (noun) Ǥ롥ͤΤϤ⤦̣Ǥ̾ͭ̾Ǥ롥ͤϲ˸ͭ̾ĤΤ
Van Langendonck and Van de Velde (33--38) ϡۤʤ͡ʸӤǡʸˡŪʴ顤̾դоݤŵˡʤץȥŪʤΤ餽ǤʤΤءƤ롥ŪʰǤϤʤȤǤ뤳ȤƤ
̾
̾
̾
̾ɸ̾
µ̾ʪμ̾
"autonym"
ʸǤϳƹܤ˲⤬ĤƤ뤬ǤϺǸ "autonym" ñ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤΤʤǤϺǤץȥŪǤϤʤ֤Ťˤ̾դоݤǤ롥ϡ㤨 "Bank is a homonymous word." Bank ʤȤñˤƱ۵ǤפȤ Bank ΤȤؤƤ롥Ȥɽξ¤ǡ̾פȤʤ롤ȤȤŪ̾դˤϡ#1300. hypostasis ([2012-11-17-1]) طƤ롥
β2ܤˤµ̾ʤɤϡ̾դоݤȤƤΥץȥ㤤ΤǡˤäƤϸͭ̾Ϳ줺ޤ̾Ȥ̤äƤˤʤȤ⤢롥Τ Covid-19 ϸͭ̾ݤ cold ̾ݤ˸ͭ̾ĤΤȤˤĤƤϡ̸Ū˷ϤΤΡޤǥץȥפȤƹͤɬפȤȤ
Van Langendonck, Willy and Mark Van de Velde. "Names and Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 17--38.
ε#5133. ư ([2023-05-17-1]) ³ԡHeine and Kuteva (87) ư (linguistic transfer) μʼΤ褦ʬषƤʤǤλѤƤˡ
Contact-induced transfer Borrowing Replication Lexical replication Grammatical replication Contact-induced grammaticalization Restructuring Loss Rearrangement
Heine and Kuteva ˤСѸ䤽ظˤƶϡWeinreich äƤ (86) replication Ȥ "kinds of transfer that do not involve phonetic substance of any kind" ΤȤǤꡤŪ "structural borrowing" "(grammatical) calquing" ȸƤФƤΤ롥 replication ˤϡǸä˴ؤΤꡤ¾ʸˡỤ̄¤˴ؤΤ롥Ԥ replication ϡܼŪˤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ˱äΤȤʤ뤬ǤʤΤ restructuring ȤѸƤƤʤƤ˺ʬˡοޤϡΤ褦ʸư˴ؤ븫ΤǤ롥
ܿ (contact) ˴ؤ (typology) ͡ʤΤƤƤ Heine and Kuteva ʬ⤿ؤŪǤ롥¾ʲεʤɤȤ줿
#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1])
#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])
#2008. ܿάˡ ([2014-10-26-1])
#2009. ؤˤܿġ2ѡѡ ([2014-10-27-1])
#2079. fusion mixture ([2015-01-05-1])
#4410. ܿη̤˴ؤ礭ʸޡ ([2021-05-24-1])
Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
ABؤबư뤳Ȥ "linguistic transfer" ʸưˤȸƤǤܿ (contact) ˤˤ˵븽ݤǤꡤŵŪʸ1Ĥμ (borrowing) Ǥ롥ǤϤʤΰ̣ự (semantic_borrowing) ⤢СŪñ̤طư⤢롥ǡηϡˤΰưŪܤΰư⤢뤫⤷ʤ "linguistic transfer" ȤäƤ⡤ʼबΤ
Heine and Kuteva (87) ϡ5θưǧƤ롥
a. form, that is, sounds or combinations of sounds,
b. meanings (including grammatical meanings) or combinations of meanings,
c. form-meaning units,
d. syntactic relations, that is, the order of meaningful elements,
e. any combination of (a) through (d).
ΰưȼ a c ϡʿСּѡ (borrowing) Ǥ롥b d ϲΰưȼʤưǤꡤԸˤʤäơʣ (replication) ȸƤǤ绨ĤˤСѤϤŪʹܤΰưǡʣϤŪʹܤΰưǤ롥ʤߤ e Ϥ٤ƤΤäѤǤ롥θưϡճȤ狼䤹ȻפäƤ롥
Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.
Bybee ˤܤɤǤơ̸Ūˤߤ³ˡ (subjunctive) ̿ˡ (imperative) ȤδطݤεҤäѸˤδϡ#2476. Ѹˤˤư̿ˡ³ˡŪǽŪͻ礷 ([2016-02-06-1]) Ǽ夲²ʳθޤǡƵǤBybee (186) Ѥ롥
Since the subjunctive is usually a marker of certain types of subordination, it is very difficult to say what the subjunctive "means" in any given language. There is a long literature on this problem in European languages, and no satisfactory solution. At most, it might be said that the subjunctive has a very general meaning such as "non-asserted" and then it takes more specific meanings from the context in which it occurs.
Considered cross-linguistically, there is evidence of a relation between the subjunctive and imperative or related moods. When subjunctive forms are used in main clauses, they have an imperative function in Maasai, Basque and Yupik, and/or a hortative function in Tarascan, Pawnee and Maasai, in keeping with their non-asserted subordinate clause functions. The marking of subjunctive parallels that of indicative or imperative in most languages. In Maasai and Pawnee, the subjunctive is a prefix, just as the imperative is, and in Tarascan, Ojibwa and Georgian the subordinating mood is expressed in the same way as the imperative or optative
³ˡ̿ˡʤӴϢ¾ΤĤˡˤϤФеǽŪˤŪˤƤǤȤȤ̸Ūˤ⼨줿櫓ξDzƱѸˤäƤߤΤ⤪⤷ѸˤǤϡŪˤ³ˡ̿ˡϤȤȰۤʤäƤͻ礷ƤȤ̣ݤäƤ뤫
Ϣưʲε⻲ȡ
#2475. ̿ˤϤʤưθѤΤ ([2016-02-05-1])
#3538. Ѹ subjunctive ֤ϰĸ optative ֤ ([2019-01-03-1])
#3540. ˾ʸȴʸ̯ʴط ([2019-01-05-1])
Bybee, Joan. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form. John Benjamins, Amsterdam/Philadelphia, 1985.
ε#4853. ȥ⡼ ([2022-08-10-1]) ˰³ѸαΧоȤ롥ʲ (27--28) Ȥ롥
ܸϥ⡼ʲꥺ (mora-timed/syllable-timed rhythm) Ѹ϶ꥺ (stress-timed rhythm) ĤȤ롥
ܸΥ⡼ʲꥺȤϡƱĹñ̡ʥ⡼䲻ʤɤñ̤ǡܸξˤŵŪ˥⡼ˤϢ³ƸΤǡϢ³Υꥺ (rhythm of succession) 뤤ϡֵؽƥꥺ (machine-gun rhythm) ȤƤФ롥ѸüԤˤȤäơܸΥꥺϡ֥פΤ褦ñĴʤΤʹȤ
ѸζꥺȤϡΤ벻ȤʤȤŵŪ˸ߤ˸ΤǡָؤΥꥺ (rhythm of alternation) 뤤ϡ֥⡼륹ꥺ (Morse-code rhythm) Ȥ⤤롥ܸüԤˤȤäơѸΥꥺ϶ΥϥΤ벻βη֤ʹ롥ѸδŪʥꥺശϡΤ褦ŪоŪʤᡤߤ˰´礭
Ѹ줬ꥺĤȤϴְ㤤ʤѸˤδϡλ¤ǤвªƤɬפ롥űѸϽʶꥺθǤϤʤäȤ⤢뤷ѸǤФвꥺबʹ뤳ȤΤǤ롥ѸߤĤꥺळѸˤ̤˭٤ˤߤ첻ѲθưϤäȤ븫⤢롥Ѹˤˤꥺ (rhythm) ϡפΤۤ礭ʲεȡ
#1647. ˤ뱤ΧŪħμȵǽ ([2013-10-30-1])
#3387. ʤѸ첻ˤˤ첻Ѳ¿Τ ([2018-08-05-1])
#3644. Ѹ stress-timed ʸűѸ syllable-timed ʸ졩 ([2019-04-19-1])
#4470. եꥫϤαѸˤߤꥺȶη ([2021-07-23-1])
#4799. Jenkins ˤ "The Lingua Franca Core" ([2022-06-17-1])
ס1ϡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ
塤 (syllable) ȥ⡼ (mora) ϰۤʤñ̤Ǥ롥⡼Τۤñ̤ǤꡤƤĹ첻2첻ϲȤƤ1ȥȤ뤬⡼ȤƤ2⡼ȥȤ롥ܸ줫㤫顤ξԤδطƤʷp. 15ˡ
| ñ | ⡼ | |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | ----------- |
| Х | 3 (o.ba.ma) | 3 (o-ba-ma) |
| ֥å | 2 (bus.syu) | 3 (bu-s-syu) |
| ȥ | 3 (ku.rin.ton) | 5 (ku-ri-n-to-n) |
| ȥ西 | 3 (to.yo.ta) | 3 (to-yo-ta) |
| ۥ | 2 (hon.da) | 3 (ho-n-da) |
| ˥å | 2 (nis.san) | 4 (ni-s-sa-n) |
ʹ֤θȥ⡼ʬͤϡ֤ΰ㤤ªƤǡȥ⡼¸Ǥʤñ̤ȤªȤϤǤ롥ºݤˤϡѸΤ褦ʡֲפˤ⡼ɬפǤꡤܸɸˤΤ褦ˡ֥⡼פȤˤⲻԲķȤʤ롥
㤨бѸǤϡ1θ¿1⡼θϵƤʤ[pin] pin [pi:] pea Ȥ2⡼1¸ߤ뤬[pi] Ȥ1⡼Ĺ1¸ߤʤ¸ߤʤΤǤϤʤ¤Ū˵ƤʤΤǤ롥ġġά͡ġĺǾϱѸΥե٥åȯˤɽƤꡤե٥åȤ1ĤĸȤȯˤ A [æ] ǤϤʤ [ei]B [b] [bi] ǤϤʤ [bi:] 2⡼ʰʾˤĹȯ롥
⡼ȤܸɸˤεҤˤⲻȤñ̤ԲķȤʤ롥㤨гû̷ˤϡά͡2⡼ʾפȤǤʤ2ʾפȤݤ롥祳ʡ祳졼ȡˤ䥹ȡʡ㥹ȥ饤ˤȤ22⡼ṳ̂ϤäƤ⡤*ѥʡѥեåȡˤ*ʡ㥷ݥˡ*ѡʡѡޥȡʥˡˤȤû̷ƤʤΤϤΤǤ롥2⡼βǻϤޤ3⡼ܤޤǤĤơ2û̷ʥѥաݡѡޡˤФ롥
顤ȥ⡼ΧȿŪñ̤ǤϤʤ1ĤθΤʤƱ路䴰Ūʴطˤñ̤ȤȤ館ɬפ뤳Ȥʬ롥ܸβ⡼ˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ȡ
#1023. ܸμȿ ([2012-02-14-1])
#3719. ܸϳ졤ѸIJ ([2019-07-03-1])
#3720. ʤѸ make ܸ˼Ѥȸ첻 /u/ ΤĤ meiku /meiku/ ȤʤΤǤ ([2019-07-04-1])
#4621. ⡼ --- ܸ줫ΰ̲ؤι ([2021-12-21-1])
#4624. ܸΥ⡼鴶С ([2021-12-24-1])
ס1ϡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ
ܸθޤˤ첻¤ӤδܤϡޤǤʤ [a, i, u, e, o] Ǥcf. #2104. ޡ ([2015-01-30-1])ˡư5ʳѤǤֹԤʤסֹԤޤסֹԤסֹԤȤסֹԤСסֹԤסֹԤפȾ褦ˡ[a, i, u, e, o] ¤ӤȤʤäƤ롥ʤ¤ӤʤΤ
ϡ¤ӤŪ̵ɸ (unmarked) ͭɸ (marked) ؤν˱äƤ뤫Ǥ롥
(6) ˤСθϤȡ3첻ηϤθˤ [a, i, u] Ǥ¿4첻ηϤǤ [a, i, u, e] 5첻ηϤǤ [a, i, u, e, o] Ǥ¿ȤĤޤꡤŪˤäơ첻ͭɸ (markedness) ϡ㤤⤤ [a, i, u] [e] [o] ȤΤ褦ʤΤǤ롥
ҲˤƱͤͭɸν롥 (9) ϡΤߤʤ餺콬ᤵǰƬˤĤġ̵ɸʻҲͭɸʻҲνΤ褦ͿƤ롥ʲ A > B ϡA B Ū̵ɸǤ뤳Ȥ
a. Ĵξ >
b. Ĵˡĺ >
c. ĺ˻ ̵ > ͭ
d. ĺ˻ʳͭ > ̵
λҲͭɸǰƬˤƸޤΡ֤ʤϤޤפ¤ӤįȡɬŪʽǤϤʤ¤⤫Ӿ夬äƤʡ֤ϡפλҲϸŤ [p] äȤաˡ
ͭɸȤϸؤˤƤʤʤǰǤ롥#550. markedness ([2010-10-29-1])#551. ͭɸ̵ɸԵ§§ ([2010-10-30-1])#3723. ͭɸ ([2019-07-07-1])#4745. markedness ˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2022-04-24-1]) ʤɤεȤ줿
ס1ϡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ
hellog Ǥⲿ٤Ƥޤ5ˡ ԡ Ϻ δˡظɸಽͤ --- ʩоȸˡפλߡ١罤ۡ2022ǯ尴ޤ

䤬ɮôս1Ĥˡ1ϤΡƳɸηˤоȤȤȡפ2ɸಽڤʥѥˡ (6--15) ޤܽνǴˤĤʤä5ǯ֤θưΤʤǸƤƤɸಽΥѥʬǤФΤޤޥѥбƤΤǡƤޤ
2.1 첽ϲѲ
2.2 ɸಽ
2.3 ɸಽæɸಽ
2.4 Ѱ
2.5 ΰ̤ɸಽȤŪ
2.6 ɸಽΥߥפ
2.7 ɸಽνʳ¦
2.8 Ѷ
2.9 ɸಽɸȤʤѼμࡦ
2.10 ɸಽʤΡ
2.11 ɸಽФüԤ
2.12 ɸಽȼҲθɸಽ
֤ƥ֥쥹ȤޤȤƤѥΰʤΤǡоȸŪɸಽ (standardisation) ƤݤΥݥǥȤƹΩĤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤޤ
hellog Ǥϸɸಽ standardisation εˤ˼夲ƤޤǤȯɽǰƬ˺ѸɸಽˤˤĤƤΤ٤ޤȤޤäȤƤϡ#3234. ָȿʹ֡ (HLC) νմߥʡɸѸȯãˤĤäޤ ([2018-03-05-1]) ȡ#3244. 2 HiSoPra* DZѸˤˤɸಽˤĤäޤ ([2018-03-15-1]) Ȥ
ظɸಽͤ٤ξҲˤĤƤεåɤȤ櫓78˲ϿԼŤϤǤܽɤߤɤԼ3ͤǾҲ𤷤ƤޤԼŤ2Ƥ褷ƤޤܽˤĤơ뤤ϰ̸̡ˤɸಽˤĤơոۡΥȥե2ƤȤƼ夲ФȻפäƤޤ
#4509. "angloversals" --- ѸˤߤŪʡܡ ([2021-08-31-1]) "angloversals" ȤѸ졦ǰ˿줿αѸѼϤȡŪŪľܤδطʤѼ֤ˡ褯ܡʤȤ櫓ɸŪʸܡˤ̤ƴѻ뤳Ȥ롥̣ǡֱѸפ֤ʤΤǡȤ⤢Ȼפ뤫⤷ʤܤΤʤˤ9ʾαѸѼ˳ǧȤ˥С˶ᤤΤ⤢롥줬 angloversals ȸƤФΤ
Kortmann ϡ76αѸѼĴ¿Ѽ˶ͭƤ angloversals Υȥå11ϤФɸŪǵŪʸˡȤƤϥȤŪʹܤǤ롥Kortmann Υɽ (639--40) 䤹褦˲Ѥưʲ˼ "No." Ĵֹ桤 "AR" "attestation rate" ؤ
| No. | Feature | Absent in | Total | AR worldwide |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| F229 | no inversion/no auxiliaries in main clause yes/no questions (You get the point?) | North, SE, AppE, ChcE, NigE, TP | 70 | 92% |
| F34 | forms or phrases for the second person plural pronoun other than you (e.g. youse, yinz, y'all, you guys, yufela) | O&SE, SE, TznE, UgE, HKE, FijiE, Saramaccan | 69 | 91% |
| F221 | adverbs other than degree modifiers have the same form as adjectives (Come quick!) | PakE, SLkE, HKE, FijiE, BelC, Bislama, TP | 69 | 91% |
| F7 | me instead of I in coordinate subjects (me and my brother) | FijiE, EMarC, Saramaccan, TorSC, PalmE, Bislama, Norf'k, TP | 68 | 89% |
| F159 | never as preverbal past tense negator (She never came this morning) | O&SE, ChcE, JamE, UgE, NigE, IndE, SLkE, EMarC, Saramaccan, Sranan, RRC, Bislama, TP | 63 | 83% |
| F154 | multiple negation/negative concord (He won't do no harm) | NigE, TznE, PakE, SLkE, MalE, FijiE, RRC, TP, Bislama, GhP, NigP | 61 | 80% |
| F220 | degree modifier adverbs have the same form as adjectives (This is real healthy) | . . . | 60 | 79% |
| F147 | was for conditional were (if I was you) | . . . | 58 | 76% |
| F78 | double comparatives and superlatives (That's so much more easier to follow) | . . . | 56 | 74% |
| F172 | existential/presentational there's/there is/there was with plural subjects (There's three people in the garden) | . . . | 54 | 71% |
| F228 | no inversion/no auxiliaries in wh-questions (What you doing?) | . . . | 54 | 71% |
(typology) ϡ̸ŪˤߤŪʬǤ롥оݤȤʬ¿ˤ錄뤬Ʊʬ路 Whaley (28) 3ĤŦƤ롥
The starting point for all typology is the presupposition that there are recurrent structural patterns across languages that are not random or accidental. These patterns can be described in statements called language universals.
Once one grants this simple assumption, myriad questions arise. . . . [T]ypologists explore both absolute properties of language and probabilistic properties. In addition, they are concerned with the connections between two or more properties.
A second key question about universals is "How are they determined?" . . . . For now, it is sufficient to say that this question has become central to typology in the past few decades, and its answer has profound implications, particularly for universals that are based on statistical probability.
The final basic question that concerns modern typology is "How are universals explained?" A protracted debate over issues of explanation has been occurring since the 1950s. The most acrimonious elements of the debate have concerned the relationship between diachrony and synchrony (i.e., to what degree does an explanation require reference to past stages of a language?) and the need to go outside the language system itself in forming satisfying explanations . . . .
˵Ƥ3Ĥδؿϡ줾ħ˴ؤ What, How, Why 䤤ȤȤ館Ƥ褤
˸ؤΩ줫ϡȤ櫓3Ĥ Why ꤬̻֤ؤäƤǽפǤ롥ȸѲδطˤĤơWhaley (25--26) ʹ
Another characteristic trait of modern typology that is represented well in Greenberg's work is a focus on the ways that language changes through time . . . . Greenberg's interest in diachrony was in many ways a throwback to the earlier days of typology in which historical-comparative linguistics predominated. The uniqueness of Greenberg's work, however, was in his use of language change as an explanation for language universals. The basic insight is the following: Because the form that a language takes at any given point in time results from alterations that have occurred to a previous stage of the language, one should expect to find some explanations for (or exceptions to) universals by examining the processes of language change. In other words, many currently existing properties of a language can be accounted for in terms of past properties of the language.
ȤŪˤ϶ŪʻȤäƤʬˡ̻ŪȤʤȡʤʤʵˤʤäƤ
Whaley, Lindsay J. Introduction to Typology: The Unity and Diversity of Language. Thousand Oaks: Sage, 1997.
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