Ϣ (typology) ȸ (universal) ˤĤˤƤ롥ȤäƤ⡤ζ٤ˤꡤŪ⤢СŪ뤤ϳΨŪ⤢ȽҤ٤ˤСˤϰۤʤΤΤ롥Ҳ𤹤ΤϡCrystal (85) ̤Ƥ3줾ּ¼ŪסַŪסִްŪפƤ
Substantive
Substantive universals comprise the set of categories that is needed in order to analyse a language, such as 'noun', 'question', 'first-person', 'antonym', and 'vowel'. Do all languages have nouns and vowels? The answer seems to be yes. But certain categories often thought of as universal turn out not to be so: not all languages have case endings, prepositions, or future tenses, for example, and there are several surprising limitations on the range of vowels and consonants that typically occur . . . . Analytical considerations must also be borne in mind. Do all languages have words? The answer depends on how the concept of 'word' is defined . . . .
Formal
Formal universals are a set of abstract conditions that govern the way in which a language analysis can be made --- the factors that have to be written into a grammar, if it is to account successfully for the way sentences work in a language. For example, because all languages make statements and ask related questions (such as The car is ready vs Is the car ready?), some means has to be found to show the relationship between such pairs. Most grammars derive question structures from statement structures by some kind of transformation (in the above example, 'Move the verb to the beginning of the sentence'). If it is claimed that such transformations are necessary in order to carry out the analysis of these (and other kinds of) structures, as one version of Chomskyan theory does, then they would be proposed as formal universals. Other cases include the kinds of rules used in a grammar, or the different levels recognized by a theory . . . .
Implicational
Implicational universals always take the form 'If X, then Y', their intention being to find constant relationships between two or more properties of language. For example, three of the universals proposed in a list of 45 by the American linguist Joseph Greenberg (1915--) are as follows:
Universal 17. With overwhelmingly more-than-chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO [=Verb-Subject-Object] have the adjective after the noun.
Universal 31. If either the subject or object noun agrees with the verb in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the noun in gender.
Universal 43. If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun.
As is suggested by the phrasing, implicational statements have a statistical basis, and for this reason are sometimes referred to as 'statistical' universals . . . .
ʾ3θޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ
1. ¼Ū (Substantive universals): ̾졤ʸ;Ρ첻ʤɡʬϤɬפʴŪ (category) Τȡ٤Ƹ˶̤¸ߤǤ⤢Сֻ̤Τ褦ɬŪǤʤǤ⤢롥
2. Ū (Formal universals): ʸι¤뤿ɬפŪʾʸˡ§Τȡ㤨Сʿʸ鵿ʸؤѴ§ʤɤޤޤ졤ॹǤϡΤ褦ѷ§ϷŪȤư롥
3. ްŪ (Implicational universals): ֤⤷ X ʤ YפȤɽ蘆֤δطΤȡŪʷ˴ŤƤꡤ㤨 VSO θǤϷƻ줬̾θ뷹λŦʤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) Ǹڤ褦ˡˡ§̣̾ͤѲΥѥȤΤϤۤȤȯƤʤ˶ŤΤȤƵΤ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) Ρ®ע֤ˡפ䡤#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1]) 䡤εǿ줿 Basic Color Terms (BCTs; ̸ܿ) ˴ؤϡBCTs Ūʸ˾Ƥ롥
Berlin and Kay BCTs θϡŪˡΤˤꡤ̣ (linguistic_relativism)ءǧβʳؤʤɤδϢʬ礭ʾͿƤȽˤ⤵餵ƤϤߤ̣ʬǤְ㤤ʤƶϤΤ븦1ĤȤƿƤ롥̣Ѳˡ§Ȥ Berlin and Kay ȯȡοޤ롥

οޤϡΤˤ뿧̸ȯŸƻڤɽȤ롥̻ŪˤߤȯŸIVIIʳˤɤΤȤ졤Ūˤߤй⼡ʳ㼡ʳްդΤȲᤵ롥Ūˤϡ٤Ƥθ줬 black white Ūʿ̸2ͭ롥⤷̸줬3줢ʤСɲäΤɬ red θǤ롥ʳIIIIVؤǽ뤬green yellow ˲ä롥ʳV blue ʳVI brown νɲäȡǸʳVII4Τ줫ޤäʤ̸äɲä롥ĤޤꡤŪ BCTs ϰʾ11ƥǤꡤ줬νȯãȤΤ Berlin and Kay ȯιҤ
⤷줬¤ǤСǧθŪʴؤδͿȤʤꡤʸ˰¸ʤϤʰ̣Ūˡ§פȸƤǤ٤ʾ塤Williams (208--09) ȤƼɮ
Berlin, Brent and Paul Kay. Basic Color Terms. Berkeley and Los Angeles: U of California P, 1969.
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
ε#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ǰѤ Moravcsik ϡɤΤ褦ʸबѤ䤹ʤɡѤˤĤŪʹͻäƤ롥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1])#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1]) Ǥ夲Ѽ (scale of adoptability) Ǥ롥
Moravcsik (110--13) ϡѤζȤ7ܤƤ롥ʲιܤʬΤߤվȴФ
(1) No non-lexical language property can be borrowed unless the borrowing language already includes borrowed lexical items from the same source language.
(2) No member of a constituent class whose members do not serve as domains of accentuation can be included in the class of properties borrowed from a particular source language unless some members of another constituent class are also so included which do serve as domains of accentuation and which properly include the same members of the former class.
(3) No lexical item that is not a noun can belong to the class of properties borrowed from a language unless this class also includes at least one noun.
(4) A lexical item whose meaning is verbal can never be included in the set of borrowed properties.
(5) No inflectional affixes can belong to the set of properties borrowed from a language unless at least one derivational affix also belongs to the set.
(6) A lexical item that is of the "grammatical" type (which type includes at least conjunctions and adpositions) cannot be included in the set of properties borrowed from a language unless the rule that determines its linear order with respect to its head is also so included.
(7) Given a particular language, and given a particular constituent class such that at least some members of that class are not inflected in that language, if the language has borrowed lexical items that belong to that constituent class, at least some of these must also be uninflected.
äƤޤäǤꡤ䤱ʣʰݤͿ뤬줾פȤФǸȤǤϤʤľŪˤ⤢ʤȤǤꡤŤ Haugen Thomason and Kaufman ŦƤतδްռ (implicational_scale) ؤθڤǤ롥(1) ϡùܤμѤʤùܡʸˡܤʤɡˤΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(2) ϡ«Ǥޤ༫ͳŵŪˤϸˤΩƼѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤ(3) ϡ̾μѤʤ̾ΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(4) ϡư줬Ọ̇̄ΤޤݤäޤѤ뤳ȤϤʤȤ㤨СܸΡ֥ܥåȤפʤɤϥưλ٤ư첽ƤΤǤꡤѸư boycott ΤޤưȤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤˡ(5) ϡǤμѤʤǤΤߤѤ뤳ȤϤꤨʤȤ(6) ϡ㤨ֻβỌ̇̄ΤߤѤ졤֤Ȥ쵬§ΤϼѤʤȤȤϤꤨʤȤʤĤޤꡤֻѤƤʤ顤ֻȤѤȤ褦ϤʤȤˡ(7) ϡǤ̵¸ߤˤ⤫餺¾줫μѸϰ̵ǤϤꤨʤȤϤʤȤ
Moravcsik ϰʾиŪƳФ줿ΤȤƤ뤫顤θθȿ㤬ĤʤѹɬפȤʤϤǤ롥ˤ Moravcsik Ƥ϶ˤƹ¤ŪʡŪȯۤ˴ŤǤꡤߤθܿǽŻ뤵ƤѼԸĿͤο䤽νĤμҲŪʤɤδϤܴۤ˼ξݤƤcf. #1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])ˡȤлʤΤŪؤδؿƤȤϤΤΡ¤Ūʻˤȿ;ϤϻĤƤΤǤϤʤȤפΩ줫顤ްռ٤εҤ̲ƤȤǤ
Moravcsik, Edith A. "Language Contact." Universals of Human Language. Ed. Joseph H. Greenberg. Vol. 1. Method & Theory. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1978. 93--122.
ε#1667. եαƶˤƻθֽ (1) ([2013-11-19-1]) ³ԡѸˤˤơƻθֽϸűѸ줫鸫줿ֽѸǤϷ褷ƵǤϤʤäѸδֽ֤ͥȤʤä (Rissanen 209) Fischer (214) ˤȡLightfoot (205--09) ϡŪаޤƧޤ Greenberg ήθ˴Ťްռ (implicational scale) δ顤ƻ (Noun-Adjective) θοϡSOV (Subject-Object-Verb) θοϢưƤĤޤꡤSVO 夷ĤĤäѸǤƱ˷ƻ֤ȯãƤΤȤΤǤ롥SVOθȯãˤĤƤϡ#132. űѸ줫Ѹؤθȯã ([2009-09-06-1]) ȡ
ѸηƻθεҸߤ¤ꡤLightfoot ٤¤Ϥʤ㤨СSir Gawain and the Green Knight Ǥϡ8䤬ƻ֤Ǥꡤ֤Ĥ2Τ2/3㤬ΧˤȤޤͽۤȤꡤʸ걤ʸΤۤŪ¿ֽˡֽηƻϡե "learned adjectives" (Fischer 214) Ǥ뤳Ȥ¿ä (ex. oure othere goodes temporels, the service dyvyne) Ĥޤꡤ̾Ȥ碌ơɽ¿ϥեδɽäȹͤΤΤ褦Ǥ롥
Ѹˤ뤳ηϡѸˤ³Rissanen (208) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
The order of the elements of the noun phrase is freer in the sixteenth century than in late Modern English. The adjective is placed after the nominal head more readily than today . . . . This is probably largely due to French or Latin influence: most noun + adjective combinations contain a borrowed adjective and the whole expression is often a term going back to French or Latin.
λȤƤϡa tonge vulgare and barbarous, the next heire male, life eternall ʤɤƤ롥Ѹδ֤ˤθ礬षƤȤ礭ήϤĤθ (Rissanen 209 ȡˤǻŦƤ뤬ƥȥפġ̤˾ܺ٤ĴƤ椯ɬפ뤫⤷ʤεǤ줿褦ˡե줬θͿƶϡ¤줿ϰϤˤƤǤϤ뤬ѸǤŪǤ롥ƻ֤ϡѸ˾塤̣ơޤȤʤΤǤϤʤ
Fischer, Olga. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 207--408.
Rissanen, Matti. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.
Lightfoot, D. W. Principles of Diachronic Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.
[2013-07-07-1], [2013-07-08-1]ε˰³wave_theory lexical_diffusion δطˤĤơѲ濴ϤȾ˼ϰŤƤ椯Ȥǥ벽ȾȡѲäδ֤˥褦ˤʳŪ˿ʤǤ椯ȤƤóȻȤοϹ⤤ظˤSȤإǥꤵƤꡤ̾ͤʷϵɺäƤ롥
ξԤȤ˲餫ΰ̣ (diffusion) äƤΤŪʰ㤤ϡȾŪ֤ȤƤΤФơóȻϸŪ֤ˤƤ뤳ȤǤ롥Wardhaugh (222--23) ŦƤΤǡսѤ褦
The theory of lexical diffusion has resemblances to the wave theory of language change: a wave is also a diffusion process. . . .
The wave theory of change and the theory of lexical diffusion are very much alike. Each attempts to explain how a linguistic change spreads through a language; the wave theory makes claims about how people are affected by change, whereas lexical diffusion makes claims concerning how a particular change spreads through the set of words in which the feature undergoing change actually occurs: diffusion through linguistic space. That the two theories deal with much the same phenomenon is apparent when we look at how individuals deal with such sets of words. What we find is that in individual usage the change is introduced progressively through the set, and once it is made in a particular word it is not 'unmade', i.e., there is no reversion to previous use. What is remarkable is that, with a particular change in a particular set of words, speakers tend to follow the same order of progression through the set; that is, all speakers seem to start with the same sub-set of words, have the same intermediate sub-set, and extend the change to the same final sub-set. For example, in Belfast the change from [ʊ] to [ʌ] in the vowel in words like pull, put, and should shows a 74 percent incidence in the first word, a 39 percent incidence in the second, and only an 8 percent incidence in the third . . . . In East Anglia and the East Midlands of England, a sound change is well established in must and come but the same change is found hardly at all in uncle and hundred . . . . This diffusion is through social space.
ǤϸóȻ "linguistic space" бȾ "social space" бƤ롥Ԥ "geographical space" 礹빭ǰȤƤȤ館Ѳ˿ʹԽԲĵ뤳ȤˤƤ뤬϶Ūˤϴްռ (implicational scale) 뤳Ȥб롥
social space geographical space ˤŤȤϡŪˤ϶ƱΤ鶦ƱΤؤŤΤȤǤꡤ˥ߥˤüԤüԤؤŤΤȤǤ롥 S-diffusion ȸƤӡФƸ줫ؤŤ W-diffusion ȸƤǡξԤΰƱΤϡOgura and Wang Ǥ롥 (Hotta 120) ƳȤΤǡʲ˰Ѥ롥
Ogura and Wang call these two different levels of diffusion W-diffusion and S-diffusion. W-diffusion proceeds from word to word of a single speaker or at a single site, while S-diffusion proceeds from speaker to speaker, or from site to site of a single word. Students of language change have sometimes spoken of this "double diffusion," which may be compared to diffusion of infectious diseases:
These diffusion processes are comparable to epidemics of infectious diseases, and the standard model of an epidemic produces an S-curve (called logistic) describing the increase of frequency of the trait. There are potentially two epidemics, or more exactly two dimensions in which the epidemic can proceed. One dimension is represented by W-diffusion and the other dimension by S-diffusion. (Ogura and Wang, "Evolution Theory" 322)
Ѳ2Ťΰ̣ŤƤ椯Ȥ "double diffusion" ιͤˡ礭ʲǽȤǤǤ롥Hudson (183) ǤС"cumulative diffusion" ȤɽȤ⤷ʤ
How does the theory of lexical diffusion relate to the wave theory . . . . According to the latter, changes spread gradually through the population, just as, according to the former, they diffuse through the lexicon, so we might expect a connection between them. A reasonable hypothesis is that changes spread cumulatively through the lexicon at the same time as they spread through the population, so that the words which were affected first by the change will be the first to be adopted in the new pronunciation by other speakers.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Ogura, Mieko and William S-Y. Wang. "Evolution Theory and Lexical Diffusion." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. 315--43.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
ε[2013-07-07-1]˰³ѲˤޤĤ3ĤγǰδطˤĤơϡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) ŪȾ˳礷ɤΤ褦ʽǸä˥äƿʹԤȤ夲ϡѸνѼˤߤ -t/-d deletion Ȥݤܤ롥
-t/-d deletion Ȥϡmissed, grabbed, mist, hand ʤɤθλĺü벻Ǥ롥ɸŪάȯäǤϤ褯ߤ븽ݤ٤ϷֲĶˤäưۤʤȹͤƤ롥ͿŪʷֲĶȤϡθ줬 (1) mist Τ褦1 (monomorphemic) ʤ뤫 miss-ed Τ褦2 (bimorphemic) ʤ뤫(2) ³벻Ҳ (ex. missed train) 첻 (ex. missed Alice) 2Ǥ롥(1) 1 > 2, (2) Ҳ³ > 첻³ȤطΩ1ǤǻҲ³ -t/-d Ǥü䤹2Ǥ첻³ -t/-d ǤüˤȤȤͽۤ롥ͽۤ mist missed ˴ؤɽηȡʲΤ褦ˤʤRomain, p. 142 "Temporal development of varieties for the rule of -t/-d deletion" ˡ

ϡ SGCS θɽƤ롥ǤϡѼˡֲĶ˱ơ-t deletion θ礬ʾʬۤʤƤ롥ѼؤγȤȤߤȾɽ魯ΤȤơǤߤóȻɽ魯ΤȤơ̻ŪʽζŪʸȤߤްռɽ魯ΤȤơɽ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥
2ηֲĶˤĤƤϡ-t/-d deletion θ˴ؤ (constraint) ȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥(1) ̣ͭ -ed ϾüˤȤ(2) ʻҲϢ³ʤ -t/-d ϾüˤȤȤƺƲǤ롥δ餹ȡ2Ĥθ̤ͥˤäơۤʤä -t/-d deletion ʬɽ뤳ȤˤʤˤơȾóȻްռȤäǰȡOptimality Theory ŬˤȤ⸫ƤΤǤϤʤ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
#1506. The Rhenish fan ([2013-06-11-1]) εǡϥɥĸϥɥĸʬˤäƸߤ˰פʤ¤ǧλ¤ˤϡǯʸˡ (Neogrammarians) ˤ벻ˡ§ΰΧŬѤȤΤǤϤʤषȾ (wave_theory) Ȥơ줴Ȥ˳礷Ƥ椯ΰ褬ۤʤΤȤߤʤɬפ롥
The Rhenish fan ̤ؤľ˽ǤϢΰۤʤϰ1--7̾դ褦ļ˼ꡤѰۤθҲޤ6 (ich, machen, dorf, das, apfel, pfund) ˼롥ȡSecond Germanic Consonant Shift ([2010-06-06-1]) θ̤ˤĤơʲΤ褦ʳʾʬۤ뤳ȤǤRomain, p. 138 "Isoglosses between Low and High German consonant shift: /p t k/ /(p)f s x/" ˡ

1Ǥ SGCS θ̤ϥ2Ǥ ich ˴ؤƤΤ߸̤Ƥ롥3Ǥ machen ˸̤ڤӡ4Ǥ dorf ˤڤ֡³Ƥ椭Ǹ7ˤäơ6줹٤ƤҲѲФȤˤʤ롥1--7ŪľϢ³Ǥ뤳ȤפФСɽϡѲȾ˳礷Ƥ椯ͻҡʤȾɽ魯ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫
ơ1--7ľܤɽ魯ΤǤϤʤ1ˤɽ魯ΤȤƲᤷ褦ˤơ1ˤƤ SGCS θ̤ϤޤƤʤ2ˤƤ ich ˴ؤƸ̤Ƥ롥34ˤ machen, dorf 줾ѲФơ缡7 pfund ޤ³λˤäƤ褦䤯٤Ƥθˤ SGCS λ롥βȤСɽϡ֤ȤȤ SGCS ä˥褦ˤƿʹԤóȻ (lexical diffusion) ɽ魯ΤǤ뤳Ȥ餫
ļ1--7Ȥ٥ϡŪľ¤ΤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤС֤ΤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥ԤȾԤϸóȻɽ路Ѳˤξδط褯ΤǤϤʤ
ˡɽϸѲȼްռ (implicational scale) ƤǤͭյǤ롥6Τ줬 SGCS Ǥ˷ФƤȤ狼äƤΤǤС뤤Ϥλˤơθ꺸¦ˤ뤹٤Ƥθ SGCS ФƤϤǤ롥ΤȤϱ¦θϺ¦θްդɽǤ롥ѲνȤ̻Ūʼȡɤθ줬 SGCS θ̤ͽ¬ǽǤȤŪʼȤߤȤͻ¤Ƥ롥
Ѳ implicational scale ˤĤƤϡ#841. yod-dropping ([2011-08-16-1]) ⻲ȡ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
[2010-08-02-1]εBNC ФȯʤƬ <h>פ h-dropping ˤĤƿ줿ϸѸƤ̤βæ yod-dropping 夲롥yod Ȥ /j/ ɽ蘆Ⱦ첻ؤѸμפѼˤơΤ /juː/ /j/ æƤ뤳Ȥ𤵤Ƥ롥 <u(e)> <ew> ֻϤʬȯŪ /juː/ ǤäȤֻޤ¿θ줬ߤޤǤ /j/ äƤ롥
Bauer (103--10) ˤȡƹɸȯǤ blue, rule /j/ äȯԤʤƤ뤬dew, enthuse, lewd, new, suit, tune ǤѼˤä /j/ ̵ͭɤȤɤѼǤŪ /j/ ݤäƤ beautiful, cute, ewe, fume, huge, mute Τ褦ʸ⾯ʤʤ
Bauer Ĵˤꡤyod-dropping ϤѼ˸¤äȤƤä˰ͤ˺ѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤä˥褦˽˿ʹԤƤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤ줿߿ʹ óȻ (lexical diffusion) ιȤ˶̣ΤϡѼ鷺Ȼν褽Ǥ餷ȤȤǤ롥Bauer (106) ϡyod-dropping β˼Τ褦 "implicational scale" ƤƤ롥
/s/ > /θ/ > /l/ > /n, d, t/
scaleϡyod-dropping äλŪ /j/ ľλҲˤäƷޤäƤ뤳Ȥɽ魯 /s/ ǽ /n, d, t/ ǸˡƱˡscale Τʳ yod-dropping λƤ뤳ȤʬСκ¦Τ٤ƤʳǤǤ yod-dropping λƤϤȤͽ¬ǽˤ롥
⤫ϡνˤϲŪʺΤȤȤǤ롥Ҳ⤤Τ㤤Τؤȳ礷ƤäƤ褦˸뤬
Bauer, Laurie. Watching English Change: An Introduction to the Study of Linguistic Change in Standard Englishes in the Twentieth Century. Harlow: Longman, 1994.
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