ѲŤȻ (diffusion) Ȥơޤ˴ؿ³Ƥ롥ˤĤƤ˻פ⤫֤ΤϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ѲѲäδ֤˥褦˿ʹԤƤȤݤǤ롥ѲͤͤءؤʪŪŪ˹äƤȤ̣ǤŤȻ⤢cf. #1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])ˡޤǤϥͥåȤʤɤͳʪŪŪ˹äƤѲȤΤⵯäƤ褦Ǥ롥Ѳ diffusion ˤ͡ʥץȤȤʬ
diffusion ȤϡȤȿʸ (human geography) ֳ (epidemiology) ˤܤƤǰǤꡤۡʪʪʬۤƤݤؤ㤨С뵻Ѥ¸ݤˤƼϤŤȻƤȤͻʤƤʸؤʬǤ19˻Ϥޤ븦ˤꡤȤ櫓ƶϤ礭ԤȤƤ Torsten Hägerstrand (1916--2004) ̾롥ꥸʥϥǥǽ줿1967ǯ˱ѸǤ Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process Ǥ˹Τ뤳Ȥˤʤäʸػŵ diffusion ιɮ Gregory (160) ˤȡγŪʰյϼ̤ꡥ
Hágerstrand's work had two catalytic consequences: it set in motion the frozen worlds of SPATIAL SCIENCE, and it opened the door to sophisticated computer modelling of spatial processes.
Hägerstrand ηˤ diffusion ϰŪΤΡ䤬ƼҲŪʴ¿Ŧ褦ˤʤꡤdiffusion Τڤ褦ˤʤäGregory (161) ꡤξǧƤ
Just ten years after the translation of Hágerstrand's magnum opus, Blaikie (1978) could speak of a 'crisis' in diffusion research, which he said arose from its preoccupation with spatial form and space-time sequence, while Gregory (1985) attributed the 'stasis' of diffusion theory to a pervasive unwillingness to engage with SOCIAL THEORY and social history to explore the conditions and the consequences of diffusion processes. Critics argued that the spatial circulation of information remained the strategic element in most applications of the Hägerstrand model and its derivatives, and while flows of information through different propagation structures and contact networks were exposed in more detail, the primacy accorded to the reconstruction of these spatial pathways obscured a crucial limitation of the Hägerstrand model: it operated within what Blaut (1977) called a 'granular region', 'a sort of Adam Smithian landscape, totally without macrostructure'. In particular:
(1) The Hägerstrand model begins with a pool of 'potential adopters' and does not explain the selective process through which they are constituted in the first place. This suggests the need for a model of biased innovation, where (for example) CLASS or GENDER circumscribes access to innovations. 'Non-diffusion' is then not a passive but an active state arising directly from the structures of a particular society (Yapa and Mayfield, 1978). Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be integrated with fields such as POLITICAL ECONOMY and FEMINIST GEOGRAPHY that pay attention to the social as well as the spatial.
(2) The Hägerstrand model assumes a 'uniform cognitive region' and does not explain the selective process through which information flows are interpreted. This matters because 'resistance' to innovation is not invariably a product of ignorance or insufficient information: it may signal a political struggle by people whose evaluation of the information is strikingly different to that of the 'potential adopters'. Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be reconnected to a more general cultural geography (Blaut, 1977).
Gregory ϡѲ diffusion ˤĤƤϰƤʤοʸؤˤ diffusion ˤΤäƤȡͭפƶ롥Ѳ diffusion ⡤塤ҲŪ "macrostructure" ǰƬ֤ץޤޤɬפˤʤäƤ
Gregory, Derek. "Diffusion." The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th ed. Ed. Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael Watts, and Sarah Whatmore. John Wiley & Sons, 2009. 160--162.
ε#4434. ѲŪŤ˴ؤ ([2021-06-17-1]) ǡ͡ʥǥߤƤ¸νԤȽƤԤؼԤ Gregory 롥ʲGregory ȽƤˤĤơBritain (2037--39) 𤷤ƤǤϤ뤬Ҳ𤷥Ȥ
Gregory ȽϡüŪˤСҲʽġ˴֤θήΤεθƤʤȤȤѲŤˤĤƤСȾˤ褽ˤ衤ŪѤ뤳ȤʤŪ˼ưŪ˹äƤη֤ΤꤵƤ롥Ǥϡ(1) ŪΤΤŤƤǷ䵡ǽѲƤǽˤĤƹθƤ餺(2) ҲʽġˤռŪ˼롤뤤ϵȤäּŪפγǰ礱Ƥꡤ(3) ˡܿεˤ͡ʥפˤ⤫餺֤Ȥñ1Ĥε뤷ȤƤʤפˡܿ (contact) ξ̤˴ؤ뤭٤ʹͻʤƤʤȤ櫓
ä (2) λŦˤĤơGregory (1985: 322--23) μ1Ѥ褦
In even the most developed version [of Hägerstrand's diffusion theory --- DB] it is axiomatic that 'resistance levels' will eventually diminish, and these are supposed to be a function of insufficient information --- of ignorance --- rather than of conscious collective action. There is a strong presumption that innovations are pro bono publico, therefore, and that their adoption is as uncontentious as it is unproblematic. (qtd. in Britain (2037))
ε鶯۵ΤϡָѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤפȤѲѤǤ롥ѲŪŤƤɽ⡤Ū˰ۤʤüԡʽġˤθѲռŪ˼Ƥɽۤդ路ϤοǤϤʤüԤǤ롥ϡüԤδ餬ߤǤϤʤФʤʤΤ褦ʵȤƲǤ롥
Britain (2039) ϡGregory ε¸ˤĤƼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
In general, then, the weaknesses of contemporary spatial diffusion models can be seen to result from their failure to adopt a richly socialized and interactional perspective on the spaces across which features diffuse. Society in diffusion models, Gregory (1985: 328--329) argues, needs to be conceived as a "multidimensional structure and not 'squashed into a flat surface, pock-marked only by the space-time incidence of events'".
ѲŤθ⡤꤬ѤߤΤ褦
ʤǿ줿ָѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤפȤѲѤˤĤƤϡʲεȤ줿
#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1])
#2139. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ (2) ([2015-03-06-1])
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])
#3367. ࡤѲ --- Ҳؤ3Ĥ ([2018-07-16-1])
#1502. Ⱦʤ̼ҳȻ ([2013-06-07-1])
Britain, David. "Varieties of English: Diffusion." Chapter 129 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2031--43.
Gregory, Derek. "Suspended Animation: The Stasis of Diffusion Theory." Social Relations and Spatial Structures. Ed. Derek Gregory and John Urry. London: Macmillan, 1985. 296--336.
Gregory, Derek. "Diffusion." The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th ed. Ed. Ron Johnston, Derek Gregory, Geraldine Pratt, and Michael Watts. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. 175--78.
Hägerstrand, Torsten. "Aspects of the Spatial Structure of Social Communication and the Diffusion of Information." Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association 16 (1966): 27--42.
ѲŪˤɤΤ褦ŤΤ (linguistic geography or geolinguistics) Ȥơ͡⤬ƤǤŤǤ褯ΤƤΤȾ (the wave theory; Wellentheorie) Ѳ濴Ϥ顤Ʊ߾ȤΤ褦˹äƤȤΤܸ츦ˤơפȤΤΤ⡤ΰȹͤƤ褤Ϣơ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) #1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1]) wave_theory γƵȡ
ȾԻԳؤϤȤѥȤ߹ "Urban Hierarchy Model" 뤤 "cascade diffusion" ȾΤ⤢ (Britain 2035) ԻԤǻϤޤäѲԻԡƾԻԡ¼ļˤؤȡءϤ˱äŤƤȤΤ
"Urban Hierarchy Model" αĹ "gravity model" Ȥ⤬롥ԻԴ֤Ūʱƶطθǥcf. #2170. gravity model ([2015-04-06-1])ˡѲԻԤ̤ԻԤؤȥפʤŤƤͻҤ顤䤬פȸƤǤΤˤᤤcf.#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1])#2040. ([2014-11-27-1])ˡ
ˤ1ѼȤ "Cultural Hearth model" (Britain 2036) ȤΤ⤢롥ԻԤ̤ԻԤŤޤԻԼ˹äƤȤ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥#2037. Ťȸ֡ ([2014-11-24-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ʤɤ⡤˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
ƤѲŤԻԤļˤؤȤĤΤǧƤ뤬դļˤԻԤŤ륿פλǧƤ롥 "counterhierarchical diffusion" ȸƤФ (Britain 2037) Ϣơ#2171. gravity model θ³ ([2015-04-07-1]) Ȥ줿
ñȾ嵭νϡ줾֤ۤʤäƤ뤬褽ŪΥԻԳءϤʤɤΥѥꤷƤǤ϶̤Ƥ롥ѥμ䤷ƿʥǥƤȤǽ⤷ʤΤ褦ʥѥ«ܼϲʤΤˤĤơؤͼԤǤ Hägerstrand "the diffusion of innovation is by definition a function of communication" (27) ȳˤƤ롥ʣΥѥñ "communication" ˤޤȤᤢȤФʤΤ٤ƤθѲŤ1ĤΥǥ褦ȤƤ̵ȤȤʬ䤹Ҥ٤⤤ȻפΰŪʷϸФȤƤ⡤ŤθġλȼΤΤǤꡤäȼꤵ줿ѥ٤ΤʤΤ
Britain, David. "Varieties of English: Diffusion." Chapter 129 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2031--43.
Hägerstrand, Torsten. "Aspects of the Spatial Structure of Social Communication and the Diffusion of Information." Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association 16 (1966): 27--42.
ε ([2017-12-07-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ֤ΡְŪطפȤˤϤʤƤΤ
ϼ¤Ԥˤä͡Ǥꡤ٤ƤθؼԤƱդƤȤΤϤʤNoonan (50) ϡְŪطפȤơ礭3٤̤ȤƤ롥
(1) the generational transmission approach¿θؼԤƤ롤䤹Ǥꡤ椨Ū˻Ŧ뤳ȤǤ⾯ʤͤǤ⤢롥ΩˤäƤϡ֤ΰŪطȤϡŪ塹ѤƤˤƱǤ롥ƤΤȤۤƱηϤҶλҶȤ뤬塹֤뤳ȤˤäơƱθ줬ѾƤȤͤΥ䤬ʤ¤ꡤȤȤ¿쾯ʤѲȤƤ⡤ŪˤƱθ줬ѤƤȤߤʤΤQŪǤ롥ѸüԤϡ̤äƤʤűѸüԤ̤뤳ȤǤ뤷ӸؤϤڤƤǤϤ뤬ޥĸüԡưĸüԤؤ̤뤳ȤǤʤȾʤȤϤǤˡäơѸȰĸˤϡϢʤݻƤŪطȤ롥
(2) the essentialist approachüԤϢ³ŪǤϤʤηѾ˾ƤΩǤ롥ľŪ˰طΤ֤ǤϡʸˡŪʷǤŪħѤϤǤȤΩġդˤСΤ褦ʸħܤ줫̼ܤؤȰѤƤСá̼פδطˤ롤ĤޤŪطˤȤߤʤȤǤ롤Ȥ롥(1) (2) ΩϡФƱʬϷ̤ȤӸؤˡĴ¤Ȥ⤢뤬εäΩ(1) ǤüԤˤηѾ(2) ǤϤθηѾǤȤ㤤դɬפ롥
(3) the hybrid approach(1), (2) ʳ͡ʹͤ͡ˡǼ줿ΩǡǤصŪ "the hybrid approach" Ȥ1ĤΥ٥βˤޤȤƤ롥ȾӸء쥪ʤɤ˴ޤޤ롥ζϡʤȤ⤤ĤξˤƤϡʣθ줬礷ΤǧƤ뤳ȤǤʾ嵭 (1), (2) ΩϸΰŪȤǰǧ᤺Ȥ "mixed language" ¸ߤǧˤ衤ְطפγ֤ˤȤˡӸؤˡӽ櫓ǤϤʤˡ٤ƤλŬѤȤϹͤƤʤޤϸνΤǤȤθäƤ롥ΩǤ͡ʥ˥奢ΰ㤤ꡤޤäǤϤʤ
Τ褦˸ؤθŪѤְŪطפظˤϡ¤¿ޤǥΩƤΤǤ롥Ϣơ#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) ȡˤĤƤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ȡ
Noonan, Michael. "Genetic Classification and Language Contact." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 48--65.
ε ([2016-07-13-1]) ǡ衼å¦νǶ̤ have ˤ뱪ŪλΤϡȤȥꥷȯѥ˥ƥ蘆졤˸˽ϰŪ˳Ȼ (areal diffusion) ƤäǤȤ Drinka Ҳ𤷤ε (3) Ȥƿ줿⤦1ĤδϢĥ롥֥եɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥեäפȤĥǤ롥
ǤϡޤѥΥեDZŪλδλεǽȤƤǤϤʤεǽȤѤ褦ˤʤäȤĥƤ롥Drinka (22--24) ˤСѥΥեǤϡǤ12ޤǤˡǽȤƤˡԤʤƤȤ
It is here, then, in Parisian French, that I would claim the innovation actually began. In the 12th century, the OF periphrastic perfect generally had an anterior meaning, but a past sense was already evident in vernacular Parisian French in the 12th and 13th c., connected with more vivid and emphatic usage, similar to the historical present . . . . During the 16th c., perfects had already begun to emerge in French literature in their new function as pasts, and during the 17th and 18th centuries, the past meaning came to replace the anterior meaning completely in the language of the French petite bourgeoisie . . . .
¾Υޥ٤Ƥή˾äȻȤϡɤζۤƥɥĸˤääʸкѥȤȯŸɥԻԤ Augsburg Nürnberg Ǥϡ1516ˤơλ®֤Ƥä¤ŦƤ (Drinka 25) ե˶ᤤ Cologne Trier ʤɤԻԤǤϡ12--14ȤᤤʳǡλȤѤФƤȤڵ⤢ (Drinka 26)
⤷Υʥꥪ¤ʤСҿ12ΥѥΥե줬λβǽȤƤˡήԤȤƶ٤θ졦ŤƤäȤȤˤʤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ΰȤʤꤦ롥
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
Ѹޤ衼åѽǤϡhave be ưưβʬȤ߹碌ơִλפ뤳Ȥ롥衼åǤΤθϰŪʬۤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) Ω줫ĴơȯȳŪ餫ˤ褦ȤʸĤ
Ԥ Drinka ϡޤ衼åѤθϿޤϤǡ(1) have ˤ봰λȯãΤ¦Ǥꡤ¦Ǥ be ͥǤ뤳ȤŦˡ(2) ¦ have λȯȡʬưŪʰ̣ǽưŪʰ̣ؤȺƲᤵ줿εϡȤ˸奮ꥷ̤ꡤƥ줬ȤˤꡤΥޥ䤽¾θؤäƤäȵƤ롥Ǹˡ(3) եɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥեäƤ롥
(2) ˤĤơ⤦Ҥ٤褦ꥷǤϸ衤Ūλϡbe ܴλʬפǺäƤhave + ʬפζȤ˴λ˶ᤤ̣ɽ魯ȤäˡʸˡΥ롼Ȥ˾äƤä5ޤǤˤϡhave +ꥹʬפȤ졤ޤǤϹʸʤä¾ư⻲ۤɤδˤƥ¦θˤȤäƤϡΥꥷǤǤʸˡƤhave + ʬפΥѥʸ٥оݤȤʤäȤhave λθǤŪޤʹ¤Ǥ뤳Ȥͤȡƥʤ䤽¾¦θˤΩȯȹͤϡꥷȤܿˤΤȹͤۤȽҤ٤Ƥ (16) Drinka (20) have λΥꥷ쵯ˤĤưʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
My claim, then, is that the actual concept of HAVE periphrasis owes its existence largely to the Greek model, that the development of the HAVE perfect in Latin is tied closely to that of Greek, that it arose especially in literary contexts and in the language of educated speakers, and continued to be connected to the formal register in its later history. As a result of this learned calquing of the HAVE perfect from Greek into Latin, including ecclesiastical Latin, the Western European languages were, in turn, given a model to aspire to, a more elaborate temporal-aspectual system to imitate. The Romance languages, of course, all inherited these perfect structures, and, as I will argue elsewhere, most of the Germanic languages appear to have developed their HAVE perfect categories on the basis of this elaborated model, as well . . . . What is particularly fascinating to note is that the western languages have preserved and innovated upon this pattern to different extents, but continually show patterns of areal diffusion as these innovations spread from one language to another.
ѸˤȤδϢǵˤʤΤϡѸ have ˤ뱪ŪλεȯŸˤĤơDrinka ŪˤϤۤȤɽҤ٤ƤʤȤǤ롥Drinka ϡѸǤ⡤衼å¦ΡϰŪʳȻ (areal diffusion) ΰĤȸƤΤȤȡȤϰۤʤ롤ʤʲȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ˾δϢȤƤϡ#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1]) ȡ#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޤεǤϡƥ줬ˡꥷ줫ּѡפȤǤϤʤ"model" Ȥפ˶ᤤѸ줬ѤƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ε⻲ͤˤ줿
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
ˤĤƤϡǶᡤʲεƤ (##2219,2220,2226,2238)
#2219. vane, vat, vixen ([2015-05-25-1])
#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1])
#2226. ѸǸƬͭäͳ ([2015-06-01-1])
ѸˤƬͭ ("Southern Voicing") ʬۤϡߤʬۤ⤺äΰ褬ˤޤdzȤäƤؤºݤޤʬۤεڤ⤢äˤζؤȲᤵ줿Ȥаޤ롥ؤβᤷޤơǤʤ "Southern Voicing" ʤäΤ
βᤷʬۤ˴ؤ Danelaw ΰȴϢŤΤε ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǥ̾ Poussa Ǥ롥Poussa ϡ#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) Ǥ夲Ѹ쥪첾μĥԤǤ롥Poussa (249) ηϡ
In sum, I submit that, whereas the original advance of the initial fricative voicing innovation through the OE dialects is a natural and not unusual phonetic process (it has its parallels in other Germanic dialects on the continent), the halting and then the reversing of such an innovation in ME is an unexpected development, requiring explanation. It can only be explained by some kind of intervention in the dialect continuum. The Scandinavian settlement of the north and east Midlands in the late OE period seems to supply the right kind of intervention at the right place and time to explain this remarkable linguistic U-turn.
Poussa ζŪʵ2롥1ĤϡťΥɸȤܿˤԥ뤤ϥ쥪벽桦αѸѼˤƤϡȤŪͭɸǤƬͭϺѤʤäȤ (Poussa 238) ⤦1ĤϡѸ East-Midland μҲŪʱƶϤɥɸѼη礭褦ˤʤˤĤơƬ⤿ʤƱΰҿޤäˡζ˲줿ΤȤҲŪǤ롥פˡθƬͭϿˤդ路ʤȯȤɾȽEast-Midland üԤ濴˳ȤäȤȤǤ롥
Poussa (247) ѤƤ˼ҲؤʹͻȤƶ̣
It seems to me that the voicing of initial /f-/, /s-/, /θ-/ and /ʃ-/ in OE and ME, which Fisiak convincingly argues are caused by one and the same lenition process, is precisely the type of rule which is typically jettisoned when a language is pidginized or creolized, and acquired only partially by learners of a new dialect. Furthermore, why should the speaker of a Danelaw dialect of English want to sound like a southerner, whether he lives in his home district, or has been transplanted to London? It would depend on what pronunciation he (or she), consciously or unconsciously, regarded as prestigious.
If this explanation is accepted as the reason why such an expansive lenition innovation stopped at approximately the Danelaw boundary during the late OE or early ME period, then the reason why the area of voicing subsequently receded southwards is presumably related: migration of population and the rise in the social prestige of the East Midland dialect meant that the phonologically simpler variety became the standard to be imitated.
Poussa, Patricia. "A Note on the Voicing of Initial Fricatives in Middle English" Papers from the 4th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Eaton, R., O. Fischer, W. Koopman, and F. van der Leeke. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1985. 235--52.
#2220. ѸǸƬͭʤäͳ ([2015-05-26-1]) Ǽ夲"Southern Voicing" ȸ븽ݤˤĤƺƤӡεǤϡβʤʤäΤȤöŪʴʤȤѶŪʸƤϤʤäԤδؿ붽̣ͻĤΤǾҲ𤹤롥
βȤơΦϥޥ줫αƶ⤬Ƥ롥Nielsen (246--47) ˤСLow Franconian ǤϾʤȤ1100ǯޤǤƱͭƤڵꡤΦۤɤŤΤǤϤʤȤѸˤƤϡͭθ̤եѸˤϤۤȤɤߤ줺ͭˤߤ뤳Ȥ顤βϸűѸ줫ѸˤƵäȤ롥ΥߥϡΦŤȤˤȤäԹ礬褤
Since there are other indications of late linguistic cross-Channel relations between the south of England and the Netherlands, there is nothing extraordinary about interpreting the presence of initial voiced fricatives in both places in terms of late contact. . . . / Samuels . . . is probably right in placing the innovatory centre within Franconian. The voicing of fricatives has perhaps spread from here into Upper German . . . , and similarly it may have crossed the Channel --- from Flanders to the south of England. (Nielsen 247)
Nielsen ûΤʤǤβˤĤƹͻƤˤڵϽʬȤˤϤۤɱ̣ǤϤ롥εƤȹ碌ȡΦؤꡤ̤ؤŸťΥɸ첽ͭʲĶäƤؤϿƩʤäȤڽ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Nielsen, Hans F. Old English and the Continental Germanic Languages: A Survey of Morphological and Phonological Interrelations. Innsbruck: Innsbrucker Beitrage zur Sprachwissenshaft, 1981.
źȾΰˤơr μ¸ϡԤդ뤨 (alveolar trill) [r] ȤƤʤ롥褯ΤƤ褦 r ѰۤȤ櫓פʰˤɸŪʼ¸ [r] ǤϤʤȤܤͤ롥ѸǤϻܶ (alveolar approximant) [ɹ] 䤽ܶ (retroflex approximant) [ɻ] ŵŪʼ¸ǤꡤեǤϸ (uvular fricative) [ʁ]ɥĸǤϸդ뤨 (uvular trill) [ʀ] ɸŪǤ롥ѰŪ r ⡤ȤȤ [r] ŪȯŸΤȹͤƤꡤŪˤϼΤ褦ʲȤƼƤʿp. 34 )
(1) Ѹˤơ첻³ʤ r [r] 17ޤǤ˻ܶ [ɹ] ˼ޤꡤθ塤Ԥ˰̲ơ첻Ԥ r ޤǤ⤬ [ɹ] ȯ˻ä
(2) եˤƤϡ17դ˥ѥʸإ˽ήԤüˤäֺͽ (les précieuses) ˸դ碌롤 r [ʀ] ήԤήԤ˥ե˹ޤꡤǥɥĸȥǥޡʬŪ˥ǥʥȾꥢȵڤ
(3) (2) β塤r դ뤨 [ʀ] ˸ [ʁ] ˴Dz̵ܤˤƤϡ̵ΰ۲ [χ] Ѥ˻ä
(2) ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1]) ǿ줿ޤѸˤ r ˤĤƤϡ#1817. Ѹ /l/ /r/ (2) ([2014-04-18-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
嵭Ǥϡ(2) (3) ϻŪϢ³ƤΤΡ(1) ϤȤΩѲȤƤ롥Τ褦ˡ r ΰ۲ʬۤŪȯŸϡޤʬŪ˴ϢŤ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ΤȤƷӤĤ褦ȤߤϤʤäϤ餹٤Ƥ1Ĥ r ȯŸήΤʤ˰֤Ť褦ȤƤ롥ꤹС (60) ϼΤ褦ȯŸꤷƤ롥ʸǤϡȯŸĴŪ˲ǽǤ뤳ȤƤ롥
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| [r] | > | [z̺] | > | [ɹ] | > | [ɻ] | > | [ʁ̙] | > | [ʁ] | > | [ʀ]/[χ] |
ѲŪŤͼˤĤơȾ (wave_theory) 䤽η̤ȤƤ (cf. #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])ˤ褯ΤƤ롥Ӥꤲޤ줿ФƱ߾椬Ȥ褦ˡȯϤƱ߾˼ϤŤƤȤͤǤ롥
ѲɬƱ߾³˳ȤȤϸ¤ʤषȳȤäƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1])#2037. Ťȸ֡ ([2014-11-24-1])#2040. ([2014-11-27-1]) ʤɤε褦ˡΤۤȤͭǤ褦ʸѲλ롥ȤۤƱȯۤȤäƤ褤ΤˡҲؤؤʸ gravity model 뤤 hierarchical model ȸƤФƤѲŤ˴ؤǥ뤬롥 Trudgill ǡWolfram and Schilling-Estes (724) Τ褦ͿƤ롥
According to this model, which is borrowed from the physical sciences, the diffusion of innovations is a function not only of the distance from one point to another, as with the wave model, but of the population density of areas which stand to be affected by a nearby change. Changes are most likely to begin in large, heavily populated cities which have historically been cultural centers. From there, they radiate outward, but not in a simple wave pattern. Rather, innovations first reach moderately sized cities, which fall under the area of influence of some large, focal city, leaving nearby sparsely populated areas unaffected. Gradually, innovations filter down from more populous areas to those of lesser population, affecting rural areas last, even if such areas are quite close to the original focal area of the change. The spread of change thus can be likened not so much to the effects of dropping a stone into a pond, as with the wave model, but, as . . . to skipping a stone across a pond.
gravity model ϡŤϡȾΤ褦֤εΥ˰¸ǤϤʤοϤˤ¸ȤȤǤ롥ϡ2ĤŷΤΰ礦ϤΥ̩٤δؿǤ뤳ȤӤ롥ΥȿϤ2ĤѿΤȤŤͼޤȤ gravity model ϡȾळȤǤͥƤ롥ȤΤϡΥΤߤͭѿȤϤѿ̵ȤСʤȾȤʤ뤫Ǥ롥
gravity model ˱äѲλϾʤʤWolfram and Schilling-Estes (725) ˵ƤΤѸ˴ؤΤˤĤƤСLondon dzϤ줿Ƭ h-dropping ֤ϰӱۤľ East Anglia Norwich ؤӲФȤ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥Chicago [æ] 첻 [ɑ] 岽⡤ƱͤΥѥ Illinois νԻԤŤOklahoma Ǥ /ɔ/ -- /a/ εۼŤǤ롥
ξȤơgravity model ǽǤϤʤºݤŤλѻȡΥȿϰʳˤ⤤ĤѿꤻʤǤ롥gravity model θ³ˤĤƤϡεǼ夲롥
Wolfram, Walt and Natalie Schilling-Estes. "Dialectology and Linguistic Diffusion." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 713--35.
ǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤֲѲ㳰ʤפθ§ (Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze) ϸθؤ˿ʱƶڤܤƤ뤬ǡ͡ʷȽ佤ƤäˡѲϸäδ֤˥褦ˤƿʹԤȼĥóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ϡ㳰ʤѲΥơ˱ԤΩƤ롥
ꥦⲻѲ㳰ʤ̲ˤĤƵƤꡤˤä2ΰ̲̤ɬפ⤯ʰʲʸη֤Ƥˡ
סʸġͤʤ륰롼פθˤˤְŪѲפˤϡä̤٤ĤμΰޤޤƤ롥ʤΥ롼פΤ٤Ƥää٤ˤǡŪʰ뤤ñˡְפȸƤΤġްĤϡѲˤ餵줿Ǥ⤷ϲǷޤह٤Ƥθˤʤ뤤Ѳˤ餵줿Ǥ⤷ϲǷ褦ʾΤȤ˴ޤǤ뤹٤Ƥθˤ˰ǤäơϳơäθŪμǤϤƹͤ뤳ȤǤΤǤäơŪʰ⤷ϡֵ§פȸƤ֤ȤǤ롥 (134--35)
ε#2159. ֤̻֤ӤĤ diffusion ([2015-03-26-1]) ǡѲ֤ˤȻäȶŪˤܤϰüԽĤؤγȻ˿줿ΰ̣ǤγȻʰ̲ˤϡꥦΤŪʰˤΤǤ롥ꥦ۩ֳŪȤɬŪˡֲγȻסʤĤǹԤѤη̤Ǥ (136) ѤȤϸġüԤμͳջ֤ˤΤǤ뤫顤Ūʰ̣Ǥΰ̲λˤϡˡ§ϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
ŪˤϡʤʤΤǤ롥ΰ̣ˤơֲˡ§פϡǤȡסʲŪγȻˤȤƤǤϤʤֵƤޤäȤγǧפȤơʤʤޤΤǤȤ (Geschichte) ȤƤǤϤʤʪ (Historie) ΤȤȤơºݤˤϡŪʪȤƤˤγǧĤޤ֥ݥƥꥪפʳǧˤȤɤޤΤǤ̸ά͡ (138)
üԸĿͤΤIJηϤ뤢벻̤βؤѲΰ̲ϡŪʰˤΤǤ롥ꥦϡŪˤϡֲѲ㳰ʤפΤǧȤΩǤꡤóȻĥ褦褦ʸ줫ؤŪʳȻꤹ롥
ŪϡȤϤޤä̤ΤϤʤǤ롥ξˤϡκѤΡֳȻפƱθĿͤθŪμΤ勞ǡĤθ줫̤θؤ֤ΤȤ褦˹ͤ뤳ȤŬڤǤʤ˿콬ȤƺѤ줿ͼѤʤФˤѲϢ³Ū˸뤿ᡤ¿ͤʤȤʤΤϡμλѤ˸ΤǤäơμΤΤ˸ΤǤϤʤѤ줿ϡɬƽȯ顤ѤͤθŪμΤ°Ƥ롥η̡ŪͼˤĤƸСͼϡޤˤΤȤˤäɽŪǽȤơ줾θĿͤˤäǧƤ벻ŪͼηϤȤߤޤ롥 (139)
ޤȤСֲˡ§ȤϳŪʰ̣ǤȻǤꡤỤ̄ǤǤ (152) ιͤˤСԤΰ̲ˡ§̾ˤդ路Ԥΰ̲ˡ§Ȥ̵ȤȤˤʤ롥
E. ꥦˡ ɧˡظѲȤ̻֡֡ˡ١ȽŹ2014ǯ
#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])ޤ¾εǡŵŪŷϩȤŪ¦̤˸ڤƤ濴ŪϰϤФгŪϰǤ⤢ꡤϤȾŤƤȤޤ뤿ˤˤη̡濴ϿդϸŤȤʬۤ˻롥ߤ˱Υ줿֤ĤȤݤϡ츫ԻĤˤ꤭줤Ĥ
ʾ夬ŵŪषޤäդ濴ŤդȤʬۤ㤬롥ܸΥʬۤܤǤ͡ʥȤԤƤꡤ弰ȡȡü쥢ȡ췿ȡ̵Ȥ̤롥̣ȤˡΥȤʣʬۤϤ褽ؤƤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥㤨2̾4Ĥη̤Ǥʣʵ弰Ȥϡ̾Ȥꡤ濴ȤƶᵦȾΦˤޤʬۤƤ롥γ¦ˤ2̾3Ĥη̤뼡ʣȤʬۤ롥ޤߤ顤ϡʸǽҤ٤̵ϰϽ̤̳ƻޤdzȤäƤꡤ϶ᵦӱۤȶ彣ˤޤʬۤƤ롥ĤޤꡤȤϡᵦʬǤƤʬܽʬۤƤ롥
³2̾2Ĥη̤ü쥢Ȥϡ彣ϤȤƤ鷺ʬۤˤȤɤޤ롥1Ĥη⤿ʤ췿ȤϡǼ縩ԾˤΤǧ롥Ǹ˷̤ʤ̵Ȥϡ븩ڸʡ縩ƶ彣ιϰʬۤƤ롥Τ褦˸ߤ˱Υ줿Ȥߤ뤳Ȥϡ۵롥
ŵŪۤʤΤϡŪˤϤŤ奢Ȥܽ˻ĤäƤꡤ꿷Ȥ¾ŸƤ뤳Ȥޤʿ»εǤ2̾5Ĥη̤ƤȤΤƤ롥ȡʿ»εΥȤΤʣˤƺǤ褯ݤäƤΤ弰Ȥǡ缡ñ㲽줿ȤȾʬۤƤȲǤ롥濴ʣǸŤդñǿȤǤ뤬μĥȤϤषդǤ롥ܤʬ䤹Ҳ𤷤ɧ (77) ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ؤˤʸŪǤϡ褯졤ȤФդ뤤⤿䤹äΤǤγ¦ؤˤʤȤ줬ޤꡤ˳ؤǤϤäȼޤޤᵦ濴˱ߤ褦ˤơ濴Ȥη¦ƤΤϡΤǤϡŪѲΤ褦ΤǤ
ߤϤʹơäסʸȯǿ줬ޤƤҤꡤˤϤդ뤤줬ΤɤȤΤȿФȡפ⤷ޤιͤñΤҤˤ褯ƤϤޤޤ
Ǥ⡤Ȥ濴ˤƹͤ줿㤯ϡ֥ȤʤɤΤդĤʷĤΤΤۤѲ䤹פȤȤФΤ⤦ҤȤĤѲλäƤޤ
¤ŪŪñʸʣʥȤϡѲŤλ˴ؤơ̤˰ɬפȤȤ¤ŪʣѲ®٤Ȥδ֤˲餫δϢ뤫⤷ʤȤ붽̣ݤ⤷ʤƱˡΰѤˤ⤢褦ˡϤ䶵ȤҲŪϤѤƤȤͤ롥
ʤǤʬ̵ۤȤǿȤȤǤСϺܸ쥢ȤλѤͽΤǤȤǤ롥¡ɧ (75) ϡ־ܸϤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ޤ㡤ʤǤ礦פȳοŪǤ롥 *
ɧ 롡ϤޤۤΤȤС١ꥹۡ1997ǯ
#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1]) ǡԻԤԻԤؤθŤ˿줿̤̤ȯãμҲǤϡ͡ιưȾ¤礭ʤư϶٤ϰ˸¤롥ξˤϡŤͼϡȾ (wave_theory) ͽۤȤˤʤ̤ȯãҲǤϡ㤨ƻϩ֤Ŵƻ֤˱褦ʤɤơߤ˱Υ줿ԻԤԻԤؤФΤ褦ŤΤ褦Ⱦϸߤ̷⤹ΤǤϤʤषμҲθ̤ȯã٤ѿȤ롤ŪؤȻȤǤ褦˻פ롥
Ťȸ֤ȤϢưƤ뤫Τˤϡǡ֤Фפɽ魯ɸ manger trough ִƤʬۤįΤ褤Survey of English Dialects ΤĴʤƤ20ȾФˤϡϰǤ trough ԤƤ̤ɸ manger ¤˿ƩĤĤäοηϩܤߤƤߤȡɥرӤ봴ƻϩŴƻ֤ˤԤäȱ褤ʤ鿻ƩƤ뤳Ȥ狼äΤǤ롥̤Ȥơ֤˱äϰǤϿ manger դ֤鳰줿ϰǤϸŷ trough ³ƤȤ줿ʲTrudgill (130--31) ꡤϿޤȸϿޤξϿޤ˽Ťʤ뤫ˤϡGIF˥ɤ

It can be seen that each of the three southward-encroaching prongs of the manger area, two of which actually reach the coast, coincide with the main London to Dover road and rail route, the main London to Brighton route, and the main route from London to Portsmouth. The spread of the incoming form is clearly accelerated in areas with good communications links, and is retarded in more isolated areas. (Trudgill 132)
˸¤餺Τˤ襦륹ˤˤ衤Τ֤˱äơŪˤϥߥ˥ͥåȥ˱äưưŤ롥ͤƤߤΤȤɤˤ֤ФפΤ褦ϿޤǼȡΤȤŪǤǼǤ롥ؤ˥ʥߥåǤ뤫̣碌Ƥ빥#1543. ء ([2013-07-18-1]) ʬθȤƤɾǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
ȤС#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1]) Ǥߤפ㤬褯ΤƤ롥ۤˤ⡤֤Ȥܡ١ˡפؤŤʡ礫ˤƤȵܺȤΥ줿ϰʬۤ㡤פ̣ȥ¸줬Ϥ̤ȶ彣ΩʬۤʤɤΤƤ롥衼åѤ albus ͳ褹ŷդ˻¸Ƥ⡤#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) ǤߤǤϡѸˤȤơ
1Ĥϡ#452. ɱѸνˤ r ([2010-07-23-1]) ϿޤǤ롥r æȤȯسȤäƤ롥ߤεڤǤʤʤɤμŪϰǤϡr ݻŷ¸Ƥ롥Τ褦ŵǤϡ֤ߤ˱Υ줿 (relic area) ˸롥
Upton and Widdowson ΥϿޤѥѥįƤơ⤦1ŵŪĤ뤳ȤǤʲϡUpton and Widdowson (140) ˷ǺܤƤ֡ʥ亮ΡˤФפ̣ beak ʬۤǤ롥

ɸǤ beak ɤȾʤäƤ뤬ն bill ξ礬١ʬۤƤ롥ۤɸߤΥ줿ϰΩ bill ȯȤϹͤˤΤǡˡĤڤʤäƤ bill ŪΤ beak ˵ͤ졤ƤοȤ줿褬նʬۤƤΤȲ᤹롥3 neb ⤢٤ʬۤƤꡤ㴳ʣ褹롥
beak ϸťե bec μѸ13ȾФäƤŪǤ롥bill ϸűѸ bile ̤ǡεϸŤneb Ʊͤ˸űѸ neb(b) ̤Ǥ롥ߤϥΤۤåȥɤˤȤƻѤƤ뤬̴ФäʬۤϡѸŪˤϸťΥɸƱ nef ¸ߤˤä䶯줿ΤǤϤʤȹͤʤ롥
Ѹˤθʤ餳Ͽޤɤ߲ȡ̻ŪˤϼΤ褦ʲäΤǤϤʤ롥ޤűѸˤ bill ˹ʬۤƤ¤ neb ⤽ʤʬۤƤǽ뤬Ȥ櫓ťΥɸȤܿ衤ϤƤä³Ѹ˥ե줫ο beak 餯Ƴ졤Ⱦ˥ڤŤƤäȾϰǤ beak θ֤Ĥ夷Ƥäˤ bill neb ֤ȤӤ뾮褬ȻĤ뤳ȤȤʤäʾ1ĤˤΥʥꥪˤʤʤȤϿޤμʬ̷ۤ⤷ʤʥꥪǤ롥Ͽޤɤ߲1ĤλȤơ#2019. ؤˤ6Ĥθ§ ([2014-11-06-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006.
ȾŤƤȤȾ wave_theory ˤĤơζ#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1055. uvular r θ춭ۤ ([2012-03-17-1])#1505. ˤ "mouse"-line "house"-line ([2013-06-10-1])#1506. The Rhenish fan ([2013-06-11-1]) ʤɤǤߤƤȾκǤʲˤСϤʸ̤ƱߤʤȤäƤȤ롥Ū֤ѸǸȡ濴ϤȤʤĮ¼顤̤ء٤礦Į¼˽缡ŤƤȤȤˤʤ롥
νȾˤƤϤޤʤŤλ¿ڤ롥Τߤʤ餺ʸŪήԤˤ¤ˤ衤ɬ٤礦Į¼ŤȤϸ¤餺Υ줿ӲФȤȤꤦ롥Ȥ櫓֤ȯãҲǤϡդ¼̤ꤷơԻԴ֤dzͭ륿ߥΤۤᤤȤ¿㤨Сȯγϡ쳰Ⱦ˹ޤ⡤쳤ƻ˱äӤ˲̾͡Ųԡۤᤤ⤷ʤξ硤ȾȤꤷʤ롥ξ¾ŪʴطǤϤʤФγʾǤϲ̾͡ŲԡˤϡϤλɷˤꤽ濴ˤϤ꿷椬äơȾΤۤŪʥǥǤ餷Ȥ狼롥
Chambers and Trudgill ˤƤǴϢʲʸϤȤΤǰѤƤ
As for dialect-to-dialect change, the wave model was first proposed to describe the geographical diffusion of linguistic innovation. Then some geographically aware linguists developed an extended theory on linguistic diffusion over space. Chambers and Trudgill, for example, advanced the gravity model against the wave model to account for the path along which innovation diffuses in space (166). In this model, a linguistic innovation is likened to a stone skipping across a pond because it spreads not necessarily from a speaker or place to the immediate next but jumps from a speaker or place to another which may be geographically apart but socially connected. For example, linguistic innovation can spread from a big city to another, skipping through small towns in between. (Hotta 173)
Ť˴ؤζȤƤϡˤֶפɽ魯 bridge ɸˤ brig ʬۤʰʲϿޤ Upton and Widdowson 154 ˡԤϸűѸŪʷ (brycg) ѾǤꡤԤϸťΥɸƱη (bryggja) ƶȤǤ롥ŪʬۤȤƤϡȾ bridge Ǥ brig ԤƤ뤬ߤ2սꡤ줾Υ줿ꥢˡbridge ѤƤ뾮褬롥1ĤϺ̤ Newcastle, Sunderland, Durham ޤ२ꥢ⤦1ĤϤ Humber ϸ Grimsby ޤ२ꥢǤ롥Ϥ٤ brig Ǥϰˡ2Ĥξ褬ݥĥݥĤȾΤ褦⤫ǤݤϡϤȤɸ bridge ȾǤ露˵ͤäƤȤϡ쳤ߤԻԤԻԤؤʬۤȤƤȤŤλ롥ơ쳤ߤγԻԤ٤ؤȡ٤Ϥ褽ȾʬۤȤƤäȤ

Trudgill (129, 132) ϥɤԻԲĬήȴϢŤơʬۤɤ߲Ƥ롥
The geographical patterning of the occurrence of the two words suggests that the southern and Standard English word is beginning to spread north, and in a rather interesting way. In its spread northwards, bridge has first invaded the coastal city areas of Sunderland and Grimsby, and then spread outwards again from these centres. This is just one example of the importance of urban centres in the spreading of new forms in language . . ., and of the way in which the increasing urbanization of England has contributed in this century to the loss of Traditional Dialects.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English." PhD thesis, University of Glasgow. Glasgow, November 2005.
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill. Dialectology. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
Upton, Clive and J. D. A. Widdowson. An Atlas of English Dialects. 2nd ed. Abingdon: Routledge, 2006. *
Trudgill, Peter. The Dialects of England. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1]) ڤӡ#2014. ꥢ (2) ([2014-11-01-1]) ǡؤʤɤˤĤƾҲ𤷤ꥢ (neolinguistics) ϡŪŤβˤĤŪͻԤη̤ȤƤγƹŪʬ᤹ۤ뤿κȾˤꤷפˡϿ˶Ū˼줿ʬۤ顤ѲνŤηϩɤ뤿μ³ؿˤʸ褦ȤΤǤ롥㤨С#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) Ȥ褦ʸ§Τ褦ʤΤǤ롥
ؤµ Matteo Giulio Bàrtoli 1925ǯ路 Introduzione alla neolinguistica 1Ϥˡ6Ĥθ§Ƥ롥ǰʤ饤ꥢθɤʤΤǡHall (274) ѤƼʤHall ϿؤȽŪΩäƤ뤳Ȥաˡ
1. Of two stages of linguistic development, the one attested earlier (quella ch'é documentata prima) is usually the older (3).
2. The earlier stage (fase anteriore) is usually preserved in the more isolated of two areas (area isolata) (3--6).
3. The stage attested in marginal areas (aree laterali) is usually the earlier stage, provided the central area (area di mezzo) is not the more isolated area (6--10).
4. The greater of two areas (area maggiore) usually preserves the earlier stage of development, provided the lesser area (area minore) is not the more isolated and does not consist of marginal areas (10--12).
5. The earlier stage of development is usually preserved in a 'later area' (area seriore) (13--15).
6. If one of two stages of development is obsolete or on its way out, it is usually the obsolete stage (fase sparita) which is the earlier (15--17).
Hall Ƚ˱ Bonfante (368) ˤС嵭34ǿƤ "marginal areas" ϥꥢ "aree laterali" ΤʱǤȤƤΤǡոƤ"laterali" ϡŪѸǤꡤ㤨 Castile δ餹 Catalonia Porgual "literali" Ǥȸ롥
ޤ "laterali" (marginal) ˸¤餺 "isolata" (isolated), "seriore" (later) ȤѸŪʤΤǤ뤳Ȥդ㤨СꥢϤѲ˴ؤƤ¦Ūʰ֤ˤäȤƤ⡤̤θѲ˴ؤƤ濴Ūʰ֤ˤȸ롥Ʊ褦ˡƱϰ褬ͻоݤȤʤäƤѲˤäƸΩŪ뤤ΩŪΤȤߤʤ줦뤷ȯŪ뤤ȯŪΤȤ줦롥
θ§ˤ "usually" Ȥ褦ˡθ§Ϥष㳰¸ߤѶŪǧǤθ§Ǥ롥ؼԼȤǤ褯ΤäƤ褦ˡġθϸġŪʬۤΤǤꡤ̤˼갷٤ΤǤ롥ʬۤβϡä6Ĥθ§˴ŤƳϤƤߤ뤬§ͽۤȿ¤С¤ͥ褷ƺƲߤȤΤǤ롥Bàrtoli ˤ嵭θ§ϡɡؼԤηи§ޤ줿ȾβȤƤȤ館Τ
Ϣơ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Hall, Robert A. "Bartoli's 'Neolinguistica'." Language 22 (1946): 273--83.
ε#2013. ꥢ (1) ([2014-10-31-1]) ˰³γɤξҲ𡥿ؤ1910ǯо줷Ƥ30;ǯвᤷΤȤؽѻ Language ˡǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ʸ Hall ˤ뿷ؤؤȽʸǺܤ줿Фơǯ3ܤʬ̤ʸϤˤꡤɤ Bonfante ػŪˤϤΥߥǤäܼɤȤ館뤨뤫Ȥ˴ؤȤʤäƤꡤɤͤ롥Ωϡ19 Schleicher Schmidt ΩʤȤ뤷ߤθؤȼҲؤΩˤʤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
ˤƤ⡤Hall ϤʤޤǶȽΤȻפ虜ʤ餤˿ؤƤ롥ȽʸκǽǤϡ"We have, in short, missed nothing by not knowing or heeding Bàrtoli's principles, theories, or conclusions to date, and we shall miss nothing if we disregard them in the future." (283) Ȥˤ٤ʤ
ؤäΩĴפȤθѤܼϡषȽԤǤ Hall (277) Ŭڤ˻ŦƤ롥εƤȹ碌̣ɤ줿
In a reaction against 19th-century positivism, Croce and his followers consider 'spirit' and 'spiritual activity' (assumed axiomatically, without objective definition) as separate from and superior to other elements of human behavior. Human thought is held to be a direct expression of spiritual activity; language is considered identical with thought; and hence linguistic activity derives directly from spiritual activity. As a corollary of this assumption, when linguistic change takes place, it is held to reflect change in spiritual activity, which must be the reflection of 'spiritual needs', 'creativity', and 'advance of the human spirit'. The most 'spiritual' part of language is syntax and style, and the least spiritual is phonology. Hence phonetic change must not be allowed to have any weight as a determining factor in linguistic change as a whole; it must be considered subordinate to and dependent on other, more 'spiritual' types of linguistic change.
Bonfante ˤ⡤Ʊ餤ŰŪǤ롥Bonfante ϡؤΩʱѸǡ˾ܽҤƤꡤȤ櫓ǯʸˡɤȤΰ㤤Ŧʤ餽ħ⤷ƤƤΤǡŪˤ餯Ǥ⥢䤹ؤγ1ĤȤʤäƤΤǤϤʤHall μĥΤ褯ޤȤ뤳ȤΤǡĤΰѤäƤ夨ʡ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) εҤ⻲Ȥ줿
The neolinguists claim . . . that every linguistic change---not only phonetic change---is a spiritual human process, not a physiological process. Physiology cannot EXPLAIN anything in linguistics; it can present only the conditions of a given phenomenon, never the causes. (346)
It is man who creates language, every moment, by his will and with his imagination; language is not imposed upon man like an exterior, ready-made product of mysterious origin. (346)
Every linguistic change, the neolinguists claim, is . . . of individual origin: in its beginnings it is the free creation of one man, which is imitated, assimilated (not copied!) by another man, and then by another, until it spreads over a more-or-less vast area. This creation will be more or less powerful, will have more or less chance of surviving and spreading, according to the creative power of the individual, his social influence, his literary reputation, and so on. (347)
For the neolinguists, who follow Vico's and Croce's philosophy, language is essentially expression---esthetic creation; the creation and the spread of linguistic innovations are quite comparable to the creation and the spread of feminine fashions, of art, of literature: they are based on esthetic choice. (347)
The neolinguists, tho stressing the esthetic nature of language, know that language, like every human phenomenon, is produced under certain special historical conditions, and that therefore the history of the French language cannot be written without taking into account the whole history of France---Christianity, the Germanic invasions, Feudalism, the Italian influence, the Court, the Academy, the French Revolution, Romanticism, and so on---nay, that the French language is an expression, an essential part of French culture and French spirit. (348)
The neolinguists think, like Leonardo, Humboldt, and Àscoli, that languages change in most cases because of ethnic mixture, by which they understand, of course, not racial mixture but cultural, i.e. spiritual. In this spiritual sense, and only in this sense, the terms 'substratum', 'adstratum', and 'superstratum' can be admitted. (352)
Without a deep understanding of English mentality, politics, religion, and folklore, all of which the English language expresses, a real history of English cannot be written---only a shadow or a caricature thereof. (354)
The neogrammarians have shown, of course, even greater aversion to so-called loan-translations, which the neolinguists freely admit. For the neogrammarians, a word like German Gewissen or Barmherzigkeit is a perfectly good German formation, because all the phonetic and morphological elements are German---even tho the spirit is Latin. (356)
. . . even after the death of that 'last speaker', each of these languages [Prussian, Cornish, Dalmatian, etc.]---allegedly dead, like rabbits---goes on living in a hundred devious, hidden, and subtle ways in other languages now living . . . . (357)
It follows logically that because of their isolationistic conception of language, the neogrammarians, when they are confronted with two similar innovations in two different languages, will be inclined to the theory of polygenesis---even if the languages are contiguous and historically related, like German and French, or Greek and Latin. The neolinguists, on the other hand, without making a dogma of it, incline strongly toward monogenesis. (361)
ǸΰѤˤ褦ˡǯʸˡɤȿɤΩϸ쵯ˤޤǵڤǤꡤۤΤ̤ŰŪȿܤƤȤ狼롥
Hall, Robert A. "Bartoli's 'Neolinguistica'." Language 22 (1946): 273--83.
Bonfante, Giuliano. "The Neolinguistic Position (A Reply to Hall's Criticism of Neolinguistics)." Language 23 (1947): 344--75.
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])#1722. Pisani ۩ָϤǤס ([2014-01-13-1])#2006. ܿάˡ ([2014-10-26-1])#2008. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ǥꥢ (neolinguistics) ɤˤĤƿ줿ػ˾οؤΩ˴ؿƤ뤬γɤԤϼ礿ꥢǽƤꡤưפǤϤʤΤᡤؤϡܤǤ⡤ޤذ̤Ǥ⤽ۤΤƤʤΤ褦ʾǿؤΥåˤϡػˤλͽӳؽѻ Language 蘆줿㤷ɤΤΩġϡ줿ػˤ路åˤ뵭Ҥ˰͵оطʤȡθѤҲ𤹤롥
ꥢؤϡMatteo Giulio Bartoli (1873--1946) 路ʸ "Alle fonti del neolatino" (Miscellanea in onore de Attillio Hortis, 1910, pp. 889--913) äƤȤ롥1925ǯˤϡBartoli ˤ Introduzione alla neolinguistica (Principi---Scopi---Metodi) (Genève, 1925) ȡBartoli and Giulio Bertoni ˤ Breviorio di neolinguistica (Modena, 1925) ѤǽǤ졤ؤδפۤVittolio Pisani Giuliano Bonfante ⤳γɤۤؼԤä
ؤλۤϡWilhelm von Humboldt (1767--1835)Hugo Schuchardt (1842--1927)Benedetto Croce (1866--1952)Karl Vossler (1872--1947) δǰȤ롥ˡȤƤϥեθؼ Jules Gilliéron (1854--1926) ¿äƤ롥ηϥɥĤŪǰȥեθؤͻˤꡤεŰŪǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ؤȽħŤ롥
ؤŪΩ¿ʣŪǤ롥åȴФСüԤ¤ŪФʤɡˤºšŪŪĶνŻ롤ʲǤϤʤ˸äθؤηФȤäȤå (66) εҤ˵
ʹ֤ϸʪŪΤߤʤ餺Ụ̄ˤƤ⡽ΰջ֡ϡ͡ˤäƤ⡽¤롥Ϥ¤Ԥʹ֤ȿǤǤ롥˴ؤΤϤ٤ŪʤӤŪεǤ롥
ؤǤϸؤβʪǤʤؤθݤ¤ݤνˤʤ츽ݤظˤ븶Ͽʹ֤ưǤ롥
äҲ speaking society ϸ¤¸ߤʤϡʿŪʹ֡פƱͤ˲Ǥ롥ºߤΤϤäĿ͡ speaking person Ǥ롥βϤɤäĿ͡פФڤ롥
ĿͤϻϤˤʤβϡѲϻϼԤפʿʪʹ⤤ҲŪϰ̤λ硤Ωä¤Ϥλ硤ýѤã͡ˤξˡäμ¡®˼ҲƤ롥
ˤʤȸʤΤϲĤʤ¸ߤΤϤ٤¸ߤȤ¸Τ
ϺŪˤŪФɽǤ뤬ϤĤ䤹ΤǤ롥¡ƱŪФ˰¸Ƥ¾̡ʷݽѡʸءˤˤƤƱ͡ˤƤήԤѲѻǤ롥
ñΰ̣ѲϻŪȤη̤Ȥ롥ѲθϿʹ֤¤ϤƯΤ꤬ȤͭפǤ롥
칽¤Ѳ̱²κη̤Ȥ뤬ϿͼκǤϤʤʸκΰ̣ˤƤǤ롥
¾ϡФߤ̷⤹͡ȯŸư濴Ȥʤ롥͡ȯŸưˤϡ͡λФ츽ݤܶᤷʤФʤʤޤˡġθοʲϤȤ櫓ŪŪĶ˵ꤵȤ¤θ٤Ǥ㤨СեˤϡեˡꥹȶαƶޥͤοʽС١ꥢαƶʷϵǥߡλŻե̿ޥưθʤƤŬڤ˸Ǥʤˡ
οؤϡθǯʸˡɤ˴ŤήɤϸΤƤ뤳ȤˤʤäꥢǤϼѤ뤳ȤȤʤä͡ȽϤäˡҲλȤ櫓ؤءʤ뤤ϰ "areal linguistics"ˤˤƤĤνפʹʤȤõ٤Ǥ롥㤨СȾ (wave_theory) ˾ܤŪ̩äظƶ (substratum_theory) ˿ͼκǤϤʤʸκȤͿȤʤɤɾ٤ˤĤƤϡ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1])#1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1])#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1])#1594. ΥޥȤϱѸޥ ([2013-09-07-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ߥ륫å Ρ ͺ ظؤή١ߤ˼1974ǯ
Hall, Robert A. "Bartoli's 'Neolinguistica'." Language 22 (1946): 273--83.
Bonfante, Giuliano. "The Neolinguistic Position (A Reply to Hall's Criticism of Neolinguistics)." Language 23 (1947): 344--75.
#1993. Hickey ˤ쳰Ūװؤο ([2014-10-11-1]) εǡǯѲθܿ (language contact) ˵ͤƤƤ롥ܿˤ1970--80ǯϤषƤ1990ǯʹߡɤᤷƤ褦ؤǤθܿθˤϰƳȸŤϡȤ Drinka (325--28) γ˰͵ơܿάˤ
άˤΥȤȤơJohannes Schmidt (1843--1901) ̾#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1])#1118. Schleicher η ([2012-05-19-1])#1236. ڤȡ ([2012-09-14-1]) ʤɤεǸ褦ˡSchmidt ϡ֤δطȤ館뤿Ȥƻվ August Schleicher (1821--68) 1860ǯ Stammbaumtheorie (Family Tree Theory) й1872ǯ Wellentheorie (wave_theory) Schmidt ΤƤϸŪ濴դؤŪȵڤƤȤƤꡤܿ˴ŤƸѲ褦ȤǥȤʤä
λǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) 뤬Τʤǰۺ Hugo Schuchardt (1842--1927) ޤܿν鵤ŤƤ1ͤǤ롥Schuchardt ϡԥ䥯쥪ʤɺθüʪǤ⤢롥
20ȡեؼ Jules Gilliéron (1854--1926) ˤؤ롥1930ǯˤ Kristian Sandfeld ˤХ륫 (linguistique balkanique) ϻϤ졤ϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ܤĤꥢǤϡ#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡMatteo Bartoli ˤ꿷 (Neolinguistics) 졤Ѳˤ濴ȼդΩطɵ椵줿1940ǯˤ Franz Boaz Roman Jakobson ʤɤθؼԤ춭ۤγȻˤĤ
ܿʬǺǽηŪŪʸȤСWeinreich Languages in Contact (1953) Weinreich ϡܿξϸǤҲǤʤ2üԤĿͤˤ뤳ȤȤǡ˾̾ĤƤ롥Weinreich ϡվ André Martinet ι¤ؤθȤʤ⡤Ҳؤ俴ؤδŻ뤷θθܿ˳ΤͿ1970ǯˤϡPeter Trudgill ŪγȻΤ⤦1ĤΥǥȤ "gravity model" cf.#1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])ˡ
1970ǯȾϡ˸ؤΥץȤʤäƤۤĿͤ뤤ϼҲ2 (bilingualism) ˴ؤ뿴Ūʴθ¿ʤäƤߤǤϸܿ͡ʬؤʬƤꡤʲϤ¿ɤĤΤǤ롥 (language_shift)ײ (language_planning)2ѤˤǾƯȽcode-switchingѤ亮ι¤ŪѲԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) ʤɤܿ (contact language)ϰ (areal linguistics) (linguistic_area) (Matras 203)
ǸˡǯθܿˤƵǰṲ̄Ƥ븦1褦Thomason and Kaufman ˤ Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) Ǥ롥θθܿʬΤۤܤ٤Ƥθ椬¿ʤȤ⤳αƶƤȤäƤǤϤʤܥ֥Ǥ⡤Ĥε (cf. Thomason and Kaufman) Ǽ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥
Drinka, Bridget. "Language Contact." Chapter 18 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum, 2010. 325--45.
Matras, Yaron. "Language Contact." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 203--14.
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
#1872. Constant Rate Hypothesis ([2014-06-12-1]) Kroch ξѲΥ塼˴ؤ벾֤Ϥ褽Sɽ蘆졤ΥѥϰۤʤŪĶˤƤ֤ⷫȤۤʤĶˤƤ⡤ѲƱߥƱѲΨǿʹԤȤΤβǤ롥⤷ĶȤζѥǤϤʤ褦˸ˤϡϴĶȤ˿Ƥ٤ǽŪʸŪװˤۤʤ뤫Ǥ롤Ȳ᤹롥
Kroch ΤβΩ벾ФƤ롥1Ĥϡ#1811. "The later a change begins, the sharper its slope becomes." ([2014-04-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ǥ롥Ѳɽ魯ϡĶȤ˥ѥǤϤʤĶȤ˳ϻۤʤ뤷ѲΨ®١ˤۤʤ롤Ȥͤβϡ˰ʤǡϤĶǤѲŪˤäʹԤ뤬٤ϤĶǤѲŪ˵®˿ʹԤ롤ʤٵޡפĥ롥伫Ȥ⤳ε˴Ť路ʸ (Hotta 2010, 2012)
̤β⤢롥ѲɽĶȤ˥ѥǤϤʤĶȤ˳ϻۤʤ뤷ѲΨ®١ˤۤʤ롤ȼĥǤϾҤΡٵޡפβƱषȵդΥ塼Τ롥ĤޤꡤϤĶǤѲŪ˵®˿ʹԤ뤬٤ϤĶǤѲŪˤäȿʹԤ롤ȡٵޡפʤ̡ٴˡפǤ롥ϡBailey ѲθȤƼĥƤΤ1ĤǤ롥
Bailey ϸѲΥ塼˴ؤơ2ĤθƤ롥1ĤϸѲSȤΡ⤦1ĤϾ嵭θѲΡٴˡפȤĥ줾졤ĥսѤ褦
A given change begins quite gradually; after reaching a certain point (say, twenty per cent), it picks up momentum and proceeds at a much faster rate; and finally tails off slowly before reaching completion. The result is an ʃ-curve: the statistical differences among isolects in the middle relative times of the change will be greater than the statistical differences among the early and late isolects. (77)
What is quantitatively less is slower and later; what is more is earlier and faster. (If environment a is heavier-weighted than b, and if b is heavier than c, then: a > b > c.) (82)
2ܤΡٴˡפˤĤƤϡΰѤʬȤꡤŪ¿ʤüŪˤ١ˤȤѥͿƤ뤷Ƥ뤳Ȥդ줿ɤΤȤѲΥ塼뤬ĶȤ˰ۤʤ뤫ȤϡѲΥ塼⤦1Ĥ礭ꡤʤ٤ȸѲνȤȤͿʤΤ⤷ʤȻפ碌롥
ǤϡɤβΤ٤ꤹ뤳ȤϤǤʤ̤θѲˤĤơ¤иŪ˽ƤʤΤ
Kroch, Anthony S. "Reflexes of Grammar in Patterns of Language Change." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 199--244.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Leaders and Laggers of Language Change: Nominal Plural Forms in -s in Early Middle English." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science (The 30th Anniversary Issue II) 68 (2010): 1--17.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "The Order and Schedule of Nominal Plural Formation Transfer in Three Southern Dialects of Early Middle English." English Historical Linguistics 2010: Selected Papers from the Sixteenth International Conference on English Historical Linguistics (ICEHL 16), Pécs, 22--27 August 2010. Ed. Irén Hegedüs and Alexandra Fodor. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2012. 94--113.
Bailey, Charles-James. Variation and Linguistic Theory. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics, 1973.
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