Ӹ (comparative_linguistics) ζȤ٤ǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤֲѲ㳰ʤפθ§ (Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze) ϡѲ (sound_change) (analogy) ̤ȤΩ衤θѲ2ĤθϡƤʤΡʤΤȤƲᤵƤ2ˤꡤäˤŪʸѲκƤޤȤۤɤθ̤Ǥ롥
ŪʥơФȿ⡤³ŪФƤ㳰ʤȤ벻Ѳ⡤ѤаΧŬѤ줿ȤƲǤΤǤϤʤȤո¤ΤȤ伫ȤóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ᤰΤʤǡ2θѲθϡߤܶᤷΤǤϤʤȹͤȤä
νפˤĤơFertig (99--100) ŸƤ롥Fertig 2̤٤ȤŪʸΩäƤϤ뤬εϥƥϡFertig Τ褦ΩΩĺҤ٤Ƥ1Ѥ (95) ñȯˤ϶ʤɿΰ۷ (variants) ȤҲθˤǤ롥
The restriction of the term 'analogical' to processes based on morpho(phono)logical and syntactic patterns has long since outlived its original rationale, but the distinction between changes motivated by grammatical relations among different wordforms and those motivated by phonetic relations among different realizations of the same wordform remains a valid and important one. The essence of the Neogrammarian 'regularity' hypothesis is that these two systems are separate and that they interface only through the mental representation of a single, citation pronunciation of each wordform. The representations of non-citation realizations are invisible to the morphological and morphophonological systems, and relations among different wordforms are invisible to the phonetic system. If we keep in mind that this is really what we are talking about when we distinguish analogical change from sound change, these traditional terms can continue to serve us well.
Ѳݤˤϡ٤äꤳ˸礦ɬפȹͤƤ롥
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
ѲŤȻ (diffusion) Ȥơޤ˴ؿ³Ƥ롥ˤĤƤ˻פ⤫֤ΤϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ѲѲäδ֤˥褦˿ʹԤƤȤݤǤ롥ѲͤͤءؤʪŪŪ˹äƤȤ̣ǤŤȻ⤢cf. #1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])ˡޤǤϥͥåȤʤɤͳʪŪŪ˹äƤѲȤΤⵯäƤ褦Ǥ롥Ѳ diffusion ˤ͡ʥץȤȤʬ
diffusion ȤϡȤȿʸ (human geography) ֳ (epidemiology) ˤܤƤǰǤꡤۡʪʪʬۤƤݤؤ㤨С뵻Ѥ¸ݤˤƼϤŤȻƤȤͻʤƤʸؤʬǤ19˻Ϥޤ븦ˤꡤȤ櫓ƶϤ礭ԤȤƤ Torsten Hägerstrand (1916--2004) ̾롥ꥸʥϥǥǽ줿1967ǯ˱ѸǤ Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process Ǥ˹Τ뤳Ȥˤʤäʸػŵ diffusion ιɮ Gregory (160) ˤȡγŪʰյϼ̤ꡥ
Hágerstrand's work had two catalytic consequences: it set in motion the frozen worlds of SPATIAL SCIENCE, and it opened the door to sophisticated computer modelling of spatial processes.
Hägerstrand ηˤ diffusion ϰŪΤΡ䤬ƼҲŪʴ¿Ŧ褦ˤʤꡤdiffusion Τڤ褦ˤʤäGregory (161) ꡤξǧƤ
Just ten years after the translation of Hágerstrand's magnum opus, Blaikie (1978) could speak of a 'crisis' in diffusion research, which he said arose from its preoccupation with spatial form and space-time sequence, while Gregory (1985) attributed the 'stasis' of diffusion theory to a pervasive unwillingness to engage with SOCIAL THEORY and social history to explore the conditions and the consequences of diffusion processes. Critics argued that the spatial circulation of information remained the strategic element in most applications of the Hägerstrand model and its derivatives, and while flows of information through different propagation structures and contact networks were exposed in more detail, the primacy accorded to the reconstruction of these spatial pathways obscured a crucial limitation of the Hägerstrand model: it operated within what Blaut (1977) called a 'granular region', 'a sort of Adam Smithian landscape, totally without macrostructure'. In particular:
(1) The Hägerstrand model begins with a pool of 'potential adopters' and does not explain the selective process through which they are constituted in the first place. This suggests the need for a model of biased innovation, where (for example) CLASS or GENDER circumscribes access to innovations. 'Non-diffusion' is then not a passive but an active state arising directly from the structures of a particular society (Yapa and Mayfield, 1978). Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be integrated with fields such as POLITICAL ECONOMY and FEMINIST GEOGRAPHY that pay attention to the social as well as the spatial.
(2) The Hägerstrand model assumes a 'uniform cognitive region' and does not explain the selective process through which information flows are interpreted. This matters because 'resistance' to innovation is not invariably a product of ignorance or insufficient information: it may signal a political struggle by people whose evaluation of the information is strikingly different to that of the 'potential adopters'. Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be reconnected to a more general cultural geography (Blaut, 1977).
Gregory ϡѲ diffusion ˤĤƤϰƤʤοʸؤˤ diffusion ˤΤäƤȡͭפƶ롥Ѳ diffusion ⡤塤ҲŪ "macrostructure" ǰƬ֤ץޤޤɬפˤʤäƤ
Gregory, Derek. "Diffusion." The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th ed. Ed. Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael Watts, and Sarah Whatmore. John Wiley & Sons, 2009. 160--162.
variationist Ω٤˲ʤѲ˴ѤƤ롤Kretzschmar and Tamasi ͤɤ"A-curve", "asymptotic hyperbolic distribution", "power law", "S-curve" ʤɤѸ줬Ϣȯפ鷺ȹƤޤʸȤƤ뤳Ȥ Zipf's Law (cf. zipfs_law) ȯŸǤΤ褦˻פ롥٤θ¿٤θϾʤȤȤ
Ѹ쥳ѥˤơ1٤ʤ롥the, of, have ʤɤĶ٤Ǹ뤬ȤƵǽǤǤ˸ꤵ롥㤨С1ʤ ( x = 1 ) 1000 ( y = 1000 ) 뤬1000⸽ ( x = 1000 ) the 1줷ʤ ( y = 1 ) Ȥȡɸ˥ץåȤƤߤ1ݸ¤κȱǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥2ξüȤơδ֤Ƥȡy = 1/x ɽ碌褦ж (asymptotic hyperbolic curve) ҳ˶Ť Kretzschmar and Tamasi "A-curve" ȸƤǤꡤظˤˡ§ "power law" ʤ٤§ˤȸƤǤ롥Ԥ "few realizations that occur very frequently and many realizations that occur infrequently" (384) ȤȤǤ롥
Kretzschmar and Tamasi ϡꥫˤ¸Ĵ variants ĴƼѰ۷ˤĤ٤ʬۤä̤ȤơΥˤĤƤ "A-curve" ѻ뤳Ȥ
ޤKretzschmar and Tamasi ϡóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȤδϢǤФиڤ "S-curve" ȡ "A-curve" ȤδطˤĤƤƤ롥ƱθѲۤʤ뼴ܤƥץåȤ "S-curve" ˤ "A-curve" ˤʤꡤξԤ̷⤷ʤɤ⤤Ȥ
ۤջȤǤϾ꤯⤹뤳ȤǤʤΤηϤѲŰŪ variationist į褦ȤȡΤ褦ʸѤ뤤ϸˤʤΤȴKretzschmar and Tamasi (394) ꡤȤ櫓פȻפսѤ롥
Our second observation, about the distribution of variants according to Zipf's Law, has the strongest set of implications for historical study of language. If we take the A-curve as the model for the frequency distribution of variants for any linguistic feature of interest to us at any moment in time, then we should expect that any particular variant of interest to us will have a particular rank along the A-curve. Therefore, one of the things that we should try to do for any given moment in time is to determine the place of our variant of interest on the curve; we need to know whether it is the most frequent variant in the set of possible realizations (at the top of the curve), or an infrequent variant (in the tail of the curve). Then, for any subsequent moment in time, we can again try to determine the location of our variant of interest along the curve, and so try to make a statement about whether the location of the variant has changed in the intervening time (see Figure 14). Since we hypothesize that an A-curve will exist for every feature at any moment in time (i.e., that language will not suddenly become invariant), we can define the notion "linguistic change" itself as the change in the location of the target variant at different heights along the curve. If a particular variant occurs at a higher place on the curve than it did before, it has become more frequent and so we can say that the direction of change for that variant is positive; if a variant occurs at a lower place on the curve than it did before, it has become less frequent and the direction of change is negative.

Kretzschmar, Jr.,William A and Susan Tamasi. "Distributional Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." World Englishes 22 (2003): 377--401.
1755ǯ Johnson μνʸ "Grammar of the English Tongue" ꤹʸˡҤξϤ롥ǷƻӤˤĤƤ⥹ڡ䤫Ƥ뤬-er/-est Ӥ more/most ӤȤȤʬϡ§ȤΤä褦Johnson ʤλƤߤ褦
The Comparison of Adjectives.
The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding er, the superlative by adding est, to the positive; as, fair, fairer, fairest; lovely, lovelier, loveliest; sweet, sweeter, sweetest; low, lower, lowest; high, higher, highest.
Some words are irregularly compared; as good, better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, less, least; near, nearer, next; much, more, most; many (or moe), more for moer), most (for moest); late, latter, latest or last.
Some comparatives form a superlative by adding most, as nether, nethermost; outer, outmost; under, undermost; up, upper, uppermost; fore, former, foremost.
Many adjectives do not admit of comparison by terminations, and are only compared by more and most, as benevolent, more benevolent, most benevolent.
All adjectives may be compared by more and most, even when they have comparatives and superlatives regularly formed; as fair; fairer, or more fair; fairest, or most fair.
In adjectives that admit a regular comparison, the comparative more is oftener used than the superlative most, as more fair is oftener written for fairer, than most fair for fairest.
The comparison of adjectives is very uncertain; and being much regulated by commodiousness of utterance, or agreeableness of sound, is not easily reduced to rules.
Monosyllables are commonly compared.
Polysyllables, or words of more than two syllables, are seldom compared otherwise than by more and most, as deplorable, more deplorable, most deplorable.
Disyllables are seldom compared if they terminate in some, as fulsome, toilsome; in ful, as careful, spleenful, dreadful; in ing, as trifling, charming; in ous, as porous; in less, as careless, harmless; in ed, as wretched; in id, as candid; in al, as mortal; in ent, as recent, fervent; in ain, as certain; in ive, as missive; in dy, as woody; in fy, as puffy; in ky, as rocky, except lucky; in my, as roomy; in ny, as skinny; in py, as ropy, except happy; in ry, as hoary.
Johnson ϤΤ褦ǡʤε§˱ʤȤơMilton Ben Jonson μƤ롥
Ǥ˰ѤҤˤϡ̣¿ޤޤƤ롥ȤС֡Ѥɽ魯Ǥ most ȤղäȤΤϸ츻Ūˤ⤷ (ex. nethermost, outmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost) outer ˤĤƤϡ#3616. 촴첻ûפӵͳ褹 latter, last, utter ([2019-03-22-1]) ȡޤforemost ˤĤƤϡ#1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1]) ȡ
äơӤƻˤĤ most ѤǾ more ѤӵΤۤ٤ȤΤⶽ̣ŦӵȺǾǤϤ⤽ⷹۤʤ뤫⤷ʤȤϡ٤ࡥ
Milton λˤϵ줿 virtuousest, famousest, pow'rfullest ʤɤ Johnson ʤλˤǤϵƤʤʤäƤȤ⸫ƨʤJohnson Ǥ˸ŪʴФäƤȤˤʤ뤫ȤʬκСJohnson λޤǤ˸ʬۤȤϤǤäƤȹͤƤ褵
Τ褦ʡֺפ1ˤĤơLass ŦƤ뤳Ȥ⼨ŪǤ롥Lass (157) ϡJohnson ǤϵƤƤʤ woody, puffy, rocky, roomy ʤɤζӤߤǤϵƤƤ¤ͤȡ鸽ޤǤ˶ӤŬϰϤ礷ƤǽȽҤ٤Ƥ롥⤷ʤСθóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ
18εʸˡɤľϡѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤθѲΡȯפ¥Ƥ롥
Lass, Roger. "Phonology and Morphology." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 56--186.
ε ([2019-03-13-1]) ˰³ƤꡥѸˤ <u> <o> ʬۤ111ΥƥȤˤĴ Wełna (317) ϡȤưʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . the examination of the above corpus data has shown a lack of any consistent universal rule replacing <u> with <o> in the graphically obscure contexts of the postvocalic graphemes <m, n>. Even words with identical roots, like the forms of the lemmas SUN (OE sunne), SUMMER (OE sumor) and SON (OE sunu), SOME (OE sum) which showed a similar distribution of <u/o> spellings in most Middle English dialects, eventually (and unpredictably) have retained either the original spelling <u> (sun) or the modified spelling <o> (son). In brief, each word under discussion modified its spelling at a different time and in different regions in a development which closely resembles the circumstances of lexical diffusion.
Τ褦˱ʪޤä褦ʷʤΤWełna ϻδ鼡ηŦƤ롥
. . . o-spellings first emerged in the latter half of the 12th century in the (South-)West (honi "honey" . . .). Later, a tendency to use the new spelling <o> is best documented in London and in the North.
Wełna ܿͤҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡĴоݤȤޤ HUNDRED, HUNGER, HONEY, NUN, SOME, SUMMER, SUN, SON 8ĤˤŪʷФΤΤ⤷ʤʤ븦椬ɬפΤ褦
Wełna, Jerzy. "<U> or <O>: A Dilemma of the Middle English Scribal Practice." Contact, Variation, and Change in the History of English. Ed. Simone E. Pfenninger, Olga Timofeeva, Anne-Christine Gardner, Alpo Honkapohja, Marianne Hundt and Daniel Schreier. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins, 2014. 305--23.
ѲȤ櫓ѲοʹԤλˤĤơؤʬ䤹Ҳ𤷤Ƥ뤳ȤɾΤ Aitchison (100) Τ褦Ƥ롥
Syntactic change typically creeps into a language via optional stylistic variants. Particular lexical items provide a toehold. The change tends to become widely used via ambiguous structures. One or some of these get increasingly preferred, and in the long run the dispreferred options fade away through disuse. Mostly, speakers are unaware that such changes are taking place. Overall, all changes, whether phonetic/phonological, morphological, or syntactic, take place gradually, and also spread gradually. There is always fluctuation between the old and the new. Then the changes tend to move onward and outward, becoming the norm among one group of speakers before moving on to the next.
ѲϡˤäȿʹԤ뤿ˡ줬ƤüԤˤȤäƤƳŤʤΤǤ롥ξ¸֤ˤϡ#3318. Ѳκˤ뿷Ѱ۷äơ ([2018-05-28-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡξԤΤ˲餫δỤ̄Ѱΰ㤤ռ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ۤɰռ줺ˡ¾夿Ρɤ (fluctuation) ȤƸ뤳Ȥ¿Ѳϸä˥äƿʤफΤ褦ηŤƤǡ춦ƱΤǤ⤢üԤ̤üԤؤŤƤ (lexical_diffusion) Ѳ creep 礦ˤ褦˿ʤȤȤϡ̯Ǥ롥
ޤ̤βս Aitchison (107) ϡJoseph (140) Ѥʤ顤ѲΥ뤤϶˸ڤƤ롥
[S]peakers in the process of using --- and thus of changing --- their language often act as if they were in a fog, by which is meant not that they are befuddled but that they see clearly only immediately around them, so to speak, and only in a clouded manner farther afield. They thus generalize only 'locally' . . . and not globally over vast expanses of data, and they exercise their linguistic insights only through a small 'window of opportunity' over a necessarily small range of data.
ġüԤϡ礭ήΤʤˤѲṲ̄ϸƤ餺Ū˹ưƤǤ롥ѲΡָ (invisible_hand) Ū (teleology) ˤľ뤹븫Ǥ롥
ɸΤ褦ˡָѲ̸Τʤ礦褦ˤƿʤǤפΤʤΤ
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 4th ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.
Joseph, B. D. "Diachronic Explanation: Putting Speakers Back into the Picture." Explanation in Historical Linguistics. Ed. G. W. Davis and G. K. Iverson. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 1992. 123--44.
2018ǯȤʤޤǯ hellog ³Ƥޤꤤפޤ
ǯǽϡ֤餮פˤĤơ¸ߤ餮ˤϵ§ŪȤΤ⤢СޤäͽԲǽʤΤ⤢뤬¿θݤˤƤϡȤϤȤ⤢ͽ¬Ǥ餮ǧ롥ʤǤ1/f 餮פȤΤƤΤϡȤβˤ¿ǧ졤Ȥ櫓ʹ֤ΤΤʤˤФдޤޤƤȸ롥Τ餮ϳܤǯءαλݤߡż֤ɤ졤ŤĮ¤ߡࡤܡҡݤΥꥺࡤȸȤХåϤ⡼ĥȤγڶʤʤɤˤߤۤ١˦¤ˤǧȤ1/f 餮פȤƾΤϡоݤΤ餮μȿ (frequency) ʬʬϤʬζŪäƥղȡľ뤳Ȥˤ롥1/f2 1/f-1 Ǥʤ 1/f ǤȤɤʹ֤ˤȤäƤβΥݥȤ餷ԡpp. 24--39ˡ
1/f 餮ʹ֤̩ܤʤȤ¿ȤΤϡηϡˤˤߤǽ뤳Ȥ롥ǸˤȤäƤ餮Ȥϲˤʤ롥Ū variation ꤹ뤳ȤǤѲ (language_change) (frequency) ® (speed_of_language_change) ʤɤˤ⸫뤫⤷ʤ㤨С1/f 餮óȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȴؤäƤ餪⤷
1/f 餮ϡʣ (complex_system) 䥫 (chaos_theory) Ȥط롥ηϤʣϤǤꡤѲŬѤоݤȤʤꤦ뤳Ȥϡ#3112. ȸѲ (2) ([2017-11-03-1])#3122. ηϤϡ֥ձפˤ ([2017-11-13-1])#3142. ۥᥪ (1) ([2017-12-03-1])#3143. ۥᥪ (2) ([2017-12-04-1]) ʤɤǿƤȤС1/f 餮ޤ˴ͿƤǽ⤤ιͤˤⶦ̤ƤΤϡưƤʥƥळϤͽǤʤưŬ䤹Ȥ꤫꤬٤ޤ褦ʥƥǤ롥ŪʸˤϡưŪʰ괶פȤäƤ褤뤤ϺǶβʳؤΥɤǤСưŪʿա (dynamic_equilibrium) Ǥ롥ͷӡפˤ̤Τ롥
ȴϢơ (127--28) 1/f 餮ܤξˤĤƤζ̣Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
ܤʪΤθ¦˾碌ƤޤƾϡԥäȰΤȤ˻ߤޤäƤΤǤϤʤĤˤդդưƤΤǤ
ư1/f 餮˶ᤤΤǤ
ˤäˤäꡤ礳礳䤨ưƤΤϡưƤۤΤΰ֤ѤäȤˤ碌ľ䤹Ǥƥ˥꤬֤ȤˡƾΤɤäƤޤϻߤޤäƤȡܡ뤬ǤȤΤưʤǤ礦ܤξƱȤǤ
ޤϡ褦ȤΤ˹碌ƤΤ̤Τ褦ǤƤΤưȡƲܤ䤱ޤ⤷ʪΤ˹äƤȡΤƤ˹ԤäƤ⡤ܤ䤱ȤǤƱȤˤʤޤǤϾ碌ľΤˡɤ˾ưФ褤ΤȤäȽǤǤޤƤΤ⡤˾ޤäƤСΤ饺ƱưȤΤϤäꤷƤޤεդ˼ưСܤ䤱㤷ʤޤƱˡϾ˹碌ƤΤǤϤʤǤ礦ˤ餤ǤۤΤȤѲб䤹ȤȤǤ礦
ηϤˤ餤Ǥ뤫餳ʹ֤Υߥ˥ߵ䤨Ѳ¨ǤʥƥȤʤäƤΤ⤷ʤ1/f 餮θؤαѤ̤οؿƤ
ؤ餮ȯۡ1/f 餮ˤޤ١Ƕ1994ǯ
#3111. ȸѲ (1) ([2017-11-02-1]) εǡζϤʰۤʤ꤬˿ʺۤ⤿餷뤳Ȥñʿʥƥåˤˤ꼨Τ褦ʥϡݡޤοؼ Benoît Mandelbrot (1924--2010) ˤؤȷӤĤ졤Ūʿ֥ե饯 (fractal) ȴϢŤ褦ˤʤä
ͤ˼̤ƤͻҤŪɽС1ؤ٤ƤޤäƤȥ饯Ȥȥ饯ˤϡΤ褦ˤñʤΤ⤢뤬⤦ʣʤΤȤĤؤηΤ⤢롥Ǥϼ̤Ƥ椯褬1ǤϤʤ롼ǤϤΤΡޤʬ˵§ŪȸƤӤ륢ȥ饯Ǥ롥1Ǥ롼Ǥʤʣʿȥ饯Ȥʤ륱롥줬ޤ˥μȥ饯ǤꡤܼƤʤȤ顤ȥȥ饯ȸƤФεǼġȥ饯1ˡΤ褦ʥȥ饯̤δŪʱ黻äʤȡʣŪʿĤޤե饯ȤʤΤ롥κǤͭ̾㤬֥ޥǥ֥ (Mandelbrot set) Ǥ롥η "gingerbread man" ȤƤФ롥ʲåơ˳礷ƤGIF˥ɤ

οΤʬ礷ƤȡȤοʿȸ롥κƵʱ³ƤΤǤ롥
Ѳݤ1ȤСбؿǤե饯ȤμȤħϡѲΤʤ¦̤ɽ路ƤȹͤΤ
ե饯μϡȤ櫓ձˤƤߤ롥㤨СѲˤ variation ˴ؤơ¦̡ǻ褦ʤȤƤ롤Ȥ褦ʤȤͤ褦óȻSʣΤ꾮SäƤȤ¤⡤ե饯ŪǤ롥
ȥե饯ԻĤʴطˤĤƤϡ奢 (268--301) ɤߤ䤹
奢ȡˡ ס¼ ˡˡإŪʣϤβʳؤء١ȼҡ1998ǯ
ɰȸʳءˤϤޤӤĤʤȻפ뤬Ȼס٤ΤʤΡֽδϡפꤹǡνⰭν͡˴Τ顤褯ĤʤФʤʤ⤯꤬롥ǡָưפ㳰ǤϤʤȤơŤˤĤơƼ¼ŪˤϸѲˤĤƿƤ (pp. 101--02)
ưΤȤϡäνꡤνʺ褦ϡ褷ʤڤС迷ʹޡʸ롥äοʹˤʸкܤ줿Ȼפȡ줬ޤʺοʹܤ졤ˤϼҲ̤θȤơïޤ̤Ȥˤʤ롥Ρ֥ϥפȤפȤդϡʤΰǤ롥ؽҤθդʤɤϤ꺸ͤǡẢνѤˡ֤褯äƤפȤ֤פȤθѤΤ⡤νΤȤäƺ٤ʤޤ̵äּ¶ȡפȤʸΤȤ⡤ϺὬȤʤꡤ¶ȤȤФˡȤΤȤפ碌褦ˤʤä褿ΡԻΡפȤʸʤɤ⡤̤鸫ǯοͤǤʤФʤȦǤΤˡǤϷͤؤƤԻΤȤïͤΤʤ˻äƤ롥äƽǡ˴ϤäƤ뤫ΤǤơ뤬ϡͤνϽŷνȤʤ꤫ͤޤǤ뤫顤ФƤϿդʧȤȤˡޤŤƤͤФʤ̤ΤǤ롥
οոͻҤʬäƤ⤷οФɬŪǤϤʤä褦ɤ뤬ˤ衤ۤɸդϤϤäƤΤȤȤ⤫Ƥ롥
ޤ줬ŤȤϡưŤȤƤΤ⤪⤷줽ΤΤ⡤üԤ˰ᤤΩ줫ѲƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
ִפȡϡפȴϢơóȻνˤĤơ#5. ڥե륨ȸóȻ"take-off" ([2009-05-04-1])#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1])#2299. Ȼζư3 ([2015-08-13-1]) ޤ lexical_diffusion γƵȤ줿
ɰ졡Ȼס١Ʋ1927ǯKADOKAWA2008ǯ
ǯ衤ָѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ȼʬ̾դ˴ؿ³Ƥ롥֥塼פˤϡѲ®١ϩȻνϤޤ륿ߥ륿ߥʤɤν꤬ޤޤƤꡤּ˱äƴѻѲμΥѥȤ館褦ȤտޤƤ롥
óȻ (lexical_diffusion) ˤޤĤŪͤФȤѲΥ塼ؤδؿνȯäθ塤ʸʤɤƤΤǡդǤäޤȤƤ⡤դäƤͽꡥ
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Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
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Briscoe, Ted. "Evolutionary Perspectives on Diachronic Syntax." Diachronic Syntax: Models and Mechanisms. Ed. Susan Pintzuk, George Tsoulas, and Anthony Warner. Oxford: OUP, 2000. 75--105.
Britain, Dave. "Geolinguistics and Linguistic Diffusion." Sociolinguistics: International Handbook of the Science of Language and Society. Ed. U. Ammon et al. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2004.
Croft, William. Explaining Language Change: An Evolutionary Approach. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2000.
Denison, David. "Slow, Slow, Quick, Quick, Slow: The Dance of Language Change?" Woonderous Æ#nglissce: SELIM Studies in Medieval English Language. Ed. Ana Bringas López et al. Vigo: Universidade de Vigo (Servicio de Publicacións), 1999. 51--64.
Denison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
Ellegård, A. The Auxiliary Do. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1953.
Fries, Charles C. "On the Development of the Structural Use of Word-Order in Modern English." Language 16 (1940): 199--208.
Görlach, Manfred. Introduction to Early Modern English. Cambridge: CUP, 1991.
Hooper, Joan. "Word Frequency in Lexical Diffusion and the Source of Morphophonological Change." Current Progress in Historical Linguistics. Ed. William M. Christie Jr. Amsterdam: North-Holland, 1976. 95--105.
Hotta, Ryuichi. The Development of the Nominal Plural Forms in Early Middle English. Hituzi Linguistics in English 10. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo, 2009.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Leaders and Laggers of Language Change: Nominal Plural Forms in -s in Early Middle English." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science (The 30th Anniversary Issue II) 68 (2010): 1--17.
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Kroch, Anthony S. "Function and Grammar in the History of English: Periphrastic Do." Language Change and Variation. Ed. Ralph Fasold and Deborah Schiffrin. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 52. John Benjamins, 1989. 132--72.
Kroch, Anthony S. "Reflexes of Grammar in Patterns of Language Change." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 199--244.
Labov, William. Principles of Linguistic Change: Internal Factors. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1994.
Lass, Roger. Phonology. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.
Lass, Roger. Historical Linguistics and Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
Lieberman, Erez, Jean-Baptiste Michel, Joe Jackson, Tina Tang, and Martin A. Nowak. "Quantifying the Evolutionary Dynamics of Language." Nature 449 (2007): 713--16.
Lightfoot, David W. Principles of Diachronic Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 1979.
Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.
Matsuda, K. "Dissecting Analogical Leveling Quantitatively: The Case of the Innovative Potential Suffix in Tokyo Japanese." Language Variation and Change 5 (1993): 1--34.
McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Nevalainen, T. and H. Raumolin-Brunberg. Historical Sociolinguistics. Harlow: Longman, 2003.
Niyogi, Partha and Robert C. Berwick. "A Dynamical Systems Model of Language Change." Linguistics and Philosophy 20 (1997): 697--719.
Ogura, Mieko. "The Development of Periphrastic Do in English: A Case of Lexical Diffusion in Syntax." Diachronica 10 (1993): 51--85.
Ogura, Mieko and William S-Y. Wang. "Snowball Effect in Lexical Diffusion: The Development of -s in the Third Person Singular Present Indicative in English." English Historical Linguistics 1994. Papers from the 8th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Derek Britton. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1994. 119--41.
Ogura, Mieko and William S-Y. Wang. "Evolution Theory and Lexical Diffusion." Advances in English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Jacek Fisiak and Marcin Krygier. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1998. 315--43.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and the Actuation of Sound Change." Language 60 (1984): 320--42.
Phillips, Betty S. "Word Frequency and Lexical Diffusion in English Stress Shifts." Germanic Linguistics. Ed. Richard Hogg and Linda van Bergen. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998. 223--32.
Ritt, Nikolaus. "How to Weaken one's Consonants, Strengthen one's Vowels and Remain English at the Same Time." Analysing Older English. Ed. David Denison, Ricardo Bermúdez-Otero, Chris McCully, and Emma Moore. Cambridge: CUP, 2012. 213--31.
Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th ed. New York: Free Press, 1995.
ҡָѲΣӻ֤ηŪ桽ϼˡʬϻӡסܸز137ݥָѲΥǥץϥɥȡء2008ǯ1130
Sapir, Edward. Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921.
Schlüter, Julia. "Weak Segments and Syllable Structure in ME." Phonological Weakness in English: From Old to Present-Day English. Ed. Donka Minkova. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009. 199--236.
Schuchardt, Hugo. Über die Lautgesetze: Gegen die Junggrammatiker. 1885. Trans. in Shuchardt, the Neogrammarians, and the Transformational Theory of Phonological Change. Ed. Theo Vennemann and Terence Wilbur. Frankfurt: Altenäum, 1972. 39--72.
Sherman, D. "Noun-Verb Stress Alternation: An Example of the Lexical Diffusion of Sound Change in English." Linguistics 159 (1975): 43--71.
ѡʬˤβȽưdoȯãΰ¦̡סThe Northern Review ̳ƻءˡ١121984ǯ47--57ǡ
Swadesh, Morris. "Lexico-Statistic Dating of Prehistoric Ethnic Contacts: With Special Reference to North American Indians and Eskimos." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 96 (1952): 452--63.
Wang, William S-Y. "Competing Changes as a Cause of Residue." Language 45 (1969): 9--25. Rpt. in Readings in Historical Phonology: Chapters in the Theory of Sound Change. Ed. Philip Baldi and Ronald N. Werth. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State UP, 1977. 236--57.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ε#2640. Ѹˤλʬ ([2016-07-19-1]) ǡѲϾˤ褽®٤Ѳ³Ȥ Hockett Ѳ®٤ȤˤĤƤĹ餯ؿƤꡤܥ֥Ǥ speed_of_change, , lexical_diffusion ʤɤ¿εǰŪŪ˼夲Ƥ
¿αѸ˸ԤϡФиѲ®٤ˤŪ˷㤷ȴˤ䤫ʻ뤳ȤȤƤ㤨С#795. ͥåȻϸѲβžΨκǤ® ([2011-07-01-1])#386. Ѹ˵äƤѲ礭 ([2010-05-18-1]) εǾҲ𤷤褦ˡѲ®٤Ȥߤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ޤѲñ̤μˤäѲ®٤Ū®ä٤äꤹȤȤ⡤#621. ʸˡѲοʹԤα߳ꤵ®١ ([2011-01-08-1])#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ʤɤȤƤ롥ˡóȻǤϡѲʳ˱ƳȻδ˵ޤڤؤ뤳ȤȤƤ롥Τ褦˸ƤȡѲθˤƤϡѲ®٤ϡ§ȤưǤϤʤषѲΤȤԤϤäƤ褦˻פ롥ǤϡHockett Τ褦ΩʬHockett (63) θʬϼ̤Ǥ롥
Since we find it almost impossible to measure the rate of linguistic change with any accuracy, obviously we cannot flatly assert that it is constant; if, in fact, it is variable, then one can identify relatively slow change with stability, and relatively rapid change with transition. I think we can with confidence assert that the variation in rate cannot be very large. For this belief there is descriptive evidence. Currently we are obtaining dozens of reports of language all over the world, based on direct observation. If there were any really sharp dichotomy between 'stability' and 'transition', then our field reports would reveal the fact: they would fall into two fairly distinct types. Such is not the case, so that contrapositively the assumption is shown to be false.
Hockett (58) ̤βսǤ⡤Ѳ®٤¬뤳ȤˤĤƲŪ٤ɽƤ롥
Can we speak, with any precision at all, about the rate of linguistic change? I think that precision and significance of judgments or measurements in this connection are related as inverse functions. We can be precise by being superficial, say in measuring the rate of replacement in basic vocabulary; but when we turn to deeper aspects of language design, the most we can at present hope for is to attain some rough 'feel' for rate of change.
Hockett θʬޤȤСä䲻ʸˡʤɤ˴ؤ̤θѲˤĤƤϡñ̤˶ŪѲ®٤¬ʤѰդƤꡤºݤ˷¬ƤߤŪ˵ޤʻˤ䤫ʻ̤뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤηϤΤȤѲ®٤ȤŪˤʤȡΤˤ¬ʤϤʤȤäƤ褯ɤΤȤԲΤȤۤʤȤʤСȿФξڵʤʾ塤Ѳ®٤Ϥ褽ǤȤƤΤ̵
Τˡ̤θѲȤɽŪˤĤƹͤȡηϤȤƤѲȤŪξˤϡƱ®١פȤϤۤʤ밷ɬפˤʤäƤϢơ#1551. óȻSؤȽ ([2013-07-26-1])#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
˽Ҥ٤ηϤȤƤѲȤŪ⡤˰Ūʥ٥ˤʲ®٤ˤĤƤϡ˰ۤʤɬפȤʤ뤫⤷ʤˤĤƤϡ#1397. ³ʿեǥ ([2013-02-22-1])#1749. οʲŤΥԡɡ ([2014-02-09-1])#1755. οʲŤΥԡ (2) ([2014-02-15-1]) ȡ
Hockett, Charles F. "The Terminology of Historical Linguistics." Studies in Linguistics 12.3--4 (1957): 57--73.
#1917. numb ([2014-07-27-1]) εǡѸˤ nimen ȸťΥɸѸ taken ζˤĤĴ Rynell θ˿줿̤˸ťΥɸѸ줬Ѹ椤ˤƱѸ˿ƩƤäݤˤϡδϰδθ롥ΤȤʤ顤οƩˤϤ٤λ֤ΤǡΤۤƩٹ礤ϸȤʤޤťΥɸαƶ the Danelaw ȸƤФ륤ˤƺǤǤꡤؤϡξ⤬֤ޤʤŤƤäȹͤΤǤ롥
Τ褦˸ťΥɸθŪƶζˤĤƤϡϰδ֤̩ܤߴطꡤʬۤΤǤȤ롥ºݤˡ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) #1937. Ϣ -son ˤΤϸťΥɸͳ ([2014-08-16-1]) ˼ʬۿޤϡΤʬۤűѸȸťΥɸѸ줬礹륱Ǥϡ̤˾嵭ʬۤǧ뤳Ȥ¿褦Rynell (359) ۩"The Scn words so far dealt with have this in common that they prevail in the East Midlands, the North, and the North West Midlands, or in one or two of these districts, while their native synonyms hold the field in the South West Midlands and the South."
ϰ츫ۤñǤϤʤȤˤαդɬפ롥Rynell (359--60) Ͼʸ³ơΤ褦âդäƤ롥
This is obviously not tantamount to saying that the native words are wanting in the former parts of the country and, inversely, that the Scn words are all absent from the latter. Instead, the native words are by no means infrequent in the East Midlands, the North, and the North West Midlands, or at least in parts of these districts, and not a few Scn loan-words turn up in the South West Midlands and the South, particularly near the East Midland border in Essex, once the southernmost country of the Danelaw. Moreover, some Scn words seem to have been more generally accepted down there at a surprisingly early stage, in some cases even at the expense of their native equivalents.
äդ٤ϡ¸ѸƥȤʬۤФäƤǤ롥СѸ쥳ѥϰ˴ؤɽ (representativeness) 礤ƤȤRynell (358) ˤС
A survey of the entire material above collected, which suffers from the weakness that the texts from the North and the North (and Central) West Midlands are all comparatively late and those from the South West Midlands nearly all early, while the East Midland and Southern texts, particularly the former, represent various periods, shows that in a number of cases the Scn words do prevail in the East Midlands, the North, and the North (and sometimes Central) West Midlands and the South, exclusive of Chaucer's London . . . .
ťΥɸθŪƶϡѸᤤǡ٤ˤǴѻ롤ȤȤϳȤƽҤ٤뤳ȤϤǤΤΡ줬Ѹ쥳ѥλʬۤȸ˰פƤ¤ƨƤϤʤʤĤޤꡤ嵭γŪʬۤϡޤ¸ƥȤλ֡ŪʬۤʿԤƤ뤿ˡȤˤ˶ĴƤ뤫⤷ʤΤ䤹Τޤޤ䤹ʤꡤˤΤ줿ޤޤˤ빽¤Ū꤬ˤ롥
ϡťΥɸθŪƶˤȤɤޤ餺Ѹ̡ŤѲ̤ѻݤˤͿǤ (see #941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1])#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1]))
ϢơѸ쥳ѥ A Linguistic Atlas of Early Middle English (LAEME) ɽˤĤơ#1262. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (1) ([2012-10-10-1])#1263. The LAEME Corpus ɽ (2) ([2012-10-11-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rynell, Alarik. The Rivalry of Scandinavian and Native Synonyms in Middle English Especially taken and nimen. Lund: Håkan Ohlssons, 1948.
ҲؤǤ variety ѼˤȤѸ褯Ѥ뤬Ȥ˻褦ʻȤ lect ȤѸʹ롥 dialect sociolect lect ФΤѸλȤʬΤ˻פTrudgill Ѹ콸äƤߤ줾ιܤѤ롥
variety A neutral term used to refer to any kind of language --- a dialect, accent, sociolect, style or register --- that a linguist happens to want to discuss as a separate entity for some particular purpose. Such a variety can be very general, such as 'American English', or very specific, such as 'the lower working-class dialect of the Lower East Side of New York City'. See also lect
lect Another term for variety or 'kind of language' which is neutral with respect to whether the variety is a sociolect or a (geographical) dialect. The term was coined by the American linguist Charles-James Bailey who, as part of his work in variation theory, has been particularly interested in the arrangement of lects in implicational tables, and the diffusion of linguistic changes from one linguistic environment to another and one lect to another. He has also been particularly concerned to define lects in terms of their linguistic characteristics rather than their geographical or social origins.
ƤꡤξȤ "a kind of language" ۤɤǤۤƱΤ褦variety ΤۤŪѤȤϤäƤ褤lect ϸѲˤƤब lect A lect B ؤʬۤƤʤɤݤ˻Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿褦Ĥޤꡤlect ϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) 褤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʤ lect ιǻȤƤ Charles-James Bailey ϡ#1906. ѲΥ塼ϸŪĶȤ˰ۤʤ뤫 ([2014-07-16-1]) ǰѤ褦ˡΤ˸óȻѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤŪ˰äƤҲؼԤǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
#1600. Samuels θѲǥ ([2013-09-13-1]) Ǿ줿Samuels ϸѲȤװͤǤδŪΩȤơIntralinguistic Extralinguistic ͤƤꡤԤϤ Intrasystemic Extrasystemic ʬ롥Samuels (7) ˤطޤѤƼȡʲ̤Ǥ롥
Intralinguistic Intrasystemic
Extrasystemic 1 (linguistic sense only)
Extralinguistic Extrasystemic 2 (non-linguistic sense, here not used)
˸ؤ̻ؤʤɸѲΰˤƤ⡤ճʤȤˤλŪ¦̤ϤۤȯŸƤʤѲʶʤּ˷ѵǤϤ뤬ष椨˻֤ȤȤطʲ졤켫Τؤδؿ餿ʤäΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥óȻ (lexical_diffusion) Τ褦ʻּŻ뤹ϳȯ줬йƤǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) θѲˤĹ롥ޤ#1872. Constant Rate Hypothesis ([2014-06-12-1]) ʤɤ⡤ѲּˤƹͻƤ롥Ǥ⡤ѲλŪ¦̤ˤĤƤϡޤʬ˿ʤǤȤϸʤ
νפʸơޤȤƤθѲλŪ¦̤ΰڤָѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ȸƤ֤Ȥˤˤϡactuation, implementation, diffusion ˴ؤ (see #1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1])) 䡤Ѳν® (speed_of_change)ϩ³֡λ˴ؤꡤäˤ餬ɤΤ褦װˤꤵΤȤ䤤ʤɤޤޤƤ롥
Ѥ De Smet (6) ϡѲγȻˤĤŪ˹ͻ˼ָѲΥ塼פν˴ؿƤ롥
. . . it is important to see that the problem of diachronic diffusion has two sides. On the one hand, we have to explain the phasedness of diffusional change---that is, to explain why diffusional change happens in stages with different environments being affected at different times, and what determines the order in which environments are affected. On the other hand, there is the more intractable question of what drives diffusion---that is, why does diffusion seem to go on and on, and what gives it its unidirectionality?
De Smet λŦ1ϡʤѲγȻʳŪ˿ʹԤʳνƤΤϲʤΤȤΤȤޤȤƤ褤2Ĥϡ⤽ѲγȻưƤΤϲʤΤ˿ʤޤϤϲʤΤȤΤưϤȤäƤ褤 (see #2299. Ȼζư3 ([2015-08-13-1])#2302. ȻŪѲΰ ([2015-08-16-1]))
De Smet ϡʳνȤ̩ܤ˴ϢϩˤƤ롥"diffusion follows a path of least resistance" (6) ȽҤ٤Ƥ뤳Ȥ鼨褦ˡѲηϩװ1ĤȤơŪηϤˤʤ¿ˤǰƬˤƤ뤳ȤϵʤѲΥ塼νˤϡ֤̻֤ΩۤϡꥦΤ褦 "integrated synchrony" ɬפʤΤǤϤʤˤĤƤϡ#2295. Ѳϸξ֤ϳؤǤ ([2015-08-09-1]) ȡĥäε碌ƻȤ줿
De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#2299. Ȼζư3 ([2015-08-13-1]) ǰѤ De Smet (3) ϡѲγȻ˷֤2Ĥħ˿Ƥ롥"gradualness" "unidirectionality"
. . . diffusional changes do have two recurrent characteristics. First, they are gradual and their gradualness is context bound, which means that different environments are affected by change at different times or in a different pace. This context-bound gradualness has been disputed for some changes . . . ; yet in many cases, . . . context-bound gradualness is immediately apparent from the data. While this suggests that gradualness is perhaps more pronounced for some changes than for others, there is no denying that it is a central aspect of some major grammatical developments.
Second, diffusional changes are unidirectional, in the sense that once an environment has been conquered by change it is not normally yielded back. Unidirectionality here does not mean that diffusion proceeds indefinitely but simply that there is a time window in which distributions can grow continuously, without any serious fallback or fluctuation. This consistency of change sometimes seems natural. For instance, in actualization it might be thought of as a systematic bearing out of the logical consequences of syntactic reanalysis. In grammaticalization, consistent collocational expansion often follows from semantic bleaching. But in other cases, . . . a single straightforward explanation for directionality seems lacking, making the directionality observed all the more mystifying.
De Smet ε1ĤħѲϴĶȤ˽˳ȻƤȤħϡΤ˼Ƥ褤Aitchison ήˤ "rule generalisation" (95) ˤäơĿʤǤΤŵǤ롥
2ĤħѲΰ (unidirectionality) ˤĤƤϡ٤꤬Ĥ褦˻פ롥ޤDe Smet ѤκǸѲΰ "mystifying" Ǥ뤳ȻŦƤ褦ˡθ餫ˤȤ礭꤬ĤƤ롥ϡSapir drift ήˤͿ "mystical" Ȥɾפ (see #685. ʤѲˤ drift Τ (1) ([2011-03-13-1]))
ˡѲγȻˤϡܺäƤޤΡ뤤ϰŪǤϤήꡤʤȤ֥졼äꤹ륱뤳ȤǤ롥㤨С伫ȤιԤäѸˤ̾ʣ -s γȻȤǤϡˤưŪй -n δꡤ-s γȻˤϤष֥졼äθ塤-s γȻᤷΤǡǽŪˤϡפȤ뤫⤷ʤŪѲΰƤ褤ΤʤΤƹͤ¥ǤϤ롥
De Smet ⡤Τ褦㳰ˤߤβǽǰƬ֤ʤ顤Ť "unidirectionality" ȤǰƤ褦ǤϤ롥â1Ĥ "a time window" ¤ϡ줬ԹΤ褹복ǰ֤ʤΤǤϤʤȤפäƤ롥Ǥ -s ǤСȻ˥֥졼ľޤǤ1ĤλȤСΤ˰˿ʤǤ褦ˤߤ롥ޤ֥졼ľ夫⤦1ĤλȤСޤ˿ʤǤ褦ˤߤ롥뤿ˤϡԹ褯ꤹ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥
De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
#1695. ưʻž ([2013-12-17-1]) κǸ˼breakaway, sellout, writeoff ʤɤζư줫ž (verb-particle conversion) ̾ȡincrease, project, record ʤɤưѤ̾Ȥδ֤ˤϡܤ٤롥ϡ̾ưζѥäƤ뤳ȤǤ롥
̾ưˤĤƤϡ#803. ̾ư̻Ū ([2011-07-09-1])#804. ̾ưñ ([2011-07-10-1])#805. 衤̾ưˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ ([2011-07-11-1]) Ϥᡤdiatone γƵˤƤʸȤƤɽƤΤǡ#2. ʾҲ ([2009-05-01-73]) νȡˡverb-particle conversion ˤ̾ưζѥϰäȤϤʤäʻžθǤϡ嵭ζˤĤƤ鵤ŤƤ褦ǡ㤨ܳŪʻžθ路 Biese (246) ϡΤ褦˻ŦƤ롥
It is of interest to note that the structural type so often characteristic of both simple conversion-substantives and verb-adverb combinations converted into nouns is the same, e.g. very often of a form ‿-́ . . .; the simple conv.-subst. showing a light, unstressed first syllable and a heavy, stressed second syllable, while in the adverb groups a (mostly) short verb is followed by an adverb having the main stress of the word-group.
⤷Τϡ2˴ؤơíncrease (n.) vs incréase (v.) Τ褦̾̾졦ưڥǤϥޥϼѸ줬¿ȤȤ⤢ꡤ1̣ηڤƬǡ2̣νŤ캬Ȥbrékawày (n.) vs brèak awáy (v.) ǤϹդȤʤäƤ뤳ȤäȤ⡤ưѤưϷڤ̣ΤΤ¿Ȥϻ¤̾ưȤ̤ζѥΤܤ٤Ǥ롥ϡ̾ưȤΧθݤȤδͿȤϡषʻη˴ؤǤ뤳ȤΤǤϤʤ
̾ưȤΧϡѸʹߤȯãŪݤưͳ褹̾ưζѥϤ˿ݤȻפ롥
ʻž̤̾ưδطˤĤƤϡǶε#2291. ̾ưžˤȷֲ ([2015-08-05-1]) ǿ줿ΤǻȤ줿
Biese, Y. M. Origin and Development of Conversions in English. Helsinki: Annales Academiae Scientiarum Fennicae, B XLV, 1941.
ѲγȻ (diffusion) Υᥫ˥ˤĤơŪʴ#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1])#1642. lexical diffusion 3ĤS ([2013-10-25-1])#1907. ѲΥ塼οǥ ([2014-07-17-1])#2168. Neogrammarian hypothesis lexical diffusion ͻ (2) ([2015-04-04-1]) 濴ˡlexical_diffusion γƵǰäƤ
ȻζưϤǤ뤫Ȥ䤤ФơDenison (58) Ѱ۷ˤ밵ϤȤФƤ뤬De Smet (8) ϼ礿븶ưϤ (analogy) Ǥꡤ2ĤŪϤääƤȹͤƤ롥ޤϤǤѤ鸫Ƥߤ褦
Most innovations in diffusion appear to arise through analogy---that is, as a result of the bearing out of synchronic regularities. There are two reasons analogy can lead to unidirectional diffusion of a pattern. If we assume that analogy is sensitive to frequency, in that analogical pressure grows as the analogical model becomes more frequent, it follows that as diffusion proceeds analogy grows stronger and more and more environments will yield to its pressure. In this sense, diffusion is a self-feeding process, keeping itself going once it has been triggered. . . . But analogy can be self-feeding not only in a quantitative but also in a qualitative way. . . . [D]iffusion can proceed along analogical chains, whereby every actual change reshuffles the cards for any potential change. Because language users are tireless at inferring regularities from usage---and may even not mind some degree of inconsistency---each analogical extension changes the generalizations that are likely to be inferred, opening new horizons to further analogical extension.
ƤƤѰ۷٤Ȥװޤᥫ˥ϡDenison νҤ٤Ѱ۷ˤ밵ϤˤᤤѲγȻϡȤᥫ˥बŪ˺Ѥ뤳ȤˤäƤΤ߶ưƤ櫓ǤϤʤ䤬礿븶ưϤȤʤĤĤ⡤ġѰۤŪǶɽŪϤƯȻηϩפȤͤDe Smet (8) ˤСŪϤ2ढ롥
Nevertheless, it would be simplistic to believe that analogical snowballs and chains operate exclusively on the basis of analogy. I see at least the following two auxiliary factors. First, if linguistic choices are determined by multiple and variable considerations that are weighed against each other, every usage event comes with a unique constellation of factors pulling linguistic choices one way or another. It is therefore inevitable that there are occasional contexts in which language users are strongly compelled to go against the default grammatical regularities of the system. The unusual choices that occasionally arise in this way may help break down resistance to change. Second, the construction from which a new spreading pattern derives usually occurs in a number of different environments. Because of this, the new pattern is present from the very start in a number of different places in the system, having as it were a diffusional headstart that can very quickly lead to the inference of new generalizations.
ŪϤ1ĤϡġѰۤƯװʣ߹礤ΤΤǤ롥ġѰۤȤޤĶǤ1ĤξηϤƤꡤηϤ¾ξηϤȼäƤ롥ηϤΤĤȼϡȤηϤΤİѲθưϤȤʤ2Ĥϡ餫͡ʴĶˤƸȤ¤ΤȤϡʳȻʤǤϤδĶ٤ޤäƤȤȤǤ⤢ꡤȻưϤˤĤʤ2ĤŪϤϡȤ礿ưϤǻ٤ƤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ
Danison, David. "Log(ist)ic and Simplistic S-Curves." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 54--70.
De Smet, Hendrik. Spreading Patterns: Diffusional Change in the English System of Complementation. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
#2290. ƻޤĹ첻û ([2015-08-04-1]) ǡ<oo>, <ea> ɽ蘆줿Ĺ첻Ѹû夲Ȥ櫓 <oo> ˤĤƤϡ#547. <oo> ֻб3ȯ ([2010-10-26-1])#1353. 첻Ĺû ([2013-01-09-1])#1297. does, done 첻 ([2012-11-14-1])#1866. put but 첻 ([2014-06-06-1]) ǰäƤ
<oo> ɽ蘆줿 [uː] [ʊ] ؤûϡط뤹٤Ƥθ櫓ǤϤʤPhillips (233) λȤ Mieko Ogura (Historical English Phonology: A Lexical Perspective. Tokyo: Kenkyusha, 1987.) ˤСѸ졤Ȥ櫓16--17줿ڵ˴ŤȡûϺǽ [d] ֤ǡ [v], [t, θ, k] ֤ȤȤ櫓Ҳ [l] θ֤Ǥ䤹äȤ롥ĤޤꡤóȻΤǡĶ˽äơѲ˿ʹԤƤäȤ
ν˴ؤơOgura ϲĶ٤ι⤵ isochrony Ȥ褦ȤPhillips ĴŪʺƤƤ롥⤽ Phillips ϡβѲϡûפȤŪѲȤߤ٤ǤϤʤд˲פȤŪѲȤߤ٤ȼĥ롥ȤΤϡ⤷ʲѲȤƤûǤС̵ [t] ֤Τۤͭ [d] ֤첻Ūûûꤵ뤬ºݤˤϵդνŪд˲ȤȤ館С줬ʤ [d] ֤ΤĴŪǤȤ
ĴؤˤС[l] [d] ˶ޤ줿ĶǤ [u(ː)] [ʊ] ؤдˤ䤹ȤޤĴ˺ݤƤϡ¾λҲξ٤θ㤯ʤ뤳Ȥ¿Ϥд˲䤹Ȥ⤵ (Phillips 237) Ǹˡ[d], [t] Ȥ˴ؤƤϡԤԤдŪ (lax) ǤȤ⤢롥ΤȤơPhillips ϡĴŪʥѥƳ뤳ȤǡθóȻѲΥ塼̵ʤǤȼĥƤ롥
ɬ̤ʵȤϤʤäƤʤ褦ˤפ뤬1ĤθǤϤ[2015-08-04-1]εǤߤ褦ˡŪʻʬŪ˴ޤ Görlach θˤդʧɬפ롥
Phillips, Betty S. "Lexical Diffusion and Competing Analyses of Sound Change." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. Donka Minkova and Robert Stockwell. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 231--43.
ǯʸˡ (neogrammarian) ˤ㳰ʤѲΥơȡѲϸäδ֤˥褦ˤSʤʤȤóȻΥơȤϡŪ˿øΩΤȤߤʤƤLass ϡ#1641. Neogrammarian hypothesis lexical diffusion ͻ¡ ([2013-10-24-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡΩϻΰ㤤ˤΤˤܼŪǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥ʤ㳰ʤѲŪʻóȻŪʻĤȤ㤤Ǥȡ
ŪˤߤȤƤ⡤ξơˤ̷⤻˶¸Ǥƻ롥öŵŪSˤۤʬǯʸˡήε§ŪʲѲȲᤷˤ䤫ʽڤʬóȻȲ᤹ˡǤ롥СˤȤʤäƤѲ˸ŪʴͿ®٤ϴˤ䤫Ǥ뤬ȾФǤϸŪʴͿ§ŪʲѲȤư쵤˿ʹԤ롥θѤСŪʻȤäȤƤ⡤2ĤΥơ϶¸Ǥ롥Wolfram (720) ۩
. . . we submit that part of the resolution of the ongoing controversy over regularity in phonological change may be related to the trajectory slope of the change. From this perspective, irregularity and lexical diffusion are maximized at the beginning and the end of the slope and phonological regularity is maximized during the rapid expansion in the application of the rule change during the mid-course of change.
ȤȡѲϡŪäδͿ§ŪʥơȡŪäδͿζԵ§ʥơȤߤ˷֤ȤȤˤʤ롥ʤΤ褦ʥơζ̤ȹͤΤŪˤϡ#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1]) 褦ʤȤͤ뤬̤䤤ȤäƤ褤
Wolfram, Walt and Natalie Schilling-Estes. "Dialectology and Linguistic Diffusion." The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 713--35.
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