ܥ֥ǤĤεǸڤƤ (linguistic geography or geolinguistics) Ȥʬ롥ָءءפȤпˡء (dialectology) פ⤫֤ؤϤȤϰۤʤ롥ξʬϴϢؿΰŤʤΤϻ¤ǤϤ롥ܸظŵ٤ָءפɤǤߤ褦
ʤ꤬ˡڲؤȤ⤤ȼʸŪĶȤδϢͻѲȤŤװŪʬ۹¤餫ˤʳء츽ݤŪʤΤʬ줾ŪѰˤĤƤιͻȯ롥äȤƼΤ褦꤬롥(1) θ츽 A Ϣ³Ūΰľ硤ΰγθ츽ݤˤϡŪʴϢäȹͤAʬۡˡ(2) Ω츽 AB ΰ褬ŪܤƤˤϡܿƮ褬ꡤŪ˰¾Ƥ礬¿ȹͤABʬۡˡ(3) A ΰδ֤ˡA ΰʬǤ B ΰ褬ǧϡ㳰ơ쵭βỌ̇̄ηӤĤ̵«θˤäơB ΰξüǡ̵طƱ A ȤϹͤʤȤŪˡŤι A ΰȯ B ʬǤƸ줿ȹͤABAʬۡˡʸ濴ǿɽ줬ϤȡޤǤѸ줬¦˲롥μβ٤ȡȤԻԤ濴ˡΥ˱ƴĤΤդ뤤ȤϰؤǤŤۤ濴˸롥ݤ뤿ĹˤϡפȤҸ̥ޥޡͤѤ(3) δŤˤŤʤäΤȤǤ롥ʾϡФȤФŪŪʬۤƤƤȤǤ롥оϰΤΤʤɤñ̤ȤΤޤǡ롥оݤϡŪݤ֤Ȥ¿ޤǤʤʸˡݤ¾ˤڤ֡Ūʸˡˤ뤳Ȥ顤ָϿޤκפ칩Ȥ롥ϿǤ츽ݤʬΰγϤפȤǰϤޤ줿ϰˡΩ̸ݤ¸ߤʤȤΤǤϤʤϰ褬뤫Ǥ롥оݤȤ뤳Ȥ顤¨ؤȤͤ뤬ϡؤȸؤ̤ƣͿϡؤηϤΰؤ֤Ť롥İɧϸŪݤϤָءפФơФˡפŬѤ롥
ؤϡʸϤȴΤǤС֤ȤФŪŪʬۤƤƤפ˿ԤΤǤϤʤĤޤꡤ̻ŪǸء뤤ư֤δѻؤܼȡϤߤƤ롥
ܸظŵ١ ʸۤ ԡ2007ǯ

ǯ١ط YouTube/Podcast ֤ͥإ饸ο٤ˤơ֤ȤФѲĤޤפϢܤƤޤԤؤΥӥ塼̤ơѲ (language_change) ˤĤƻƤδǤָѲ߿פʤơˤȤäƿΡָѲפޤǥե㡼ʸݻʤɡǤ礦줬ɤ櫓ˤΤǤγڤߤǤǯ٤ϹɤȤǤ
ϢܤνȤʤ4ϡֺ֡۲פư --- ҲؼԡʼʹפꤷƸΥꥨޤҲ𤹤ǿ5ǤϡϤޤ --- ؼԡϺʹפꤷơѲȸؤ꤬夲Ƥޤ
ءʤȴźʤѸʤΤǤ礦ѸǤ "geography of language" Ȥ "geolinguistics" ȤƤФޤ伫Ȥ業ꥢȤƱѸˤΤʤǤѸ (dialectology) ˿ƤǤƤꡤΰʰʾˤͤùǤаޤΤǡؤȤˤϲؤޤ
8ڡˤ錄뵭ɤȤȤϻۤɤΤǤǮʶ줷ˤʤꤽʤΤǹ˹ԤȻפޤŪˡޤϾФǤޤ
ȤФϰ躹ϤʤޤΤ
Ωפ
Ʊ
äѲʸˡѲ
ȴդι
Ըʲ֡
ǺǹࡤܸθϿ
ˬͤ줿ԤܸؤϺǤܸؤ꤬ŸƤޤٻΡַμ¡ᤰϿޤʤɤ졤ư֤Ƥޤ
夲٤꤬˭٤Τǡ hellog Ϥ٤ǤȤɤƤȻפޤϢܡѲ˴ؿΤ볧˶ᤷޤ
ʰʲ嵭2025/05/05(Mon)
Ҳ𤷤 heldio Ǥ#1436. ؤȤϡ --- إ饸οΡϢܡ֤ȤФѲĤޤפȤƾҲ𤷤ƤޤҤİ
ϢܡȤФѲĤޤ롧Ϥޤ --- ؼԡϺʹס١ҡ2025ǯ5桥2025ǯ172--79ǡ

콤ءˤä뵡ꡤؤμȤɸ The Long Journey of English: A Geographical History of the Language ƥȤȤѤƤȤΤȡǯǤ줿Ҳؤ Peter Trudgill ˤѸˤܤǤŪʱѸ˽Ȥϡꡦ꤫ɤ̤ꡤѸˤܤȤäۤʬ䤹Ȼפޤʤ顤Ѹ (world_englishes) Ȥ̩ܤ˴ϢƤޤ̤ɤǤ®Ϥޤ줫ɤ߿ʤĤġγȤȤ˵ʡʤɤȻפäƤޤ
ޤܼܽƤޤ礦
Prologue: A View from the Birthplace
1 Where It All Started: The Language Which Became English
2 The Journey Begins: The First Movement South
3 Interlude: A View from the Celtic Island
4 Heading West Again: The North Sea Crossing, 400--600
5 Anglo-Saxons and Celts in the British Highlands, 600--800
6 And Further West: Across the Irish Sea, 800--1200
7 Atlantic Crossing: On to the Americas, 1600--1800
8 Onwards to the Pacific Shore
9 Across the Equator: Into the Southern Hemisphere, 1800--1900
10 Some Turning Back: English in Retreat
11 Meanwhile . . . Britain and the British Isles from 1600
12 Transcultural Diffusion: The New Native Englishes
Epilogue: Sixteen Hundred Years On
ȥ "Geographical" äƤ̤ꡤܽˤϿޤ˭٤ǤޤˤϻʸȺդƤޤɤǤߤޤ
ʤϡhel (helkatsu) ȤȤ note DZѸ˴ϢεƤĤȤääƤޤܽФƤ뤫⤷ޤ͡ؤڤߤǤ
Trudgill, Peter. The Long Journey of English: A Geographical History of the Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2023.
ѲŤȻ (diffusion) Ȥơޤ˴ؿ³Ƥ롥ˤĤƤ˻פ⤫֤ΤϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ѲѲäδ֤˥褦˿ʹԤƤȤݤǤ롥ѲͤͤءؤʪŪŪ˹äƤȤ̣ǤŤȻ⤢cf. #1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])ˡޤǤϥͥåȤʤɤͳʪŪŪ˹äƤѲȤΤⵯäƤ褦Ǥ롥Ѳ diffusion ˤ͡ʥץȤȤʬ
diffusion ȤϡȤȿʸ (human geography) ֳ (epidemiology) ˤܤƤǰǤꡤۡʪʪʬۤƤݤؤ㤨С뵻Ѥ¸ݤˤƼϤŤȻƤȤͻʤƤʸؤʬǤ19˻Ϥޤ븦ˤꡤȤ櫓ƶϤ礭ԤȤƤ Torsten Hägerstrand (1916--2004) ̾롥ꥸʥϥǥǽ줿1967ǯ˱ѸǤ Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process Ǥ˹Τ뤳Ȥˤʤäʸػŵ diffusion ιɮ Gregory (160) ˤȡγŪʰյϼ̤ꡥ
Hágerstrand's work had two catalytic consequences: it set in motion the frozen worlds of SPATIAL SCIENCE, and it opened the door to sophisticated computer modelling of spatial processes.
Hägerstrand ηˤ diffusion ϰŪΤΡ䤬ƼҲŪʴ¿Ŧ褦ˤʤꡤdiffusion Τڤ褦ˤʤäGregory (161) ꡤξǧƤ
Just ten years after the translation of Hágerstrand's magnum opus, Blaikie (1978) could speak of a 'crisis' in diffusion research, which he said arose from its preoccupation with spatial form and space-time sequence, while Gregory (1985) attributed the 'stasis' of diffusion theory to a pervasive unwillingness to engage with SOCIAL THEORY and social history to explore the conditions and the consequences of diffusion processes. Critics argued that the spatial circulation of information remained the strategic element in most applications of the Hägerstrand model and its derivatives, and while flows of information through different propagation structures and contact networks were exposed in more detail, the primacy accorded to the reconstruction of these spatial pathways obscured a crucial limitation of the Hägerstrand model: it operated within what Blaut (1977) called a 'granular region', 'a sort of Adam Smithian landscape, totally without macrostructure'. In particular:
(1) The Hägerstrand model begins with a pool of 'potential adopters' and does not explain the selective process through which they are constituted in the first place. This suggests the need for a model of biased innovation, where (for example) CLASS or GENDER circumscribes access to innovations. 'Non-diffusion' is then not a passive but an active state arising directly from the structures of a particular society (Yapa and Mayfield, 1978). Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be integrated with fields such as POLITICAL ECONOMY and FEMINIST GEOGRAPHY that pay attention to the social as well as the spatial.
(2) The Hägerstrand model assumes a 'uniform cognitive region' and does not explain the selective process through which information flows are interpreted. This matters because 'resistance' to innovation is not invariably a product of ignorance or insufficient information: it may signal a political struggle by people whose evaluation of the information is strikingly different to that of the 'potential adopters'. Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be reconnected to a more general cultural geography (Blaut, 1977).
Gregory ϡѲ diffusion ˤĤƤϰƤʤοʸؤˤ diffusion ˤΤäƤȡͭפƶ롥Ѳ diffusion ⡤塤ҲŪ "macrostructure" ǰƬ֤ץޤޤɬפˤʤäƤ
Gregory, Derek. "Diffusion." The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th ed. Ed. Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael Watts, and Sarah Whatmore. John Wiley & Sons, 2009. 160--162.
ѲŤȻ (diffusion) Ȥơޤ˴ؿ³Ƥ롥ˤĤƤ˻פ⤫֤ΤϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ѲѲäδ֤˥褦˿ʹԤƤȤݤǤ롥ѲͤͤءؤʪŪŪ˹äƤȤ̣ǤŤȻ⤢cf. #1053. Ⱦȵڸ̡ ([2012-03-15-1])ˡޤǤϥͥåȤʤɤͳʪŪŪ˹äƤѲȤΤⵯäƤ褦Ǥ롥Ѳ diffusion ˤ͡ʥץȤȤʬ
diffusion ȤϡȤȿʸ (human geography) ֳ (epidemiology) ˤܤƤǰǤꡤۡʪʪʬۤƤݤؤ㤨С뵻Ѥ¸ݤˤƼϤŤȻƤȤͻʤƤʸؤʬǤ19˻Ϥޤ븦ˤꡤȤ櫓ƶϤ礭ԤȤƤ Torsten Hägerstrand (1916--2004) ̾롥ꥸʥϥǥǽ줿1967ǯ˱ѸǤ Innovation Diffusion as a Spatial Process Ǥ˹Τ뤳Ȥˤʤäʸػŵ diffusion ιɮ Gregory (160) ˤȡγŪʰյϼ̤ꡥ
Hágerstrand's work had two catalytic consequences: it set in motion the frozen worlds of SPATIAL SCIENCE, and it opened the door to sophisticated computer modelling of spatial processes.
Hägerstrand ηˤ diffusion ϰŪΤΡ䤬ƼҲŪʴ¿Ŧ褦ˤʤꡤdiffusion Τڤ褦ˤʤäGregory (161) ꡤξǧƤ
Just ten years after the translation of Hágerstrand's magnum opus, Blaikie (1978) could speak of a 'crisis' in diffusion research, which he said arose from its preoccupation with spatial form and space-time sequence, while Gregory (1985) attributed the 'stasis' of diffusion theory to a pervasive unwillingness to engage with SOCIAL THEORY and social history to explore the conditions and the consequences of diffusion processes. Critics argued that the spatial circulation of information remained the strategic element in most applications of the Hägerstrand model and its derivatives, and while flows of information through different propagation structures and contact networks were exposed in more detail, the primacy accorded to the reconstruction of these spatial pathways obscured a crucial limitation of the Hägerstrand model: it operated within what Blaut (1977) called a 'granular region', 'a sort of Adam Smithian landscape, totally without macrostructure'. In particular:
(1) The Hägerstrand model begins with a pool of 'potential adopters' and does not explain the selective process through which they are constituted in the first place. This suggests the need for a model of biased innovation, where (for example) CLASS or GENDER circumscribes access to innovations. 'Non-diffusion' is then not a passive but an active state arising directly from the structures of a particular society (Yapa and Mayfield, 1978). Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be integrated with fields such as POLITICAL ECONOMY and FEMINIST GEOGRAPHY that pay attention to the social as well as the spatial.
(2) The Hägerstrand model assumes a 'uniform cognitive region' and does not explain the selective process through which information flows are interpreted. This matters because 'resistance' to innovation is not invariably a product of ignorance or insufficient information: it may signal a political struggle by people whose evaluation of the information is strikingly different to that of the 'potential adopters'. Critiques of this sort required diffusion theory to be reconnected to a more general cultural geography (Blaut, 1977).
Gregory ϡѲ diffusion ˤĤƤϰƤʤοʸؤˤ diffusion ˤΤäƤȡͭפƶ롥Ѳ diffusion ⡤塤ҲŪ "macrostructure" ǰƬ֤ץޤޤɬפˤʤäƤ
Gregory, Derek. "Diffusion." The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th ed. Ed. Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael Watts, and Sarah Whatmore. John Wiley & Sons, 2009. 160--162.
ε#4434. ѲŪŤ˴ؤ ([2021-06-17-1]) ǡ͡ʥǥߤƤ¸νԤȽƤԤؼԤ Gregory 롥ʲGregory ȽƤˤĤơBritain (2037--39) 𤷤ƤǤϤ뤬Ҳ𤷥Ȥ
Gregory ȽϡüŪˤСҲʽġ˴֤θήΤεθƤʤȤȤѲŤˤĤƤСȾˤ褽ˤ衤ŪѤ뤳ȤʤŪ˼ưŪ˹äƤη֤ΤꤵƤ롥Ǥϡ(1) ŪΤΤŤƤǷ䵡ǽѲƤǽˤĤƹθƤ餺(2) ҲʽġˤռŪ˼롤뤤ϵȤäּŪפγǰ礱Ƥꡤ(3) ˡܿεˤ͡ʥפˤ⤫餺֤Ȥñ1Ĥε뤷ȤƤʤפˡܿ (contact) ξ̤˴ؤ뤭٤ʹͻʤƤʤȤ櫓
ä (2) λŦˤĤơGregory (1985: 322--23) μ1Ѥ褦
In even the most developed version [of Hägerstrand's diffusion theory --- DB] it is axiomatic that 'resistance levels' will eventually diminish, and these are supposed to be a function of insufficient information --- of ignorance --- rather than of conscious collective action. There is a strong presumption that innovations are pro bono publico, therefore, and that their adoption is as uncontentious as it is unproblematic. (qtd. in Britain (2037))
ε鶯۵ΤϡָѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤפȤѲѤǤ롥ѲŪŤƤɽ⡤Ū˰ۤʤüԡʽġˤθѲռŪ˼Ƥɽۤդ路ϤοǤϤʤüԤǤ롥ϡüԤδ餬ߤǤϤʤФʤʤΤ褦ʵȤƲǤ롥
Britain (2039) ϡGregory ε¸ˤĤƼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
In general, then, the weaknesses of contemporary spatial diffusion models can be seen to result from their failure to adopt a richly socialized and interactional perspective on the spaces across which features diffuse. Society in diffusion models, Gregory (1985: 328--329) argues, needs to be conceived as a "multidimensional structure and not 'squashed into a flat surface, pock-marked only by the space-time incidence of events'".
ѲŤθ⡤꤬ѤߤΤ褦
ʤǿ줿ָѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤפȤѲѤˤĤƤϡʲεȤ줿
#1056. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ ([2012-03-18-1])
#2139. ѲϿʹ֤ˤѶŪʺѤǤ (2) ([2015-03-06-1])
#1069. ե顼ɡɡ --- üԸĿͤοŤѡ ([2012-03-31-1])
#3367. ࡤѲ --- Ҳؤ3Ĥ ([2018-07-16-1])
#1502. Ⱦʤ̼ҳȻ ([2013-06-07-1])
Britain, David. "Varieties of English: Diffusion." Chapter 129 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2031--43.
Gregory, Derek. "Suspended Animation: The Stasis of Diffusion Theory." Social Relations and Spatial Structures. Ed. Derek Gregory and John Urry. London: Macmillan, 1985. 296--336.
Gregory, Derek. "Diffusion." The Dictionary of Human Geography. 4th ed. Ed. Ron Johnston, Derek Gregory, Geraldine Pratt, and Michael Watts. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000. 175--78.
Hägerstrand, Torsten. "Aspects of the Spatial Structure of Social Communication and the Diffusion of Information." Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association 16 (1966): 27--42.
ѲŪˤɤΤ褦ŤΤ (linguistic geography or geolinguistics) Ȥơ͡⤬ƤǤŤǤ褯ΤƤΤȾ (the wave theory; Wellentheorie) Ѳ濴Ϥ顤Ʊ߾ȤΤ褦˹äƤȤΤܸ츦ˤơפȤΤΤ⡤ΰȹͤƤ褤Ϣơ#999. ѲȾ ([2012-01-21-1]) #1000. Ÿն˻Ĥ ([2012-01-22-1]) #1045. Ĺˤ ([2012-03-07-1]) wave_theory γƵȡ
ȾԻԳؤϤȤѥȤ߹ "Urban Hierarchy Model" 뤤 "cascade diffusion" ȾΤ⤢ (Britain 2035) ԻԤǻϤޤäѲԻԡƾԻԡ¼ļˤؤȡءϤ˱äŤƤȤΤ
"Urban Hierarchy Model" αĹ "gravity model" Ȥ⤬롥ԻԴ֤Ūʱƶطθǥcf. #2170. gravity model ([2015-04-06-1])ˡѲԻԤ̤ԻԤؤȥפʤŤƤͻҤ顤䤬פȸƤǤΤˤᤤcf.#2034. Ⱦʤ ([2014-11-21-1])#2040. ([2014-11-27-1])ˡ
ˤ1ѼȤ "Cultural Hearth model" (Britain 2036) ȤΤ⤢롥ԻԤ̤ԻԤŤޤԻԼ˹äƤȤ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥#2037. Ťȸ֡ ([2014-11-24-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ʤɤ⡤˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
ƤѲŤԻԤļˤؤȤĤΤǧƤ뤬դļˤԻԤŤ륿פλǧƤ롥 "counterhierarchical diffusion" ȸƤФ (Britain 2037) Ϣơ#2171. gravity model θ³ ([2015-04-07-1]) Ȥ줿
ñȾ嵭νϡ줾֤ۤʤäƤ뤬褽ŪΥԻԳءϤʤɤΥѥꤷƤǤ϶̤Ƥ롥ѥμ䤷ƿʥǥƤȤǽ⤷ʤΤ褦ʥѥ«ܼϲʤΤˤĤơؤͼԤǤ Hägerstrand "the diffusion of innovation is by definition a function of communication" (27) ȳˤƤ롥ʣΥѥñ "communication" ˤޤȤᤢȤФʤΤ٤ƤθѲŤ1ĤΥǥ褦ȤƤ̵ȤȤʬ䤹Ҥ٤⤤ȻפΰŪʷϸФȤƤ⡤ŤθġλȼΤΤǤꡤäȼꤵ줿ѥ٤ΤʤΤ
Britain, David. "Varieties of English: Diffusion." Chapter 129 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2031--43.
Hägerstrand, Torsten. "Aspects of the Spatial Structure of Social Communication and the Diffusion of Information." Papers and Proceedings of the Regional Science Association 16 (1966): 27--42.
ѸˤμȤˤƿҤͤ줿䡥ޤľ塥Τ
ޤѸŪˤ뤳ȤϡűѸѸǤϡŪʻȤǤΡִ (article) ̤ȯãäȤȤǤthe a(n) ȤǺऽΤΤϸűѸ줫餢äΤǤ줾츽괧괧ȤƤѤƤޤǤĤޤꡤűѸˤ the a(n) ȤñΤͤϳΤˤɤ⡤Ϥޤ̾ź٤ɬܤιܤȤơϳƤʤäȤȤǤ
ȤȤϡ䤿Ȥʬ˶ϫƤ븽ѸΡִפȤܤϡѸˤߤΤʤǡ˳ƤΤȤȤˤʤޤϱѸˤκǽ餫餢ä櫓ǤϤʤޤλ¤Ƥɬפޤ
ʤΤˤΤʤdzƤȤΤϡʤˤѸ˸¤ޤ⤽Ѹޤ衼åѤ饤ɤ˵ڤ¿θΥ롼ĤǤĸˤϴϤޤǤ²°ŵꥷ졤˥졤ɸȤ̤θϤᡤޥɡޥɡȸɤνХ륫ϢǤⴧ줬ߤ뤳Ȥ顤ˤβǴȯãƤȤ狼ޤʡ#2855. νˤ봧ʬ (1) ([2017-02-19-1]) ȡˡ
ޤ²ΥνܤƤߤƤ⡤ȤܤϤ˳ǧޤΤȤƤϾɤǤϤޤˡŪˤϥ衼åѡեꥫʿΤʤɤˤкߤƤ褦ǡؤΩ줫϶̣ȤʤäƤޤ
ơѸäᤷޤ礦űѸˤⴧμȤʤΤϤäˤ衤ʤθ夽줬δŪʵǽȯã뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ礦1ĤˤϡѸ줬Ѹʹߤ˸경ƤȤ¤طƤ褦˻פޤ#2856. νˤ봧ʬ (2) ([2017-02-20-1]) ǤҤ٤褦ˡָ礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤פΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
ꡦȤϡɽλؤƤΤʸ̮äʹˤȤäƴΤ̤Τꤵ뤫ʤȤä̤ΤȤǤäŵŪʥѥϡǤȤǤäʤ鿷ƳƤȤΤǤΤ褦ʾή¤ (information_structure) ȸƤФޤϾ¤ɸ뤿μʤäƤȹͤޤ䴧⤽Τ褦ʼʤθȤʤޤ礬ͳǤСǤƬˤäƤꡤǤ֤ʤɤˡѤǤǤ礦cf. #3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡμͳ٤㤯ʤ̤μʤʤɬפƤޤѸѸˤƸμͳ٤äƤä̡¤ɸ뤿οƻȤơǺȤƼˤä the a(n) ʤɤѤΤǤϤʤȹͤޤ
1Ĥβˤޤɸμ˥ХƤ櫓ǤϤʤʤɤȤǤ
ȯ˴ؤΰϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) ȤƤϢơѸˤˤθ경ˤĤơ#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
ε#3759. Ϥޤä¯ʸ ([2019-08-12-1]) ǰѤꡤϢ夲ǤϤۤ¯ʸȯãȤȤȼʸΩޤħŪʤȤȤ (213--14) Ѥ롥
ʥӥǤϡޤϤݤäƤ˥롼ʥ롼͡ʸ̥ɥĤǤϻ˥եʤηˤäơʸѤ르ȸ쿷ߤ줿ʸκʸؤȼνʸϽФǤꡤޤ˥ǤθŪϽФλߤȤȤǤ롥ǤϥȸΥʸ⤽ߤΰĤȤ뤬ȬäʤɤʸѤ줿ˤʤäΰ̣ǤϤϼԻȤäۤ
Фơƥ줬ܿͤΤȤФȤƤդĤѤ줿泤ϰǤϡĤޤǤƥνȤФȤƤθҤ줺ϸθʸѤ̤Ȥ٤줿ˤС¯ƥλФơŵƥθҤˤϳΩϻȤϤˤޤǻ³եǤϡȤĶ뤽θҤե줬ѤȤǥեΥ衼åˤ錄ޤ˥ƥޤѤȤƼĥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ꥫξϥꥢȤ˥ʸαƶϤζϰΰʤƤ櫓ǡƥθҤϤۤΥȸϰʾ˶Ϥ˻¸Ƥȹͤ롥λΥ֥쥤ʸؤνȤФξڵʤΤϤ𤬴طƤ
ǤϥƥθҤŪ㤤ˡθʸҤŤ褦Ȥ뵤ޤ䤹ȤȤŪˤ⤷Ǥ롥
ʤǼˤʸΡּԻפɾƤ륪ʸˤĤƤϡ#2489. ʸ ([2016-02-19-1]) ȡ
إȤο̮١̼ҡ2007ǯ
Υ衼åѤˤ¯ʸȯãϡ˻Ϥޤä褦ˤߤ롥ƥǤϤʤ¯ (vernacular) ǽ줿ʸؤΤϡեǤ1098ǯΡإβΡ١ɥĸǤ13Ρإˡ٥βΡ٤ȤߥѸǤϤä700ǯȤإ٥ա٤ǽǤ롥
Ūˤ˼˰֤륢ɸˤĤƤϡ¸ǸŤʸ1106ǯΡإʡ̥ɥ٤1160ǯΡإ饰ͥåؽ٤Ȥ뤬ε6ˤޤǤΤܤȤ6Υ顼ե륮ˤ֥७СΡפǤ褯ΤƤ롥Ʊ륺ˤĤƤ⸽¸ǸŤʸ13ʹߤ֥ͥס֥ꥨפʤɤλΤε6ˤΤܤ餷ˤ¯ʸȯãۤᤫäΤϤʤ (213) Τ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
ϤޤˤʸŪˤȤäƤեμҲؼԥХåˤƤ뤳ȤμʥˤȤӡʤ֥˥硤ɥʥӥܥإߥʤɤǤϡƥ϶ܿͤˤȤäƤ⳰ǤʤλȤʤޤޤǤäҤ줬ͳŪѤʤȤʤǡϸΤȤФѤȤͤޤ졤ƥ˻ȤФǤλѤϤޤäȤ櫓Ǥ롥
äơ衼åѤǤϡμ⳰ǺǽˡŪѤ¯ˤȤФ¯줬ι졦̱²ΤϤäȤǤҥ٥˥ǤϡϻˤϻΤФǤʤǯ嵭ˡŪʸޤǥǽ褦ˤʤäˡŪʸϰ졻ϥƥ줫ǰˤʤäо줹Τǡ٤Ȥλ٤㤤ꥢϥäȤȤطƤ
ǤϥƥθҤŬ٤˼夫äȤפǤ롥ƥȵΥ֤¯λѤ¥ΤǤ롥̤δߤСμҲϡƥ줫ɷ㤳ƥΤޤѤۤɤˤϥƥ줫֤줷ʤäȤθ캹⤢äƸؾΥϥǥƤȤȤǤϤʤ
ơΤ褦ʸؾκǤڤ˾ۤ뤿ˡؽμΥƥ˥å褯ȯãΤħǤ롥#1903. ʬˡ ([2014-07-13-1]) εǡʬϡֳؽԤθɤ߽ưפˤ뤿Ԥ߽ФسؽΥƥ˥åͳ褹פȽҤ٤νγ⤿餷Τϡۤʤ̥ꥹȤ˽ཤƻΤäΤǤ롥
إȤο̮١̼ҡ2007ǯ
ܿ (contact) ϸñˤΤ뤤ʣˤΤźθܿλȤȡΥ⤢ΤƤ롥Trudgill ˤĤƤΤǡҲ𤷤褦ޤܿϸʣ˴ͿȤˤĤơ
. . . there is considerable evidence that language contact can lead to an increase in linguistic complexity. This appears to occur as a result of the addition of features transferred from one language to another . . . . This is then additive change in which new features derived from neighboring languages do not replace existing features but are acquired in addition to them. A sociolinguistic-typological consequence of language contact is therefore that languages which have experienced relatively high degrees of contact are more likely to demonstrate relatively higher degrees of this type of additive complexity than languages which have not. (301)
ȴϢơϰؤΩ줫顤बޤ䤹Ū¿äŪñʸ칽¤䤹 "spread zones" Ȥư²ιԤʤƤϰʤɡˤȡȿФ˸Ū¿ʣħŤ "residual zones" Ȥƥ˥塼˥ʤɡˤȤǰˤĤƤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ"contact among languages fosters complexity, or, put differently, diversity among neighbouring languages fosters complexity in each of the languages" (303) ǤȤĤιͻФȤǾ嵭ŤΤβսǤ롥
We can thus take seriously the sociolinguistic-typological hypothesis that languages spoken in high-contact societies are relatively more likely to have relatively more complexity, not just in terms of having more features such as grammatical categories and articulation types, but also in terms of possessing features which are inherently more complex. (305--06)
ǡŪʤ⡤ܿñ㲽⤿餹ϹǧƤʤۤˡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ⻲Ȥ줿ˡ
. . . the paradox here is that contact can also, and just as clearly, lead to simplification. This is very well known, and is a point which has been made by many writers. Pidgins, creoles, and creoloids . . . are all widely agreed to owe their relative structural simplicity to language contact; and koines to dialect contact . . . . (306)
ǤϡܿΤʤ¦̤ʣñ㲽ꤹΤTrudgill ϡܿζ١֡콬˴ؤ׳ȤװŦƤ롥׳ȤϡפˡܿиƤο͡ҶͤȤ㤤Ǥ롥Trudgill ηϰʲ̤ꡥ
1 high-contact, long-term pre-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to additive (and only additive) complexification;
2 high-contact, short-term post-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to simplification;
3 low contact situations are likely to lead to preservation of existing complexity.
ӺΤ褦ˤ⸫뤬̣Ǥ롥
Trudgill, Peter. "Contact and Sociolinguistic Typology." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 299--319.
ޥˡر¤ˡ٤ΤʤǡԻԤ濴Ȥʸϱ¤ȤˤζҤˤ餵ƤꡤԻԵǽΰݻΤ˾˼դοήɬפȤȽҤ٤Ƥ (116)
ޤˤξʤʤȤϡŪκ¤ʸȤĶѤƤϤӤµȤ䤨ܿ餯ιŪʸˡбΤȤʤͤФʤʤäȤȤǤ롥ԻԤȤΤϡǶޤǡϤıӤʿή̱䤨ƤʤСݻƤ椯ǤʤäȤ⤫ԻϽ̱ηˤȤäƤۤɴ礭äΤ
ԻԤؤοήˤꡤȤˤԻԤˤƸ (language_shift) äƤȤ⤤㤨Сݥߥǵ3000--2000ǯΤˡΥ֤ˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ֶ餯μοưľܤη̤Ǥ롥¬ˡä̱̤˥νԻԤήΤǡŤä̱ݤƤޤäΤάͤθװȤƤޤͤΤϡԻԤεĥǤꡤ˲ǽΤµ衤ˤԻԽ̱ΰ۾ʸݤǤ롥 ʥޥˡ롤p. 118ˡ
ޥˡ (119) ϡ19첤Ƥ롥
褽Ȭǯʹߤä˰Ȭޡǯʸ塤ԻԤε®ĥȿα¤Ǥ륳̢ȤĤװޤäơϥץ֥륯˱ǯδֳΩƤʸŪ¤äܥإߥȥϥĮ˰ܤ꽻̱ϲƥɥĸ褦ȤΤĹ֤νäλ¹ϡˤϡˤƤռˤƤɥĿͤˤʤ꤭äƤޤȤΥץϤ롥νԻԤ˰ָܽȥϥä̱οۤȤԤѸȤƥɥĸɬפϤʤʤä䤬ơ̱²ŪǰɥŪǤ뤳ȤŪȤߤʤ롥η̡鷺ȾΤˡץϤϥ졤֥ڥȤϥϥ줬ѤԻԤѤäΤǤ롥
ۤʤä͡餫οưˤ궦¸褦ˤʤȡ˿׳ŪҲŪʥʥߥबޤ졤ؤȤȤϡΤȤֲ餫οưפȤϡ俢̱ϲʤɤȼΤФǤϤʤ¤ˤ碌ǤȤѳ˥뤿ԻԤؤΰĤǤȤ͡ʥפΤΤꤦ롥ޥˡϡΤʤDZ¤ήԤ˴ؤΤˤŪʥѥ1ĤǤ⤷Ƥ롥
ꥢࡦHޥˡˡ סˡر¤ˡ塦١ҡʸˡӡ2007ǯ
䡦ꥹȶˤСͣΤΤǤäʹ֤θ졤ʤ "the language" ϡ֥Х٥פλ˥ХХΥʣθ졤ʤ "languages" ȤʤäȤ롥ŪѤϡΤθ쵯ȸȻˤ礭ʱƶڤܤƤˤʤȡФȽŪʸΩƤ
ˤơ18λ۲ȤǸεˤĤƤν路 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712--78) θϡػŪ˶̣륽ϡäƤθηϸĤäƤʤΤǤϤʤޤ֥Х٥װˤ줬ΥƤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥Mufwene (20) β
Rousseau questioned the Adamic hypothesis on the origins of modern language, arguing that the language that God had taught Adam and was learned by the children of Noah perished after the latter abandoned agriculture and scattered. Modern language is therefore a new invention . . . . Rousseau may have been concerned more about the diversification of the language that Noah's children had spoken before they dispersed than about the origins of language itself. He assumed the speciation to have happened before the Tower of Babel explanation in the Judeo-Christian tradition.
λߤС륽Τθϡ˾θƤȤϡػ˾ΰյĤ˲ʤϤ٤δ֤֤֡СΥ¿ͲƤΤǤȤξQŪʸꤷΤȤɾͤ롥
Mufwene (20) ϡʹ֤θǽϤȯˤĤƤε¿ͲˤĤƤϽʬ˵ƤʤȻŦƤ롥Τˡ¿ͲβˤĤƤϡޥˤߥˤ⡤ؤȤƤäܼŪʹͻʤƤ٤Ȥϴ롥ϢơηܿؤʤɤΥɤפ⤫֡
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
εǡĸϤۤ¿ʤȤ̣ΤϡŪʬۤФȤǤ롥衼åѡեꥫʿΤ˴ĸ줬¿εǤϡܤʸȤĤġŪкߤ˾Ƥ
Ѹˤ봧ȯãϡ#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡؼ줫θŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) η̤Ƥ롥¾θǤƱͤŪȯãȤƤȤ뤳ȤϲǽǤ롥ҤΤ褦ŪʤޤȤޤ꤬뤳Ȥ顤 (139) ϡŪ˸Ϣȯã䤹Ȥ¦̤褦˻פפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤĹˤ錄ܿˤ (linguistic_area) ιͤطʤˤ롥
Ƕͭβǽϡȯͼ칽¤˻ޤܸ͡⤽βǽ1ĤǤ롥εǤ줿褦ˡưƬĸˤФи뤬θνΤʤǤ1ۤɤߤ줺ʬۤϤФäƤΤǤ롥㤨С٥ȸɡإ֥졤ӥ졤ȥͥʤɤưƬĴĸ췲Ǥ롥
Ǥϡ2ĤθŪħ˲餫ϤΤ (139) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
ֽŵŪ˸褦ˡ̤ˡʸƬȤΤϡФܤʤξᡤˤƺǤŪʰ֤ȹͤ롥ưƬξϡΰ֤̾ŪǤǤʤư줬ơ̾ꡦɽΤʸƬ֤Ѥˡ̾ŪǤ˴դꡦζɬŪ⤯ʤäƤȹͤ롥
ȴϢơưƬĸʤ餺Ȥ⡤礬ޤäƤǤϰŪ̾ŪǤ֤ѤꡦɸΤˡȤʤѤ䤹Ȥ𤬤뤫⤷ʤ
ˡ־ݤɡĹפΤ褦ʡܡɾΡ۷פȡ־ݤɡĹפΤ褦ʡּ졽Ρּ۷פȤŪʶ̤ͤʤСԤǤξܤˤɽ蘆ΤǡΤ褦ʡʳ̤ɸμʤפǤ뤬ԤǤϴΤ褦Ūʼʤᤵ䤹Ȥ⤢ꤽɾȡѸϳΤ (1) ۷Ǥꡤ(2) ĸǤ뤫顤ȤȤ褤Ȥˤʤ롥
ǽҤ٤ƤȤϡĸŪưŤǤ⤢ꡤĸȤͤ˴Ť쳰ŪưŤǤ⤢롥ʬۤϡ餯θ⳰װߤ߹äơ٤ФΤ
ָˤȤäƴȤϲסءظ٥쥯1ظԽԡˡ罤۽Ź2012ǯ136--41ǡ2003ǯ10Ͽ
2֤εʡ#2634. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (1) ([2016-07-13-1]) ȡ#2635. 衼åѤˤ뱪λϰ (2) ([2016-07-14-1])ˤǡλ졦̣ϰŪȻ (areal diffusion) ˤĤơDrinka ͤ夲Drinka ϰ̤ˤμθϰŪȻ̤νǤꡤܿ˵٤ѲͽۤʾˤǤȹͤƤ롥Drinka ϤΩΩäҤǤꡤ#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1]) ̤ͤѤ褦ˡѲˤܿΰյ϶ĥƤ롥¾ҤȤơLuraghi (#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])) ⻲ȡ
λʸκǸǤ⡤Drinka (28) ϺǸϰŪȻΰŪĴƤ롥
With regard to larger implications, the role of areal diffusion turns out to be essential in the development of the periphrastic perfect in Europe, throughout its history. The statement of Dahl on the role of areal phenomena is apt here:
Man kann wohl sagen, dass Sprachbundphänomene in Grammatikalisierungsproessen eher die Regel als eine Ausnahme sind---solche Prozesse verbreiten sich oft zu mehreren benachbarten Sprachen und schaffen dadurch Grammfamilien. (Dahl 1996:363)
Not only are areally-determined distributions frequent and widespread, but they constitute the essential explanation for the introduction of innovation in many cases.
Τ褦ϰŪȻȤϡ (linguistic_area) ȤǰȤ̩ܤʴطˤ롥ä˱λΤ褦Ūʼ (syntactic borrowing) ˤĤƤϡ#1503. 졤áȯμҲŪ ([2013-06-08-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡҲķɸ (the marker of cohesion in society) ªǽŦƤꡤҲؤˤʲͽ롥
ʤŪװȸ쳰Ūװϡܥ֥Ǥ¿夲Ƥ#2589. ѲưΤϷǽ (2) ([2016-05-29-1]) ˴ϢؤΥƤΤǡȤ줿
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
ε ([2016-07-13-1]) ǡ衼å¦νǶ̤ have ˤ뱪ŪλΤϡȤȥꥷȯѥ˥ƥ蘆졤˸˽ϰŪ˳Ȼ (areal diffusion) ƤäǤȤ Drinka Ҳ𤷤ε (3) Ȥƿ줿⤦1ĤδϢĥ롥֥եɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥեäפȤĥǤ롥
ǤϡޤѥΥեDZŪλδλεǽȤƤǤϤʤεǽȤѤ褦ˤʤäȤĥƤ롥Drinka (22--24) ˤСѥΥեǤϡǤ12ޤǤˡǽȤƤˡԤʤƤȤ
It is here, then, in Parisian French, that I would claim the innovation actually began. In the 12th century, the OF periphrastic perfect generally had an anterior meaning, but a past sense was already evident in vernacular Parisian French in the 12th and 13th c., connected with more vivid and emphatic usage, similar to the historical present . . . . During the 16th c., perfects had already begun to emerge in French literature in their new function as pasts, and during the 17th and 18th centuries, the past meaning came to replace the anterior meaning completely in the language of the French petite bourgeoisie . . . .
¾Υޥ٤Ƥή˾äȻȤϡɤζۤƥɥĸˤääʸкѥȤȯŸɥԻԤ Augsburg Nürnberg Ǥϡ1516ˤơλ®֤Ƥä¤ŦƤ (Drinka 25) ե˶ᤤ Cologne Trier ʤɤԻԤǤϡ12--14ȤᤤʳǡλȤѤФƤȤڵ⤢ (Drinka 26)
⤷Υʥꥪ¤ʤСҿ12ΥѥΥե줬λβǽȤƤˡήԤȤƶ٤θ졦ŤƤäȤȤˤʤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) ΰȤʤꤦ롥
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
Ѹޤ衼åѽǤϡhave be ưưβʬȤ߹碌ơִλפ뤳Ȥ롥衼åǤΤθϰŪʬۤϰ (areal linguistics) (geolinguistics) Ω줫ĴơȯȳŪ餫ˤ褦ȤʸĤ
Ԥ Drinka ϡޤ衼åѤθϿޤϤǡ(1) have ˤ봰λȯãΤ¦Ǥꡤ¦Ǥ be ͥǤ뤳ȤŦˡ(2) ¦ have λȯȡʬưŪʰ̣ǽưŪʰ̣ؤȺƲᤵ줿εϡȤ˸奮ꥷ̤ꡤƥ줬ȤˤꡤΥޥ䤽¾θؤäƤäȵƤ롥Ǹˡ(3) եɥĸʤɤǡλεǽεǽؤѲΤϡŪǶνǤꡤȵڤεϥѥΥեäƤ롥
(2) ˤĤơ⤦Ҥ٤褦ꥷǤϸ衤Ūλϡbe ܴλʬפǺäƤhave + ʬפζȤ˴λ˶ᤤ̣ɽ魯ȤäˡʸˡΥ롼Ȥ˾äƤä5ޤǤˤϡhave +ꥹʬפȤ졤ޤǤϹʸʤä¾ư⻲ۤɤδˤƥ¦θˤȤäƤϡΥꥷǤǤʸˡƤhave + ʬפΥѥʸ٥оݤȤʤäȤhave λθǤŪޤʹ¤Ǥ뤳Ȥͤȡƥʤ䤽¾¦θˤΩȯȹͤϡꥷȤܿˤΤȹͤۤȽҤ٤Ƥ (16) Drinka (20) have λΥꥷ쵯ˤĤưʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
My claim, then, is that the actual concept of HAVE periphrasis owes its existence largely to the Greek model, that the development of the HAVE perfect in Latin is tied closely to that of Greek, that it arose especially in literary contexts and in the language of educated speakers, and continued to be connected to the formal register in its later history. As a result of this learned calquing of the HAVE perfect from Greek into Latin, including ecclesiastical Latin, the Western European languages were, in turn, given a model to aspire to, a more elaborate temporal-aspectual system to imitate. The Romance languages, of course, all inherited these perfect structures, and, as I will argue elsewhere, most of the Germanic languages appear to have developed their HAVE perfect categories on the basis of this elaborated model, as well . . . . What is particularly fascinating to note is that the western languages have preserved and innovated upon this pattern to different extents, but continually show patterns of areal diffusion as these innovations spread from one language to another.
ѸˤȤδϢǵˤʤΤϡѸ have ˤ뱪ŪλεȯŸˤĤơDrinka ŪˤϤۤȤɽҤ٤ƤʤȤǤ롥Drinka ϡѸǤ⡤衼å¦ΡϰŪʳȻ (areal diffusion) ΰĤȸƤΤȤȡȤϰۤʤ롤ʤʲȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ˾δϢȤƤϡ#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1]) ȡ#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
ޤεǤϡƥ줬ˡꥷ줫ּѡפȤǤϤʤ"model" Ȥפ˶ᤤѸ줬ѤƤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2010. Ѥϸʣ狼 ([2014-10-28-1]) ε⻲ͤˤ줿
Drinka, Bridget. "Areal Factors in the Development of the European Periphrastic Perfect." Word 54 (2003): 1--38.
졦ʸȽδطˤĤƤϡܥ֥͡ʲսǿƤ (㤨С#296. 轡ѸܸͿŪƶ ([2010-02-17-1])#753. ʤθϸŤᤫ ([2011-05-20-1])#1455. gematria ([2013-04-21-1])#1545. "lexical cleansing" ([2013-07-20-1])#1546. ʬۤȽʬۡ ([2013-07-21-1])#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1])#1869. ܸˤʩá ([2014-06-09-1])#2408. ץʸˤߤѰۤȻΤѲ ([2015-11-30-1])#2417. ʸݼƿ ([2015-12-09-1]) ʤɤ)
ˤȤäơʸˤ礭2Ĥ䤬ΤǤϤʤ1Ĥϡŵ경ΰҿݻ䡤⤦1ĤϡդνĤƻȤƤǤ롥ԤܼŪʸݼƯΤФơԤˤƤʸɬפ˱Ƥ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ºݡඵǤϡϰǤΥӥʸΰҿ⤯ݤƤ뤳Ȥ顤ʸԤ䤬ͥǤ롥ꥹȶǤϡषƻ衹ǡʸηϤ߽ФȤˤ֤ƤƤꡤʸθԤ䤬ŦΤϡʸȽ (103--27) ꤹʸϤ路ʸؼԤǤ롥Ϣʬ3սȴФ
ʹ֤ʸȯľܤưϡʤȤ⥪ꥨȤˤƤϡкѳưȴطΤֵϿפΤǤä褦˻פ뤬Ȥηդ⤫ʤ礭ʬƤ褦ʵ롥ꥨȤǤϾ嵭ΡֵϿפ¿Ͽ¤ǿΤǤäνʸʹùʸˤϿ̿ꤦȤνưڤΥʤäǤ롥(p. 105)
ꥹȶλ̱ۤ²Τ勞ۤΤǤꡤζϹҤ٤ΤǤä濴ŪʸǤؿ١ʥء͡ǥơˤꥹȤäȻפǤϤʤơζʿפʥꥷʥ͡ˤǵ줿ꥹȶ̤ɬ⥮ꥷɤळȤ뤳ȤϤʤꥹȶڤǮƻԤʤξؿ٤Ǥ뤬ǤϳŵȤŵȸƤФʸޤळȤ⤢ˤƤƤ뤫Ǥ롥ǮϡʸʤȤʸϤФۤɤǤꡤƸФʸɽŪʤΤȤƤϥץʸʸʸƥեΥ˥ʸ른ʸ롥 (pp. 110--11)
إ٤ϥඵ̤ˤȤäƥå顼θդΤΤǤ뤬줬ӥɽ蘆줿Ȥ顤ӥϤпʸȹͤ졤ඵ̤ˤϥӥγؽݤ뤳Ȥˤʤäƥඵ̥ӥڤäƤڤʤĤʤĤȤˤʤꡤˤϥӥʸŤڤϤޤäꥹȶ٤ѶŪ˹ԤʤϤ̱²ˤʸ¤ԤʤäΤФơඵϡإ٤ؤʥǤ϶ǯ˻ޤǸˤǤʤäϥȥ륳ϤᤤĤƤˡӥˤإ٤γؽϤΥޥɥ饵ʥ⥹°ΥعˤǹԤʤä褿ΤˡӥμդǤϥӥʸѤ뤳ȤˤʤäΥʥڥ륷ˡե˥ʥѥȥʤɡˡѥʥɥʤɡˤʤɤΤۤĤƤΥȥ륳ȥ륭ʥޥȥ륳ʤɡˡեꥫʥҥꥴʤɡˡɥͥʵ쥤ɥͥ졤ޥ饤ʤɡˤǤ롥 (pp. 124--25)
Τ褦ˡʸȿ2ĤȤϡꥹȶȥඵߤ롥츫ȡꥹȶϳŪඵĺŪȤΩŪʿǤ롥狼䤹ǤˡդʤФʤʤ⤢롥λˤȤСꥹȶǤˤޤĤʤޤˤ¿ϿƤඵǤ⾯ʤϰǥӥΥϼºݤƤ
ƱͤˡʸˤݼȳܼŪäƤ롥Ȥ꤬ʸΤʤŪѤ뤫˱ơʸѰۤ롤ȤȤǤϤʤ
ʸסʸؤΤΤߡ١罤ۡ1977ǯ
ݥȥʸ˼դˤˤĤƤޤ褯Τʤޤޤˡ#2371. ݥȥǯɽ ([2015-10-24-1]) #2372. ݥȥƱΡ ([2015-10-25-1]) εθ塤ϢǷءˡإݥȥ̴Τ椯٤ɤǻäΤǡϡݥȥŪʳȤˤĤơä Lusofonia (륾ե˥) ˤĤơǷȤĤŪ˽ä
(1) ݥȥƱ (CPLP) ϡʸĴǡꥹƳ The Commonwealth of Nations եƳ La Francophonie ˶ᤤ (cf. #1676. The Commonwealth of Nations ([2013-11-28-1]), #2192. La Francophonie (1) ([2015-04-28-1])#2193. La Francophonie (2) ([2015-04-29-1])) ʸȤݵμ¸ˤĤƤϡŪʸ⤢롥Ƿ (113) ϡΤ褦Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥
кѴطݥȥˤäȯŸȤͤФͺȥڥڥƥϡֺǹμȤϤ礻ѸǹԤΤǤꡤˤϽϤʤפȡݥȥοʹ֥ץ쥽פΥӥ塼Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ƱդäʤǤΤϳ̤ʤȤǤ뤫Τ褦ĴCPLPȯΥǥǸ줿ǰפȤϸߤ»˴ŤäŰʤΤǤݥȥˤȤפǰEUǤꡤ֥饸ݥȥݥȥեꥫȤǰפ¿ϰ¸ƤʤΤǤ롥
(2) ֥륾ե˥פȤդϡ饶Ѥ줿ᡤθƤ20ˤʤäƺƤɤäƤͳϡ֥륾ե˥פ¿ŪǤ뤫ȤǷ (127) ϡʤȤ3ĤθǧƤ롥
ޤŪʳǰȤƤΥ륾ե˥ݥȥ줢뤤ϸѸȤνΤȤ롥줫顤äȴŪ嫤˴Ť륾ե˥̤θʸˤĤȤǧǤ롥Ūʰ̣ݥȥʸȯŸ뤿ȿΤФ̾ΤǤ롥¿Τˡ륾ե˥ȤդϤΰ졻ǯ֤ۤɤλ٤礷Ƥϥ֥饸ȥեꥫѲʿԤƿʤǤΤǤ롥ȬǯȾ֥饸Ǥ̱˰ܴɤեꥫˤ̱粽ή줬äơ륾ե˥ʸŪʡ֥쥪װʾΰ̣ǤȤΤǤ롥ĤޤꡤˤŪطʤ⤢Τ㤨СȬǯ̤ơݥȥͤ˸ˤΤϡݥȥϥ衼åѤȥեꥫγݤˤʤ롤뤤ϥ֥饸𤷡ݥȥϥ衼åѤȥƥꥫγݤȤʤ롤ȤĤγŪֳݤפǤä̱ϻۤνޤʤ¤餻Ƥ館ʤʤäݥȥˤȤꡤΥ쥾ǡȥȤʤ뿷ߥåɬפäơϼ䡤ֳݤפˤʤ뤳ȤäΤǤ롥
(3) ݥȥιϰγơϡŪ˸ΩƤ롥Ƿ (134) ۩
ѸեڥȤ˹ä衼åѽ줬ۤ١ݥȥħĵȤСݥȥѸȤϤդ˥ݥȥȤʤȤȤǤ롥ݥȥϥڥȥꥷ˰Ϥޤ졤֥饸ϥڥ˰Ϥޤ졤ݥȥեꥫϱѸ졤ե줢뤤ϳ˰Ϥޤ롥顤ݥȥɱŪʤޤ롥ơɤι˽͡ݥȥ˥ǥƥƥε褦ˤʤ롥
(4) Ƿ (138) ϡ18˥ե줬19˱Ѹ줬ȤƤϰ̤ۤˡݥȥ줬ϤѤƤ¤夲ơݥȥǽϵäȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ݥȥϡ˾ϵ嵬Ϥ lingua_franca ˤʤ꤫ΤǤ롥
(5) 1930ǯ塤40ǯˡ֥饸Ǥϡ֥֥饸褬٥Ǥʤ줿֥饸θѸϡ֥饸ʤΤ뤤ϥݥȥΥ֥饸ʤΤ̤ȤơݼɥȤˤԤθ̤ꡤ֥饸ϸȾäʻǷpp. 145--46) εϡꥫʤΤѸΥꥫʤΤȤפФˤʤ (cf. #468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1]))
(6) ݥȥϸŪ٤⤤Τϻ¤ι2θѸȤƥߥ (Mirandese) ꤵƤ¤ȤƤϤʤʤθɡݥȥڥΤ˿फΤ褦ʰ֤ˤ Miranda do Douro 12,000--15,000ͤˤääƤ롥Ƿ (182) ϼΤ褦˥ߥȼ⤷Ƥ롥
ߥ줬ΥꥸʥƥĥΤϸΤʤȤ櫓ǤϤʤֿͤϼǯ٥ꥢȾ˾Φθ強ǯ֤ǥ٥ꥢȾΤۤƤޤäߥɡɥϥֿͤϤڤФʤäʤϰΰĤǤ롥컰ߥˤϥڥ¦Υ쥪ܽԤ졤ϤΤ褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥ä줿˥쥪줬ߥȯŸΤǤꡤäơϥݥȥǤʤСڥǤʤ쥪𤷥ƥľͳ褹Ǥ롥ߥϥ٥ꥢȾΥޥ褺äȥݥȥΤäƤʤΤǤ롥
Ƿ ءإݥȥ̴Τ椯١Ҳɾҡ2000ǯ
ε#2364. ΥޥαѸ̾Υե줫֤ ([2015-10-17-1]) ǿ줿̤ꡤɤ̾ (first name) ˲ä (surname) Ѥ褦ˤʤäΤϡͥΥޥʹߤǤꡤѤνҲŪʬι⤤Ԥ㤤ԤˤƤǤä13--14ˤư̤˳Ȥä褦ϰ躹⤢ꡤ٤äCoates (327--28) Ѥ롥
Surnames came into use among the Norman aristocracy shortly before the Conquest. The practice was neither universal nor stable then or in the early period of Norman rule in England, though by about 1250 it was the norm in the highest social class and the knightly and other taxpaying classes. Between 1300 and 1400 the practice had spread to the urban moneyed classes, though it appears that in some towns, such as York, the lower classes might be without surnames till as late as 1600. Rural small free tenants, for whom evidence is more scant, began to acquire surnames before 1300 in the south, and the practice moved northwards, with new surnames still being formed in Lancashire as late as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries; and this development is mirrored by that of the servile class. The adoption of surnames did not happen overnight anywhere, and our knowledge of the process is hindered by the different degrees to which social classes are represented in the record. . . / Surnames are distinguishing names given to people bearing the same personal name, and many of these came to be inherited, though the system is not in fully complete operation everywhere till the 1600s. Those which have been inherited were of course the ones originally bestowed on males, for a complex of reasons involving unambiguous identification of the rightful heir.
ǴٲޤǤˤϡԤʤФʤʤۤɡδϤäȹޤäƤäȤˤʤ롥Ȥ˴ؤƤϡѸˤ¿θѲؤȤΤФ촷ѲȸƤ֤٤κѤषؤȳȤäȤΤ⤷
ŪŤФ̤ؤȤȤˤĤƤϡ#941. ѸθѲϤʤ̤ŤΤ ([2011-11-24-1])#1843. conservative radicalism ([2014-05-14-1])#1902. ֻɸಽˤ־塤־ ([2014-07-12-1]) Ȥ줿
Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.
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