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ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2021-09-26 Sun

#4535. 2üԤκ --- Bilingual Mixed Languages [contact][pidgin][creole][creoloid][terminology][code-switching][bilingualism]

2üԤɤ2Ĥθδ֤Ԥ褷ʤä code-switching code-mixing ȤΤƤ롥Ϥޤξδ֤Ԥ褷Ƥ륳ߥ˥βȤƤߤ٤Τǡξ򸻤Ȥ벿餫οѼ郎ޤ줿ȤȤˤϤʤʤ
ʤˤϤΤ褦ʥߥ˥ΥѥȤƲвȤ٤Τˤʤ礬롥θѼ "bilingual mixed languages" ȸƤФ롥#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ˾Ȥ餻С"extreme language mixture" ̾βǡԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) Ʊ˰ѼǤ롥ԥ䥯쥪Ȥ¿ۤʤäƤ롥Winford (170) βѤ褦

There is general consensus that bilingual mixed languages are composites of materials drawn from just two languages. In what are perhaps the prototypical cases, the grammar is derived primarily from one of the languages, and the lexicon primarily from the other. Examples include Anglo-Romani and Media Lengua (a blend of Spanish lexicon and Quechua grammar). However, the neat separation of grammar and vocabulary by respective source language is not found in all cases. There are cases where structural materials are derived from both sources, as in Michif, which combines French NP structure with Cree VP structure. Whatever the nature of the mixture might be, there is agreement that the resulting outcome is a new creation, distinct from either of its source languages.


"bilingual mixed languages" ϡ̾Ȥꡤ2ѤԤʤƤĶˤ롥ħŪʤΤϡǤγơθͳ褹ΤΤ˶̤뤳ȤޤŵŪ˥ԥ˴ѻ褦ñ㲽 (simplification) ۤȤʤȤħ⼨
ȤƤϡץä륢ӥȥꥷ줬 Kormakiti Arabicꥷȥȥ륳줬 Asia Minor Greekȥ٥åȸ줬 Wutunޥˡȥڥ줬 CalóȥХȥ줬 Ma'aڥȥ奢줬 Media Lengua, ե󥹸ȥ꡼줬 Michifȥ塼ȸ줬 Mednyj (Copper Island) Aleut ʤɤ롥Ǹ2ĤˤĤƤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) Ǥ夲

Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.

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2017-12-11 Mon

#3150. ܿϸñˤ뤫ʣˤ뤫 [contact][language_change][geolinguistics][linguistic_area][pidgin][creole][creoloid][koineisation]

ܿ (contact) ϸñˤΤ뤤ʣˤΤźθܿλ򻲾ȤȡΥ⤢ΤƤ롥Trudgill ˤĤƤΤǡҲ𤷤褦ޤܿϸʣ˴ͿȤˤĤơ

. . . there is considerable evidence that language contact can lead to an increase in linguistic complexity. This appears to occur as a result of the addition of features transferred from one language to another . . . . This is then additive change in which new features derived from neighboring languages do not replace existing features but are acquired in addition to them. A sociolinguistic-typological consequence of language contact is therefore that languages which have experienced relatively high degrees of contact are more likely to demonstrate relatively higher degrees of this type of additive complexity than languages which have not. (301)


ȴϢơϰؤΩ줫顤बޤ䤹Ū¿äŪñʸ칽¤򼨤䤹 "spread zones" Ȥư²ιԤʤƤϰʤɡˤȡȿФ˸Ū¿ʣħŤ "residual zones" Ȥƥ˥塼˥ʤɡˤȤǰˤĤƤ⿨Ƥ롥Ĥޤꡤ"contact among languages fosters complexity, or, put differently, diversity among neighbouring languages fosters complexity in each of the languages" (303) ǤȤĤιͻФȤǾ嵭ŤΤβսǤ롥

We can thus take seriously the sociolinguistic-typological hypothesis that languages spoken in high-contact societies are relatively more likely to have relatively more complexity, not just in terms of having more features such as grammatical categories and articulation types, but also in terms of possessing features which are inherently more complex. (305--06)


ǡŪʤ⡤ܿñ㲽⤿餹ϹǧƤʤۤˡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ⻲Ȥ줿ˡ

. . . the paradox here is that contact can also, and just as clearly, lead to simplification. This is very well known, and is a point which has been made by many writers. Pidgins, creoles, and creoloids . . . are all widely agreed to owe their relative structural simplicity to language contact; and koines to dialect contact . . . . (306)


ǤϡܿΤʤ¦̤ʣñ㲽ꤹΤTrudgill ϡܿζ١֡콬˴ؤ׳ȤװŦƤ롥׳ȤϡפˡܿиƤο͡ҶͤȤ㤤Ǥ롥Trudgill ηϰʲ̤ꡥ

1 high-contact, long-term pre-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to additive (and only additive) complexification;
2 high-contact, short-term post-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to simplification;
3 low contact situations are likely to lead to preservation of existing complexity.


Ӻ෿Τ褦ˤ⸫뤬̣Ǥ롥

Trudgill, Peter. "Contact and Sociolinguistic Typology." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 299--319.

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2016-06-05 Sun

#2596. ־޸ȤСפ [japanese][world_englishes][pidgin][creole][creoloid][code-switching][bilingualism][sociolinguistics][contact][lesser-know_varieties]

#2559. ޸αѸ ([2016-04-29-1]) ǡĤƾ޸äƤѸѼҲ𤷤ϰθˤϡ180ǯۤɤĹϤʤΤΡʣǤ롥 (134--35) ˤС޸ǻѤƤ͡ʸѼΤ־޸ȤСפȸƤ֤Ȥˤȡ־޸ȤСפŪϰʲΤ褦ꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥
19ˤϤ餯־޸ԥѸפäƤꡤ줬ȤƤΡ־޸९쥪ѸפؤȯŸ19ˤϡܸä͡餬¤ưΡ֥ܸ͡פ줿ơ20Ⱦ޸αѸܸ줬򤸤äԤθ (matrix language) Ȥ־޸פ줿Ȥ
Τ褦ɬʸŪ΢դƤΤǤϤʤŪʾڵ˴Ť˼ҲŪʴ¬ΥʥꥪǤ롥㤨С1ʳȤƤΡ־޸ԥѸפԤʤƤȤĥˤĤƤϡ (134--35) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ޤϡѸظȤ־޸ԥѸפȤΤǤ롥19ˤ餯äƤǤȻפ뤳ȤФǤ뤬ºߤȤڵϤʤȤΤϡξ餹Сԥ󤬶̤Υߥ˥ʤȤƻȤƤȽǤΤϺǤǤϤ뤬ʸˡηϤξܺ٤Ǥ뤫Ǥ롥줬ߤ̤ʤ͡Ʊ˽ߡߥ˥ƥƤȤʬäƤΤǡ̤Υߥ˥ʤȤƥȯȹͤΤԼǤϤʤ̸ά͡


Ʊͤˡ־޸९쥪ѸפȯˤĤƤܺ٤ʬäƤʤξƤԥѸǥߥ˥äƤ¿äȤڵ򤬤뤿ᡤλҶ९쥪 (creoloid) ȹͤ뤳ȤϡʤĤȤľܤξڵ򤬤櫓ǤϤʤ
嵭ŪǺǸʳ־޸פˤĤƤ⡤򤯤٤꤬¿ĤƤ롥㤨СʤܸѼȱѸѼ郎2ʻ (bilingualism) 䥳ɥå (code-switching) ˤȤɤޤ餺¤ƺȤʤ˻äΤơʤκݤܸѼΤۤθȤʤäΤȤ˼ҲŪˤĤơ (148--55) ٤ͻԤʤäƤ뤬ˤϤʤ븦椬ɬפΤ褦Ǥ롥
(155) ϡʣʸ뤲Ƥ޸ξָΰפȰŪˤʤ館Ƥ롥

޸˼ҲؼԤˤȤäƤϸˤǤ롥Ǥ椨ˡ줾λˤƼҲŪװͤߤ뤳ȤŪñǤ롥μҲŪװȤϡ㤨Сäͤͤ餤ǡïȲۤƤ򤷤褷ƤïȴؤäƤʤɤװǤ롥
޸Τ褦Ϥ褯ȸƤФ롥Τ˳ŪΩƤ뤷Τ餽Ǥäꡤοʹ֤ߤ˵ڤܤƶθܿٹ礤ǻ
ϡڡˤΤ褦ʰŪʸҲǿɴǯ褦ѲϾ޸Τ褦ʸǤϿǯ٤ǵ롥ϸѲΡְפǤ롥


󥰡˥롡¾ܿ˼Ҳء޸ξס˼Ҳ١ʹ ԡë ̦ ջҡˡˡ罤ۡ2015ǯ134--55ǡ

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2014-01-08 Wed

#1717. dual-source κ [pidgin][creole][creoloid][contact]

2Ĥθ줬Ȥˤϡ¿Υԥ䥯쥪줬Ǥ褦ˡ줫θι׸Ψ˹⤯ʤ롥ظ (superstrate) ö (lexifier) ȤѸ졤뤤ϱѸ١ΥԥȤɽ褦ˡ̾Ϥθ줬Ǥ뤫餫Ǥ롥ޤʥǤϡۤȾ˺äơɤ餬礿줬ȽȤʤ "dual-source" Ȥ٤줬롥#1683. Pitkern ([2013-12-05-1]) ϡˤޤ dual-source creole ȤƵ󤲤ۤˡdual-source pidgin dual-source creoloid ȤߤʤȤΤǤ줬¸ߤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 182--83)
1917ǯޤǥΥ륦ǸפθȤäƤ Russenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin ȹͤ롥Russenorsk ϥȥΥ륦θǤۤȾ˺ǡñ㲽ηϤͭƤθϡ1917ǯ˥̿ˤäξθפǤѤƤäȥΥ륦üԤΤߤʤ餺߸졤եɸ졤졤ɥĸ졤ѸüԤˤѤ졤lingua franca ȤƵǽƤRussenorsk ϡdual-source pidgin Ǥ뤳Ȥ˲ä̱ϤȤǤϤʤפΤȯã衼åѸɤΥԥȤƤͭ¸ߤǤ롥Russenorsk ϡ㤨мΤ褦Ѥ줿 (Trudgill, Glossary 114)

Kak ju vil skaffom ja drikke te, davaj på sjib tvoja ligge ne jes på slipom.
'If you will eat and drink tea, please on ship your lie down and on sleep'


ʥ˵ߤǤϥꥫ North Dakota ΰϰäƤ Michif (or Metsif or Métis) ϡdual-source creoloid Ǥcreoloid ˤĤƤϡ#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" ([2013-12-03-1]) 򻲾ȡˡȤȤʤä2Ĥθϡե󥹸轻̱ Algonquian ²θ Cree Ǥ롥ե󥹸 "mixed" Michif ̾ϡ19˥ʥפ̤ƥե󥹸ä Cree äȤ줷̱²̾ˤʤäƤꡤϢˮܤˤް񹳤ˤФƤMichif ϸŪˤϤۤñ㲽Ƥ餺̾ϥե󥹸ħǤΰפ򼨤ư Cree ʣʷħݻƤ (Trudgill, Sociolinguistics 183--84) üԿʤ¸³֤ޤƤ轻̱1ĤǤ롥
Michif Ʊͤ2줬ͻ礷Ƥ븽ݤ language intertwining ȸƤФ졤˵¾ˤ Copper Island Aleut ȸƤФ줬⤦1ĤȤ (Trudgill, Glossary 28) ϡEskimo-Aleut ² Aleut ȥκǡüԤ2,000ͤۤɤȤ롥ä̾η Aleut ͳ褹뤬ưηǤȤ intertwining ֤򼨤

Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2013-12-03 Tue

#1681. Ѹ "creole" ǤϤʤ "creoloid" [creole][pidgin][me][old_norse][contact][terminology][creoloid]

#1223. Ѹϥ쥪줫 ([2012-09-01-1])#1249. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (2) ([2012-09-27-1])#1250. Ѹϥ쥪줫 (3) ([2012-09-28-1])#1251. Ѹ᥯쥪طʡ ([2012-09-29-1]) ơ⤦κ󼨤ľܤȤϡ2κȤȥԥ (pidginisation) ȤȤɤΤ褦˶̤뤫Ȥͻ
Ϣ³줺"the drastic break" (Görlach 341) ȽǤˤϥԥ󲽤ȤäƤ褤ȹͤ뤬Trudgill (181--82) Afrikaans 夲ƱݤεŸƤ롥

Interestingly, there are some languages in the world which look like post-creoles, but which are not. These are varieties which, compared to some source, show a certain degree of simplification and admixture. We do not, however, call these languages creoles, because the extent of the simplification and admixture is not very great. And we do not call them post-creoles because they have never been creoles --- which is in turn because they have never been pidgins! Afrikaans, the other major language of the white community in South Africa alongside English, used to be considered a dialect of Dutch . . . . During the course of the twentieth century, however, it achieved autonomy . . . and now has its own literature, dictionaries, grammar books, and so on. Compared to Dutch, Afrikaans shows significant amounts of regularization in the grammar, and a significant amount of admixture from Malay, Portuguese and other languages. It still remains mutually intelligible with Dutch, however. The crucial feature of Afrikaans is that, although it is now spoken by some South Africans who are the descendants of people who spoke it as a non-native language --- hence the influence from Portuguese, Malay and so on --- and who undoubtedly therefore spoke a pidginized form of Dutch/Afrikaans, the language was at no time a pidgin. In the transition from Dutch to Afrikaans, the native-speaker tradition was maintained throughout. The language was passed down from one generation of native speakers to another; it was used for all social functions and was therefore never subjected to reduction. Such a language, which demonstrates a certain amount of simplification and admixture, relative to some source language, but which has never been a pidgin or a creole in the sense that it has always had speakers who spoke a variety which was not subject to reduction, we can call a creoloid.


ɸ४٤СAfrikaans ˤϳΤñ㲽䵬§ߤ롥ޤޥ졼졤ݥȥʤɤܤѤߤ롥Ȥä pidgin Ȥ creole ȤƤ֤櫓ˤϤʤȤΤϡAfrikaans ˤϴְ㤤ʤŪϢ³뤫üԤϡñ㲽ܿиʤ⡤ڤ뤳ȤʤθѼѤƤܿȹ碌¨ʤصŪʸФȤפʤ"the drastic change" ϤʤäΤǤ롥Ǥϡθ򲿤ȸƤ֤ΤTrudgill ϡѸȤ "creoloid" ŬڤǤϤʤȼĥ롥
"creoloid" ȤѸϡѸˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤűѸȸťΥɸȤܿϡcreole ߽Ф櫓ǤϤʤޤ creoloid ߽ФˤʤäȤ롥ʤʤСťΥɸȤܿϸűѸθѲ®٤®᤿ޤǼϩαĹǤꡤϢ³äƱݤεȤơ#1224. Ѹ졤ǥޡ졤եꥫ󥹸˶̤Ƥߤܿθ̡ ([2012-09-02-1]) ⻲ȡ

Görlach, Manfred. "Middle English --- a Creole?" Linguistics across Historical and Geographical Boundaries. Ed. D. Kastovsky and A. Szwedek. Berlin: Gruyter, 1986. 329--44.
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.

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