ε#4626. μø̡ ([2021-12-26-1]) ˰³Woll ˤøؤˤȤʤ롥äΥХꥺ (bilingualism) ˴ؤƶȤΰյˤĤƤ1ɤߡ˻ɷŪʼ٤Τ褦ʻȡ츦ⲻäƤ櫓ˤϤø (sign_language) Ϥ㡼 (gesture) 䤽¾ΥѥŪ (paralinguistics) ޤŪ˹ͻɬפ뤳Ȥ褯Τ߹褦ˤʤ롥
2Ĥβ줬ؤХꥺˤĤƤϡDz⤹ޤǤʤ褯ΤƤ롥code-switching code-mixing ʤɤθݤФȤʤ롥2Ĥμø줬ؤХꥺˤĤƤϡΤ褦ʥХθĿͤȤǤʤ¤ꡤۤȤɼ֤Τ뵡Ϥʤˡ1Ĥβ1Ĥμø줬ؤХȤʤȡDzƤΤĶ롥ȼøʸ̤Ʊ˼¸뤿ᡤcode-switching ʤ "code-blending" ɬפΤ "cross-modal", "multimodal", "multichannel" Ȥäɤפ⤫Ǥ롥Хꥺγǰ쵤˳ĥ줿ꡤݤƤޤä
Ȥ Woll (102--03) 1ΤޤǺܤƤ
Until recently, all studies of bilingualism were studies of individuals and communities in which two spoken languages are used. With the development of research on sign languages, it has become clear that bilingualism can exist in two forms: cross-modal (or bimodal) bilingualism and unimodal bilingualism.
Unimodal bilingualism occurs when either two spoken or two sign languages are used (e.g. Irish and British Sign Language); cross-modal or bimodal bilingualism occurs when the two languages are perceived by different sensory systems and there are two different output channels; they thus exist in different modalities: one signed and one spoken. Recognition of bimodal bilingualism leads to a necessary re-evaluation of models of bilingualism. Cross-modal bilingualism differs from unimodal bilingualism with respect to the temporal sequencing of languages. Bimodal bilinguals often produce code blends, rather than code switches, producing sign and speech simultaneously when in a bilingual mode of communication . . . . Since in unimodal spoken-language bilingualism, just one production system (the vocal tract) is utilized, there is a bottleneck in processing, which has been identified both in behavioural and in neuroimaging studies. For production, this is evident in constraints on serial output: only one utterance can be produced at any one time: selection between two competing languages with respect to the common output path may impose a greater cognitive burden than selection of items within one language. For perception, similar constraints may apply---the speaker's utterances are usually processed through the ear and require serial analysis to be understood. For cross-modal bilinguals, vocal-tract (speech) and manual actions (signing) can---in principle---be processed simultaneously, as they use separate sets of articulators which are seen to be spatially separated. The processing of speech and sign, within a single proficient user of both languages, can therefore offer a unique insight into core language processes . . . .
ʬߤʬ˾ؿӤƤߤ뤳ȤϡȤƤפȻפä补
Woll, Bencie. "The History of Sign Language Linguistics." Chapter 4 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 91--104.
2üԤɤ2Ĥθδ֤Ԥ褷ʤä code-switching code-mixing ȤΤƤ롥Ϥޤξδ֤Ԥ褷Ƥ륳ߥ˥βȤƤߤ٤ΤǡξȤ벿餫οѼ郎ޤ줿ȤȤˤϤʤʤ
ʤˤϤΤ褦ʥߥ˥ΥѥȤƲвȤ٤Τˤʤ礬롥θѼ "bilingual mixed languages" ȸƤФ롥#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ˾Ȥ餻С"extreme language mixture" ̾βǡԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) Ʊ˰ѼǤ롥ԥ䥯쥪Ȥ¿ۤʤäƤ롥Winford (170) βѤ褦
There is general consensus that bilingual mixed languages are composites of materials drawn from just two languages. In what are perhaps the prototypical cases, the grammar is derived primarily from one of the languages, and the lexicon primarily from the other. Examples include Anglo-Romani and Media Lengua (a blend of Spanish lexicon and Quechua grammar). However, the neat separation of grammar and vocabulary by respective source language is not found in all cases. There are cases where structural materials are derived from both sources, as in Michif, which combines French NP structure with Cree VP structure. Whatever the nature of the mixture might be, there is agreement that the resulting outcome is a new creation, distinct from either of its source languages.
"bilingual mixed languages" ϡ̾Ȥꡤ2ѤԤʤƤĶˤ롥ħŪʤΤϡǤγơθͳ褹ΤΤ˶̤뤳ȤޤŵŪ˥ԥ˴ѻ褦ñ㲽 (simplification) ۤȤʤȤħ⼨
ȤƤϡץä륢ӥȥꥷ줬 Kormakiti Arabicꥷȥȥ륳줬 Asia Minor Greekȥ٥åȸ줬 Wutunޥˡȥڥ줬 CalóȥХȥ줬 Ma'aڥȥ奢줬 Media Lengua, եȥ줬 Michifȥ塼ȸ줬 Mednyj (Copper Island) Aleut ʤɤ롥Ǹ2ĤˤĤƤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) Ǥ夲
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
Ϣ World Englishes Υϥɥ֥åɤ߿ʤƤ롥夲Τ "World Englishes, Code-Switching, and Convergence" ꤹϤѸ2 (bilingualism) 뤤¿ (multilingualism) δĶѤ뤳Ȥ¿̤θŪѡȥ2¿˸ѼԤɤ̤αѸѼѤƲä뵡¿ҲˤơʣλѤδоŪ2ĤΤȤ롥
1Ĥϡ̤2ĤθȤɤڤؤʤäʤ code-switching Ǥ롥ȤƸ³뤳Ȥˤäơʿ̤ȤƳ˻Ǥ2ĤθμΩݤ롥
̤2ĤθǤ롤뤤ϸߤ˶뤳ȤˤäƳȤȤƳ˻ȤȤ⤢줬 convergence ȸƤФΤǤ롥ǤϳƸμΩϾʤ롥
Τ褦 code-switching convergence ϡȤƱ褦ʼҲŪﲼΤΡȿФƤ롥ξԤΤ褦ʴطˤäȤϡޤǵŤʤäBullock et al. (218) ꡤˤĤƤսѤ褦
Bilingual speech comprises diverse types of language mixing phenomena, of which CS [= code-switching] is but one example. Another process that may arise in bilingual speech is convergence. CS is characterized by divergence; it is the alternation between linguistic systems that are kept distinct. In convergence, on the other hand, the perceived distance between the language systems is narrowed such that they become structurally more similar, sometimes to the extreme point that the boundaries between languages collapse. In such cases, it is quite possible that the structural constraints that once functioned to preserve the autonomy of the languages while a speaker code-stitches between them are gradually abandoned. As bilingual speakers perceive more overlap between languages, they may mix more liberally between them.
code-switching convergence ϤޤǿŪŪʤΤǤꡤºݾξԤζ̤ۣǤꡤϢ³ΤξüΤƤΤǤϡ#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#2009. ؤˤܿġ2ѡѡ ([2014-10-27-1]) ʤɤǤߤcode-switching ʤΤѤʤΤ̤ƤȤˤؤäƤ롥
Bullock, Barbara E., Lars Hinrichs, and Almeida Jacqueline Toribio. "World Englishes, Code-Switching, and Convergence." Chapter 11 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 211--31.
ѸäƤեѸˤĤơƥѸȸʬĤʤȤ츻ؾƬˤ꤬롥ˤĤƤϰʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1])
#848. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ (2) ([2011-08-23-1])
#3581. ѸΥեѸ졤ƥѸ졤"mots savants" (1) ([2019-02-15-1])
#3582. ѸΥեѸ졤ƥѸ졤"mots savants" (2) ([2019-02-16-1])
Ǥϡե줫Ѹ줫θʬĤʤȤΤϤեȱѸ°ƤɤۤʤꡤΤ˶̤ϤʤΤǡΤ褦ϹͤʤȻפ뤫⤷ʤ
ΥեѸȥƥѸξȤϰۤʤ̣礤ǤϤ뤬ȽǤǤʤȤʤʤƤ뱾ȤǤϤʤ餹餫˥եñʤΤθ줬ƤƥȤѸƥȤʤΤեƥȤʤΤʬĤʤˡۤʤ꤬Ƥ롥⤷ʤѸƥȤǤФθϥե줫äƤѸǧꤵʤեƥȤǤФθϽեñǤꡤѸȤ̵طȽǤȤǤϤʤ
Ȥ¤ˤϱʩǤ礤θ줬١ȤʤäƤΤȽȤʤ "macaronic" 2ƥȤʤΤ롥С줿 code-switching Τʤ˽ФƤ롤ȤƤ餫˥ե°ñϡǤ˱Ѹ˼ѤƱѸäΰƤΤʤΤ뤤ϽեñȤѤƤˤʤΤΤʴबʤ¤ꡤȽǤŪˤʤʩΤۤƥؤäƤơ𤬤ˤ䤳ʤ⤢롥ˤĤơTrotter (1790) βʹ
Quantities of medieval documents survive in (often heavily abbreviated) medieval British Latin, into which have been inserted substantial numbers of Anglo-French or Middle English terms, usually of course substantives; analysis of this material is complicated by the abbreviation system, which may even have been designed to ensure that the language of the documents was flexible, and that words could have been read in more than one language . . ., but also by the fact that in the later period (that is, after around 1350) the distinction between Middle English and Anglo-French is increasingly hard to draw. As is apparent from even a cursory perusal of the Middle English Dictionary (MED, Kurath et al. 1952--2001) it is by no means always clear whether a given word, listed as Middle English but first attested in an Anglo-French context, actually is Middle English, or is perceived as an Anglo-French borrowing.
2ƥȤ˸ñ줬θ°Τꤹ뤳ȤϡɬñǤϤʤθäȤϲʤΤƹͤ롥Ϣưʲ⻲Ȥ줿
#2426. York Memorandum Book ˤߤʩ¿¿ͤʺ ([2015-12-18-1])
#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])
#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])
#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])
#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1])
#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1])
Trotter, David. "English in Contact: Middle English Creolization." Chapter 114 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1781--93.
code-switching θʹƤޤפ⤫֤Τϡ㤨ܸȱѸή礦˻ȤʤüԤɤäΤʤǤɤΤ褦˻ѸڤؤƤ뤫ѻͻ롤Ȥतθ code-switching ȤݤȤ館ȡ (borrowing) ȤζܤϤܤ䤱Ƥ뤷ܿˤ봳ĤˤܶᤷƤ롥ʲεǤⰷäƤ褦ˡcode-switching ϸܿ (contact) ̤˵ڤ礭ʥơޤǤ롥
#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])
#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])
#2009. ؤˤܿġ2ѡѡ ([2014-10-27-1])
Ƭ˽Ҥ٤褦ή礦2üԤɤβä˸¤餺1üԤɤβäΤʤǤ code-switching 뤳ȤϤ롥㤨дŪܸΤߤä2ͤñФƲäƤСˤϤ code-switching ƤȤ⤤Τ
Winford (102) ϡLüdi Ȥơ(1) ͿüԤƱѡȥäƤ뤫ݤ(2) 2Ѿ1ѾȤ2Ĥμˤäơcode-switching ꤦ4ʬष
| Bilingual | Unilingual | |
| Exolingual | Interaction among speakers with different languages | Interaction between native and non-native speakers of the same language |
| Endolingual | Interaction among bilinguals | Interaction among monolinguals |
ꥫͤǥ̤붵դ㤤2ǯ֤ۤɶ彣ȲںߤƤȤѤƤȤ붵ոפ "Senkyoshigo" ˴ؤʸɤൡäSenkyoshigo 붵֤ΤǾѤդǤꡤܸͳƸ¿Ѥħ롥Senkyoshigo ȤäʸɮԤ Smout ϡ餽δ̯ʸդ˶ä䤬Ƥä괷ƤޤɸѸäΤʤäƤޤäȤ㤨СΤ褦1Ƥߤ褦ʸ fud ϡ֤Ϥסdish-chan Ȥϡ֤פȤȤǡֻפؤ褦
Hey dode, okinasai! It's time I got a start on asagohan so we can have some oishii muffins before benkyokai. You're dish-chan this week, so you go take the first fud. Come on in and I'll show you how to tsukeru the mono.
(1) ܸ lexifier ȤԥΤ褦Ǥ⤢ꡤ(2) ξΥХˤ code-switching Τ褦Ǥ⤢ꡤ(3) ͷӿǺ夲ͷΤ褦Ǥ⤢롥ºݡ붵ոפ3Τ줫ŪΤ˶ʬ뤳ȤϤǤˤʤʼҲ˸ŪˤϤ֤˰֤Ȥۤʤ̯ʸѼ뤤ϸѤǤ롥
ʸǤϤŪʰ֤ŤƤΤǽŪˤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥
Senkyoshigo is clearly a phenomenon that cannot be adequately categorized within current linguistic terms. In terms of its origin and its similarity to varieties that have been previously classified as pidgins, it is a pidgin. In terms of the rule that govern its interface with Japanese and English, it is bilingual code-switching. In terms of its rather ordinary English grammar, its lack of speakers who rely on it as a sole means of communication, and the playful exuberance with which it is used, it is is (sic) a recreational language. In the final analysis, the most important factors that determine the label one affixs (sic) to this variety will probably be social and political. Those who think the phenomenon is significant and interesting will tend not to equate it with a child's language game but will see in it examples of other linguistic processes at work. They may classify it as a near-pidgin which has not stabilized because it remains in the presence of its lexifier language and because its most proficient speakers use it for only two years of their lives. Alternately, they may classify it as early bilingualism that would stabilize and regularize in a society that allowed continuing roles to emerge for each variety. For those who do not particularly value the language or find it interesting, it will probably seem to be a recreational language which in some minds ought to be suppressed but in most deserves only to be ignored.
No matter how we label it, this missionary English of Japan is an unusual language phenomenon.
ѸܸȤ2Ĥθζ֤ˤäơ붵ȤŪΤ2ǯۤɤؤ³ȤतޤʼҲŪĶĸ춦ƱΡޤ˼Ҳؤ¸Ǥ롥Τ̾Ѽ4λȤơܸθѤѸѼȸ뤳ȤǤ
ϢƼѤ code-switching κۤäƤϡ#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) ȡܤˤԥˤĤƤϡ#2596. ־ȤСפ ([2016-06-05-1]) ɤ
ʤߤˡʸؤĹˡֵʬžˡפȤҲ𤤤ΤǤĹ꤬Ȥޤޤ˵ʬžˡ
Smout, Kary D. "Senkyoshigo: A Missionary English of Japan." American Speech 63.2 (1988): 137--49.
#2559. αѸ ([2016-04-29-1]) ǡĤƾäƤѸѼҲ𤷤ϰθˤϡ180ǯۤɤĹϤʤΤΡʣǤ롥 (134--35) ˤСǻѤƤ͡ʸѼΤ־ȤСפȸƤ֤Ȥˤȡ־ȤСפŪϰʲΤ褦ꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥
19ˤϤ餯־ԥѸפäƤꡤ줬ȤƤΡ־९쥪ѸפؤȯŸ19ˤϡܸä͡餬¤ưΡ֥ܸ͡פ줿ơ20ȾαѸܸ줬äԤθ (matrix language) Ȥ־פ줿Ȥ
Τ褦ɬʸŪդƤΤǤϤʤŪʾڵ˴Ť˼ҲŪʴ¬ΥʥꥪǤ롥㤨С1ʳȤƤΡ־ԥѸפԤʤƤȤĥˤĤƤϡ (134--35) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ޤϡѸظȤ־ԥѸפȤΤǤ롥19ˤ餯äƤǤȻפ뤳ȤФǤ뤬ºߤȤڵϤʤȤΤϡξ餹Сԥ̤Υߥ˥ʤȤƻȤƤȽǤΤϺǤǤϤ뤬ʸˡηϤξܺ٤Ǥ뤫Ǥ롥줬ߤ̤ʤ͡Ʊ˽ߡߥ˥ƥƤȤʬäƤΤǡ̤Υߥ˥ʤȤƥȯȹͤΤԼǤϤʤ̸ά͡
Ʊͤˡ־९쥪ѸפȯˤĤƤܺ٤ʬäƤʤξƤԥѸǥߥ˥äƤ¿äȤڵ뤿ᡤλҶ९쥪 (creoloid) ȹͤ뤳ȤϡʤĤȤľܤξڵ櫓ǤϤʤ
嵭ŪǺǸʳ־פˤĤƤ⡤٤꤬¿ĤƤ롥㤨СʤܸѼȱѸѼ郎2ʻ (bilingualism) 䥳ɥå (code-switching) ˤȤɤޤ餺¤ƺȤʤ˻äΤơʤκݤܸѼΤۤθȤʤäΤȤ˼ҲŪˤĤơ (148--55) ٤ͻԤʤäƤ뤬ˤϤʤ븦椬ɬפΤ褦Ǥ롥
(155) ϡʣʸ뤲ƤξָΰפȰŪˤʤ館Ƥ롥
˼ҲؼԤˤȤäƤϸˤǤ롥Ǥ椨ˡ줾λˤƼҲŪװͤߤ뤳ȤŪñǤ롥μҲŪװȤϡ㤨Сäͤͤ餤ǡïȲۤƤ褷ƤïȴؤäƤʤɤװǤ롥
Τ褦Ϥ褯ȸƤФ롥Τ˳ŪΩƤ뤷Τ餽Ǥäꡤοʹ֤ߤ˵ڤܤƶθܿٹ礤ǻ
ϡڡˤΤ褦ʰŪʸҲǿɴǯ褦ѲϾΤ褦ʸǤϿǯ٤ǵ롥ϸѲΡְפǤ롥
˥롡¾ܿ˼Ҳءξס˼Ҳ١ʹ ԡë ̦ ջҡˡˡ罤ۡ2015ǯ134--55ǡ
Ѹ code-switching macaronic ʸˤĤơ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1])#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1]) ʤɤǼ夲ƤϢơʩκߤ15ηбġȤεϿʸĴ Rothwell ʸɤΤǡƤҲ𤹤롥
ĴоݤȤʤäʸ York Memorandum Book ȸƤФΤǡϼΤ褦ʸǤ (Rothwell 213)
The two substantial volumes of the York Memorandum Book provide some five hundred pages of records detailing the administrative and commercial life of the second city in England over the years between 1376 and 1493, setting down in full charters, ordinances of the various trade associations, legal cases involving citizens and so on.
York Memorandum Book ˤϡʩκߤ뤬ߤμ͡Ǥ롥Rothwell ʬˤС11κߤΤ롥Rothwell (215--16) ʸϤȴФơվ
(i) "English words inserted without modification into a Latin text"
(ii) "English words similarly introduced into a French text"
(iii) "French words used without modification into a Latin text"
(iv) "French words similarly used in an English text"
(v) "English words dressed up as Latin in a Latin text"
(vi) "English words dressed up as French in a French text"
(vii) "French words dressed up as Latin in a Latin text"
(viii) "French words are used in a specifically Anglo-French sense in a French text"
(ix) "French words may be found in a Latin text dressed up as Latin, but with an English meaning"
(x) "On occasion, a single word may be made up of parts taken from different languages . . . or a new word may be created by attaching a suffix to an existing word, either from the same language or from one language or another""
(xi) "Outside the area of word-formation there is also the question of grammatical endings to be considered"
3Ĥθ줬ؤꡤξ "dressed up" ̵̣ͭαʤɤθȡΤ褦ˤ٤ʬबȤȤ롥(x) Ϥ뺮 (hybrid) ˴ؤǤ (see #96. ѸȥեǺ褫 ( hybrid ) ([2009-08-01-1])) Τ褦˸ȡüѡαƶˤ뿷ʸȯạ̃θcode-switching ʤɤν˸ߤ̩ܤ˴ϢƤ뤫ڤʬ˺롥
Rothwell ϷȤơΤμαʩκߤϡ̵Τʼ̻ˤλʪȤ "recognised policy" (230) äȤߤʤ٤ȼĥƤ롥ޤ14--15ˤϡȼפγˤбġȤεϿʸǰƤ¿ͲȼäŪʸä礷Ƥˤơϸߤθñߤڤꤹɬפ줿˰㤤ʤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥Rothwell (230) ۩
Before condemning the scribes of late medieval England for their ignorance, account must be taken of the situation in which they found themselves. On the one hand the recording of administrative documents steadily increasing in number and diversity called for an ever wider lexis, whilst on the other hand the conventions of the time demanded that such documents be couched in Latin or French. No one has ever remotely approached complete mastery of the lexis of his own language, let alone that of any other language, either in medieval or modern times.
Rothwell ȤԤˤĤƤϡ#1212. ɤˤѸˤ붵λϤޤ (2) ([2012-08-21-1])#2348. Ѹˤˤ code-switching ([2015-10-01-1])#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])#2350. Prioress Anglo-French ϰ̤Ϥۤ㤯ʤä ([2015-10-03-1])#2374. Anglo-French Ȥ (1) ([2015-10-27-1])#2375. Anglo-French Ȥ (2) ([2015-10-28-1]) ǤƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
Rothwell, William. "Aspects of Lexical and Morphosyntactical Mixing in the Languages of Medieval England." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. D. S. Brewer, 2000. 213--32.
ܥ֥Ǥ code-switching (CS) ˴ؤƤĤεƤȤ櫓Ѹˤλϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1])#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1])#2271. Ѹ macaronic ʲʸ ([2015-07-16-1]) Ƥ CS ˴ؤ븦ȯŸ˸岡ǡޤ˸ (historical_pragmatics) ήԤˤ٤ǡŪˤ CS θ⾯ĿӤƤƤ褦ǤꡤѸˤˤƤ⤤ĤʸФ褦ˤʤä
˱Ѹˤ CS μ֤ϡޤޤƤʤȤ¿⤽⡤CS ѻ˥ƥȤϤɤٻĤäƤΤSchendl ϡѸ줫Ѹˤơʣ줬ߤƥȤϷ褷ƾʤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
There is a considerable number of mixed-language texts from the ME and the EModE periods, many of which show CS in mid-sentence. The phenomenon occurs across genres and text types, both literary and non-literary, verse and prose; and the languages involved mirror the above-mentioned multilingual situation. In most cases Latin as the 'High' language is one of the languages, with one or both of the vernaculars English and French as the second partner, though switching between the two vernaculars is also attested. (79)
CS in written texts was clearly not an exception but a widespread specific mode of discourse over much of the attested history of English. It occurs across domains, genres and text types --- business, religious, legal and scientific texts, as well as literary ones. (92)
鷺͡ʥƥȤ CS 褦ʸإƥȤȤƤϡŪˤ "(i) sermons; (ii) other religious prose texts; (iii) letters; (iv) business accounts; (v) legal texts; (vi) medical texts" ƤꡤʸإƥȤȤƤ "(i) mixed or 'macaronic' poems; (ii) longer verse pieces; (iii) drama; (iv) various prose texts" ʤɤȤ (Schendl 80)
Ѹˤ뤤˸ؤˤ CS ʤޤƥȡˤ椹յϾʤȤ3롥1Ĥϡ2Ѥȸܿξβ˻2ĤϡCS ȼѤζܤ˴ط롥üѤ¿ѸˤˤȤäơѤβ餫ˤ뤳ȤϡŪˤºŪˤˤƽפǤ (see #1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1])) 3ĤˡŪ CS ̻ŪʼͿ뤳Ȥˤꡤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Schendl, Herbert. "Linguistic Aspects of Code-Switching in Medieval English Texts." Multilingualism in Later Medieval Britain. Ed. D. A. Trotter. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2000. 77--92.
Ѹαʩκ߷ʸ macaronic writing ˤĤƤϡ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ˤѤȤƽѸθ츻ŪֻˤĤơ#1941. macaronic code-switching ȤƤθ츻Ūֻ ([2014-08-20-1]) εʸΤʤǸڤؤưŤϡʤΤ뤤ϼҲŪøŪʰ̣礤ΤƤ
ʬdzȯ˸椷Ƥ Wright (768--69) ϡѸʸȤ櫓Ĵɥβʸ˸ code-switching ˤϡҲŪøŪưŤäΤǤϤʤƤ
I am led to suggest that macaronic writing should not be taken simply as a reflection of growing ignorance of Latin, nor be explained merely as some kind of partial bilingualism into which users naturally fell because they had been exposed to Latin in their profession. Rather I conclude that macaronic writing formed a deliberate, formal register; with systemic rules for the formation of words and sentences, which underwent temporal change as does any language structure. At this early stage of investigation, I venture to suggest that macaronic writing may be associable with a specific social group (in this case, accountants) whose professional status was defined at least in part by a facility in both languages, and whose emerging position may itself have been marked by the hybrid usage of macaronic writing as a formal register in professional contexts.
ʸˤκߤ code-switching ǤϤʤȤȡξޤȤ˲ʤȾ (semilingualism) ˴ŤΤǤϤʤȤȤˤĤơWright (769fn) ϥԥ椷ʤ鼡Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
. . . pidgins develop due to the inability of the interlocutors to understand each other's language, whereas macaronic writing appears to show the ability of the composer to understand both Latin and English. Pidgins depend upon the spoken form as a primary medium for their development, whereas there is no evidence that material so stylistically sophisticated as macaronic sermons or administrative records were first transmitted as speech.
macaronic writing ϾʸΤۤΤⶵˤ⸫뤬λѰˤƤⲿ餫μҲŪŪưŤΤǤϤʤȤǤ롥ʸ˴ؤƤϡѤŪȤDZ캮ߤͭʲ餫ͳäΤ⤷ʤΤⶵǤϻѸˤäơʹνʤ̤ۤʤäƤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤˤ衤code-switching ưŤäȤơ줬Ū˲äΤǤ롥
Wright, Laura. "Macaronic Writing in a London Archive, 1380--1480." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 762--71.
ɸ˵ѸϡܿʬѽФѸǤꡤͤŪˤⶦͭƤ褦˻פ롥٤ߤФϸԤˤۤʤäƤꡤŪ˵뤿ˤϡǧƤɬפΤѸ췲Ǥ⤢롥㤨 (borrowing) ȤѸ1ĤȤäƤߤƤ⡤#900. ([2011-10-14-1])#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1]) Ǽ褦ˡϤǤ롥
ε#2008. ܿάˡ ([2014-10-26-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡܿʬζ1ĤȤ Weinreich Languages in Contact 롥ƬˡɸѸͿƤ롥
In the present study, two or more languages will be said to be IN CONTACT if they are used alternately by the same persons. The language-using individuals are thus the locus of the contact.
The practice of alternately using two languages will be called BILINGUALISM, and the persons involved, BILINGUAL. Those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a result of their familiarity with more than one language, i.e. as a result of language contact, will be refereed to as INTERFERENCE phenomena. It is these phenomena of speech, and their impact on the norms of either language exposed to contact, that invite the interest of the linguist. (Weinreich 1)
ΰѤ³ǡ¤Ω줫顤"interference" Ϲ¤ȤؤްդΤǤȤΤ褦ʴްդĤȤϸ¤ʤ "borrowing" Ȥ϶̤٤ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥¤ȤؤȼʤɽŪʸäμѤʤɤؤ "borrowing" ȸƤ֤ȤϤǤȤƤ⡤äμѤȤƴ¸θạ̈ι¤˱ƶͿ뤳Ȥꤦʾ塤"borrowing" ȤѸλѤˤϿŤǤ٤Ȥ⼨Ƥ롥
ܽκμĥ1Ĥ嵭Ѥ2ʸʤʤܽ2ʸˤ˽Ƥ롥ܿξϡХĿͤǤȤȤޤХȤѸϺ¤˹ᤵƤ뤳Ȥˤդ줿̤鷺2ĤѼ˰ۤʤ줫˶ᤤޤˤ餫ͼǺ礷ؤꤹѤ bilingualism ǤꡤĿͤ bilingual Ǥ롥äơˤСñʤΡּѡפ⡤츫ȹ٤ʵѤˤߤ code-switching ⡤Ȥ bilingualism ȤȤˤʤ롥ơΰĤҤȤĤζŪʸθ줬ĤȤȤˤʤ롥
줯餤ȡϢƹͤ뤢븽ݤܿȤʤ롥ѸΥХȤ뤤ϵΤ褵ε ([2014-10-26-1]) Ǹ褦ˡʬ̵¤γƤȤȤ⤷ʤ
Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.
Treffers-Daller μѤ˴ؤʸ Meeuwis and Östman θܿ˴ؤʸɤߡ#1778. Ѹ츦 to-do list ([2014-03-10-1]) դ٤ܤ¿뤳ȤΤäʲˡĤƤߤ롥
(1) ѤˤϸѲβ1ĤȤƹͻ٤¦̤뤬θǤϼȤƸŪ¦̤ܤƤܿǤˤ⤫餺쳰Ū¦̤ιͻҲŪʻʤäΤǤϤʤŪˤϡѤηȻɾθ椬٤Ƥ롥Treffers-Dalle (17--18) ΰʲλŦ狼䤹
. . . researchers have mainly focused on what Weinreich, Herzog and Labov (1968) have called the embedding problem and the constraints problem. . . . Other questions have received less systematic attention. The actuation problem and the transition problem (how and when do borrowed features enter the borrowing language and how do they spread through the system and among different groups of borrowing language speakers) have only recently been studied. The evaluation problem (the subjective evaluation of borrowing by different speaker groups) has not been investigated in much detail, even though many researchers report that borrowing is evaluated negatively.
(2) ѸΤߤʤ餺ܿΥơΤ˴ؤ뤬ǯϥͥåȤϤȤǥȯŸˤꡤѤεʪŪʾ¸ߤȤʤʤäƤĤޤꡤܿμѤäƤȤȤǤꡤѲϼѡʸˤμ̤ˤƶڤܤ
Due to modern advances in telecommunication and information technology and to more extensive traveling, members within such groupings, although not being physically adjacent, come into close contact with one another, and their language and communicative behaviors in general take on features from a joint pool . . . . (Meeuwis and Östman 38)
(3) Ūʸ桥#902. Ѥ䤹ܡ ([2011-10-16-1]) Ǽ "scale of adoptability" (or "borrowability scale") βˤĤơ2ѼԤäեѥѤƸڤ뤳ȤǤ褦ˤʤäƤOttawa-Hull ΥեˤѸѤ䡤եȥ2쥳ѥˤѤηڥȥ奢2¸女ѥˤʬϤʤɤϤƤ롥
(4) ˤѤȤʥ뤬ڤ곫ĤĤ롥ޤοϾʤ2ѼԤˤɸ (discourse marker) õǽμѤλ㤬𤵤Ƥ롥
(5) 嵭 (3) (4) Ȥط뤬2ѼԤμѤ˺ݤ뿴ŪʥץŪʬǤ롥#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡcode-switching ȤδϢȤʤ롥
(6) ȥ͡ꥺʤɱΧŪǤμ̡
ƺǿμѸϡηϤȤδϢˤƸȤϡüԸĿͤ뤤ϼҲȤδϢˤƸؿܤƤƤ褦ޤ̤ȤƤμѸ (loanword) ܤȤϡȤƤμ (borrowing) ܤȤؿѲ⤢褦
ĿͤȤƤϡ跿θηϤȤδϢˤƤμѤθˤƤ⡤ޤʤȤϤȹͤƤ롥㤨С̣ (semantic loan) ʤɤϡ¿;ϤĤƤȻפäƤ롥
Treffers-Daller, Jeanine. "Borrowing." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 17--35.
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1]) ȡ#1781. ܿ ([2014-03-13-1]) Ǥ줾츫褦ˡ̤ܿ1ĤȤ contact-induced language change 롥Ϥ˼ (borrowing) ܿˤ봳 (shift-induced interference) ʬ롥Ԥ L2 θŪ L1 ذư븽ݡԤ L1 θŪ L2 ذư븽ݤǤ롥shift-induced interference ϡ2콬World Englishesظƶ (substratum_theory) ʤɤ˴طܿβȤ䤹⤷ʤ
2ĤۤʤΤdzǰ̤뤳Ȥưפ¤θܿλˤƤꤹΤ¿뤳ȤΤäƤɬפ롥Meeuwis and Östman (41) ꡤվǵ
(1) code-switching Ǥϡɤθ줫ɤθظबưƤȤߤʤФ褤ΤȽȤʤȤ¿#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) 褦ˡborrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡδ֤ˤϥ졼ȤäƤ롥
(2) (mixed language) ˤƤϡͿξθ줬褽Ʊ٤Ϳ¦Ǥ⤢ꡤ¦Ǥ⤢롥ŵŪˤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Russenorsk Michif ʤɤ pidgin creole/creoloid 롥Thomason ϡμθܿ contact-induced language change ȤܤǤϤʤextreme language mixture ȤܤΤȤǰäƤꡤüʤΤȤƶ̤Ƥ (cf. [2014-03-13-1])
(3) ߤ礨ۤɤѼ郎ܿȤˤ⡤ΰưꤹ뤳ȤŵŪΤϡɤκʤ koineization Ǥ롥#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ȡ#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1]) ȡ
(4) "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") ꡥL2 dzؤħL1 ˤǤϤʤ̤˽褦ȤƤ L3 ˱ѤƤޤȤ롥㤨СܸüԤ L2 ȤƤαѸ magazine ʻˤˡL3 ȤƤΥե magasin ʾŹˤֻפΰ̣dzФƤޤ褦3Ȥ٤ǤꡤʬˡǤϰȤǤʤ
(5) ⤽⡤ĿͤˤȤäƲ L1 Dz L2 ȽȤʤ롥ХθĿͤˤäƤϡ2Ĥθ줬ۤƱ1ǤȤߤʤ礬롥Ϣơ#1537. פˤޤĤ3Ĥ ([2013-07-12-1]) ⻲ȡ
borrowing shift-induced interference ʬˡϡζʬǤ뤳ȡƤޤǤθ¤ˤͭǤ뤳ȤƤ
Meeuwis, Michael and Jan-Ola Östman. "Contact Linguistics." Variation and Change. Ed. Mirjam Fried et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2010. 36--45.
Ѹˤϱʩδ֤Ǹڤؤ code-switching ƥȤ뤳Ȥ#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1])#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) εǤߤȤƤϽŪʱʸ件ʸޤʤʤɤλ㤬뤬餬ԤˤڤؤʤΤ뤤ڤؤ˺ݤƲ餫 "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" äΤȤʤcf. #1627. code-switching code-mixing ([2013-10-10-1])ˡ
̾嵭 macaronic code-switching ȤΤϡ硤ᡤʸȤäŪ礭ʸñ̤ǰθ줫¾θڤؤ꾮ñ̡㤨зǤ䲻ǡʸǡˤȤñ̤Ǥ macaronic code-switching ϤꤦΤ⤷ȤСˤⲿ餫 "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" ؤäƤȹͤΤ
Miller (211) ϡ<doubt> (cf. ME <doute>) ˸褦ʸ츻Ūֻ (etymological_respelling) Ϥ⤷ macaronic code-switching ˤΤ⤷ʤȿ¬Ƥ롥
Some changes may be due to the macaronic codeswitching between Medieval Latin and Late Middle English in certain poetic texts and especially London accounting records . . . .
ο¬ɤ뤳Ȥ<doubt> <receipt> Τ褦 <b> <p> ٤ϡ¤˺Ĥƥ줫֤ι٤Ǥ롥礭ʸñ̤Ǥα֤ڤؤˤ˵äƤʤ¤ꡤκʪΤϡԤή礦2ѼԤǤϤʤƥȤơԽʬˡ˳ؤѸüԤȤȤƥθ츻Ȥʸ macaronic code-switching ȸƤ֤٤ɤϡɭˤäƤ롥code-switching ȤϲͤϤСbilingualism ȤϲȤƬˤˤ餶ʤޤ#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1]) ؤäƤ褦<b> <p> 줿ȤϤϤ macaronic code-switching θʤΤ뤤ϥƥμѤʤΤơˤ衤˼ҲŪŪʰտޤϤäΤ
ٴƤȡ츻ֻʳŪĬǤơּҲŪŪʰյפղä뤳ȤˤϤʤä줿ȤˡΤ褦ʰյտޤäɤϡ¬ΰФʤ
ʾͻǡΤ褦ʴۤä(1) code-switching ʸȤñ̤ǵ뤫ɤ路(2) #653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) Ǥߤեˤ㤬褦ˡȾüʥƥμ˴ŤѤȤߤʤȤǽʬǤϤʤ(3) ̤ȤƸˡ<b> <p> ˼ҲŪŪʰյդ줿פʤΤǤäơβ code-switching ѤʤɤϳơǤꡤۤɽפǤϤʤβ macaronic text ¸ߤͤƤߤϤʤäΤǡʿ¬ǤϤ롥
Miller, D. Gary. External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance. Oxford: OUP, 2012.
ܿ˵븽ݤϤĤ뤳ȤǤ뤬Τʤ˼ (borrowing) code-switching 롥#1627. code-switching code-mixing ([2013-10-10-1]) εǤ⼨ԤˤäƤϤ2Ĥθݤ1ĤϢ³ΤξˤǤȤ롥ΤˡͤͳϤ롥㤨СAB code-switching ˤơפȤʤAȯäΤʤB줫줿ñ줬1ĤѤ硤 "nonce-borrowing" ȸƤ֤ȤǤǤ롥ơΤ褦 nonce-borrowing ٴΤ "established borrowing" Ǥꡤ̤Ȥ夷줬Ѹ (loanword) ǤȸΤ褦˹ͤȡѤ code-switching Ϣ³ΤξüȤϤ롥ܿؤͼԤǤ Einar Haugen ⡤μݤ code-switching Τ褦Ƥ롥"the alternate use of two languages including everything from the introduction of a single, unassimilated word up to a complete sentence or more into the context of another language" (quoted from Haugen (193: 521) by Myers-Scotton (256)).
ꤵ줿Ϣ³ΤοդꡤѤ code-switching ߤ˾ȤնˤƤϡߤħϼϤ礦Τ뤤Ϣ³ΤȤϤɤ⤢٤Ϣ³ʶǧΤˤĤƤϵ褦óݤȤ Myers-Scotton (253--60) äƤߤ
פAB줫줿ñ줬1ĤѤ硤̾θA֤ϤŪ֤˸뤬ŪˤAͭζޤʤɤϼ餺Ѥ롥ޤ̾綠θBǤȯȤƼ¸롥ʤθϴؤƱٹ礤㤤ʬѤ code-switching Τۤ˶ᤤȤȤˤʤ롥ҥפȤѸ code-switching μˤȡñ줬ҥζޤĤĤѸ˼¸륱ȤΤǡȽǤ
ȤʤΤϡѤ code-switching ζ뤤Ʊ٤Τˡ֡δΤ줾ˤɤ٤νŤߤŤͿΤǤ롥Myers-Scotton (260) ɬڤϤ褯ʤñΤǺޤϡɤ餫ȤȼѤ code-switching ˶ᤤȤơξԤζ̤뤤Ϣ³ǧƤ롥
Let's be clear: we aren't arguing that all Embedded language single words in codeswitching data sets are bona fide instances of codeswtiching. Some singly occurring Embedded Language words could have become established borrowings. But, as we've shown above, there is good reason to treat most of these singly occurring words as codeswitched forms.
ȴͿʤΤѸηȿǤѤǤ롥ηȿǤƤȤ̣ code-switching ŪŪŪˤϴƤꡤѸŪǤȤؤ϶аѸˤ alumnus -- alumni, alga -- algae, phenomenon -- phenomena Τ褦ʳñʣʤɤǤ롥ϰ̤˼ѸȤߤʤƤ뤬εƧޤȡcode-switching ŪħʬŪ˻ĤѸȤߤʤʤ롥Ѥ code-switching ζܤϥ졼ǤϤ뤬졼Ǥ뤬椨ˡʣ˿ƶͿƤ褦ˤפ롥
Myers-Scotton, Carol. Multiple Voices: An Introduction to Bilingualism. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006.
#1628. ʤ code-switching 뤫 ([2013-10-11-1]) (2) ǡcode-switching Сå׳ΩΤ˵ǽƤ뤳Ȥߤ2ĤΥɤڤؤ亮碌ϥΤ褦ˤߤ뤬code-switching ƤԤδ֤ǤϤ褽ۤΤλƤХΤ褦ʤΤꡤΥХϸߤ˻褦ʸĶǰäƤƤʤ¤궦ͭʤΤǤ롥դˤС code-switching ߤ˼ƤԤϡ¾ͤζͭʤķռäƤȤȤˤʤ롥
ˤСϤߤƱ2ǻ褦 code-switching ʤäƤȤƤ⡤뽸Ĥ̤νĤǤϡڤؤ亮碌ΥХۤʤäƤ뤫⤷ʤξˤϡʬ code-switching ¾νĤ code-switching Ȥߤ˰ۤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ˵ŤΤ褦ˡcode-switching ϡϤʥǥƥƥɸεǽͭƤ롥Wardhaugh (104) ¹Gumperz, J. J. (Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: CUP, 1982. p. 69) ˰ʲʸϤ롥
Residents of such large Spanish-English-speaking communities as San Francisco or New York, which include immigrants from many Latin American regions, in fact claim that they can tell much about a person's family background and politics from the way that person code-switches and uses borrowings. What the outsider sees as almost unpredictable variation becomes a communicative resource for members. Since bilingual usage rules must be learned by living in a group, ability to speak appropriately is a strong indication of shared background assumptions. Bilinguals, in fact, ordinarily do not use code-switching styles in their contact with other bilinguals before they know something about the listener's background and attitudes. To do otherwise would be to risk serious misunderstanding.
code-switching Ȥ٤켫Τ˸ƥǥƥƥɸǽͭƤΤߤʤ餺code-switching λ° code-switching Ĥ¾ code-switching ĤȤ̤뵡ǽͭƤȤȤ϶̣code-switching ¿ͤʥǥƥƥɸǽäƤꡤ٤˼ҲŪʸݤȤȤˤʤ롥
Ƥ Wardhaugh (98) ¹Gal, S. ("The Political Economy of Code Choice." Code Switching. Ed. M. Heller. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1988. p. 247) ϡcode-switching ҲŪάȤư֤ŤƤ롥
[C]odeswitching is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.
ͤƤߤСΰѤ "[C]odeswitching" "Linguistic behaviour" ֤ƤߤƤ⡤̿οͤѤʤcode-switching ̤ʸ츽ݤǤϤʤȤȤ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ε#1627. code-switching code-mixing ([2013-10-10-1]) ǡcode-switching طʤˤ͡װѤƤȽҤ٤ϡcode-switching ϤʤΤɤΤ褦ʤȤΤȤˤĤơȤ (27--36) ˵ʤ顤ҲŪʴꤿ
ޤջ̤μ¤ˤ뤿 code-switching ȤΤ롥㤨Соݤؼ礬פ⤫Фʤˡ̤θθȤȤȤ롥ŵŪʸѤư1Ĥcode-switching ξˤ⤽ΤޤƤϤޤ롥referential function ȸƤФ뵡ǽ
⤦1İջ̤˴ؤưȤƤϡñʹΤڤؤȤ code-switching 뤳ȤǤ롥Ūʿǡ٤˺¤äƤܿͤˤܸä٤αѸüԤޤ3ͤäˤϱѸڤؤȤä̤פ⤫٤Ф褤ޤκ٤οͤʹ줿ʤ褦٤ܿͤˤΤȤˡƤܸڤؤȤȤ⤢ꤦ롥Τ褦 code-switching εǽϡdirective function ȸƤФ롥
嵭2ĤΤ褦ˡջ̤ΤΤˤʤ code-switching Ȱۤʤ code-switching ¿¸ߤ롥θäƤߤ̤ˤ⤫餺code-switching 뤳Ȥ롥ˤϡ4ĤưŤƤƤ롥
(1) ˱Ƥ code-switching (situational code-switching)
̡ꡤäʤɡʣŪ domain ȸƤФˤ˱ƻѸڤؤƤ椯Ǥ롥㤨Сdiglossia ΤҲˤơѼ (high variety) ȲѼ (low variety) Ȥ domain ˤäƻȤʬ뤬꤬ŪʤΤŪʤΤذܹԤ˱ơѤڤؤȤä㤬롥ŪˤϡParaguay Spanish Guaraní diglossia ˤơǰǤɤϺǽϲѼǤƤߤΤ Guaraní DzäƤ륳뤬äƤȾѼǸҤ丢ϤȷӤĤ Spanish ڤؤȤäȤꤦ (Wardhaugh 96)
ܸǤ⡤ͧ2ͤɸäƤȤܾοͤä뤳ȤǡȤͧ2ͤδ֤Ǥɸˤä蘆ϤȤä㤬롥⡤code-switching ˤĤʤȹͤ롥
(2) СåפΩ뤿 code-switching
¿졦¿̱²Ҳˤơϰζ̸ȼȤ뤳Ȥˤäơdual identity Ȥ㤬롥㤨СϥꥫͤϡѸäȤǥꥫҲΰǤȤȤƱˡܸäȤϿͤǤȤ̱²Ū°Ȥ롥ξΥǥƥƥݻ뤿ˡäξǤʶޤƤȹͤ롥act of identity 1Ȥ
Ʊ褦 code-switching üԤδ֤ǤϡƱ dual identity ǷФ줿ķ봶ʬƱ code-switching ǽϤͭԤϡʬƱθĶǰäƤˤʤǤ롥 code-switching ϡߤְռơݤѶŪ䤬롥ȤϤ¿ξ硤 code-switching ̵ռ˹ԤƤȤȤˤդɬפ롥
û䡤äܸξˤϽä뤳Ȥˤꡤdual identity ɽ륿פ code-switching 롥"You don't have to do that 补" Ȥ"He's so nice ͤ" ʤɡϡemblematic switching ʾħŪءˤȸƤФ롥
(3) طθĤμʤȤƤ code-switching
줫θѶŪѤơüԤˤȤä˾ޤФȤ륱롥ʲϡ˥ļĮΥСǡפΤ礤βҰˤ̵̤Ǥ롥ϸθǤ륤ɸ졤Ǥ륹ҥȱѸ줬ڤؤ롥
ס
Inzala ya mapesa, kambuli ʥ륤ɸ
ʤ⤬ʤƺäƤ
Ұ
You have got land. ʱѸ
Una shamba. ʥҥ
Uli nu mulimi. ʥ륤ɸ
ȪäƤ
ס
Mwana mweru . . . ʥ륤ɸ
ʿƤ礸ʤ
Ұ
Mbula tsiendi. ʥ륤ɸ
ʤʤʤ补
Can't you see how I am heavily loaded? ʱѸ
ʼ꤬դʤ衤狼
Ұפ̵魯Τ˱ѸѤϤƤ롥ϡ֤θǤ륤ɸȤȡפƱˤʤꡤķްդΤǡ̵˶䤹ʤäƤޤǤ롥⤤ܤ丢Ҥħ̸ǤѸѤ뤳ȤˤäơפȤδ֤˿ŪʵΥФ̵ݤˤʤ롥
ȤơʥӤοõƤԤȸѼԤθ˴ؤƤߤ褦 (Graddol 13)
Young man: Mr Muchuki has sent me to you about the job you put in the paper.
Manager: Ulituma barua ya application? [DID YOU SEND A LETTER OF APPLICATION?]
Young man: Yes, I did. But he asked me to come to see you today.
Manager: Ikiwa ulituma barua, nenda ungojee majibu. Tukakuita ufika kwa interview siku itakapafika. Leo sina la suma kuliko hayo. [IF YOU'VE WRITTEN A LETTER, THEN GO AND WAIT FOR A RESPONSE, WE WILL CALL YOU FOR AN INTERVIEW WHEN THE LETTER ARRIVES. TODAY I HAVEN'T ANYTHING ELSE TO SAY.]
Young man: Asante. Nitangoja majibu. [THANK YOU. I WILL WAIT FOR THE RESPONSE.]
ǤϡԤ϶ܤǽϤħѸ̤פबѼԤϤ˱̸Ǥ륹ҥǤβäƤ롥Ĥ˱ʤȤˤ꼨Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ǸˡդμԤϸѼԤΰϤ˶ơҥڤؤƤ롥줾줬ʬͭʾФˡȤάѤƤΤǤ롥
ܸǤ⡤ޤɤĴDzäƤ̵̼̼ξ̤ˤʤäơ줬֤ϰڤޤפȲޤäɽֻ뤳ȤǤ롥ޤäɽѤ뤳ȤˤäơȤδ֤˵ΥФݤλƤȹͤ롥ȤοŪΥѼ "we-code"礭Ѽ "they-code" ȸƤ֤Ȥ뤬 (cf. Wardhaugh 102) ̼Ф we-code they-code ڤؤȤˤʤ롥
(4) ɤθˤ뤫õ뤿 code-switching
ʬ¿ѼԤǤ硤ɤθѤƲäʤФ褤ꤹ뤿ˡĤθõȤ롥ߤ˺Ǥ⤷ä꤯֤٤ȿʤĤΤܸǤ⡤ФƷɸФ٤ݤ¤äƤȤˡɸɸŬΨǿä礬롥ˤäơνõꡤɤΤ褦äDzäʤƤ椱Ф褤ˤ褦ȤƤ롥
嵭ΤưŤˤĤƤ⡤ҲŪʰ̣뤳Ȥ狼롥code-switching ϡʹִطιۡݻȤ٤˼ҲŪôäƤ롥
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) ε code-switching 夲ϤŪˡ¿ˤäǤ code-switching 夲롥
code-switching ȤϡʣüԤ뤤ʣüԤäǸڤؤ٤Ǥ롥¿Ǥˤ褯ߤ븽ݤǤꡤθŪӼҲŪװƤƤ롥
code-switching ٤㤷ʣθ1ĤʸΤʤˤڤؤ硤 code-mixing ȸƤǶ̤礬롥ٹ礤⤯θäƤ뤫ȽȤʤ⤢롥Τ褦üԤˤȤäơcode-mixing Ϥ1ĤθäƤΤƱ餤˼ʤȤǤꡤڤؤƤȤȤռƤʤȤ¿ȤѸޤ code-mixing ϡMalta, Nigeria, Hong Kong, the Philippines [2013-09-06-1]ε#1593. եԥαѸ (2)פȡˤʤɤ¿ϰ褫顤¿𤵤Ƥʰʾ塤Trudgill 23 ˡ
ʣθηϤؤ礦ܿ˵븽ݤȤƤϡۤ˴ (interference) (borrowing)ȯãʤɤ롥Ϥθ̤Ū˸ΤФơcode-switching ϸĿͤθ°븽ݤǤȤ롥̤θСԤ competence ˶ᤤȤˤԤ performance ˶ᤤȤȤˤʤ롥ǡδ֤θ̩ϺǤꡤcode-switching ٤η㤷ѤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
(25) ѤƤѸ code-switching Ƥ (VY) žν⤦1ͤν (MN) äƤȤ̤ǡƤϿͼҲŵŪ code-switching Ǥ롥
VY: 䤹Ȼ䤬 drive 夨Τ͡I was in the fast lane. Of course, speed Фʤ㤤ʤ顥
MN: Yeah.
VY: ?here was a car in the left, right lane.
MN:
VY: Two ʤǹԤäΤ͡side.
MN: Uh-huh.
VY: So, I was in the ä left lane. Ǥ褿Ρ
MN: Violet, drive ƤΡ
VY: Half-way ޤäɤ͡After lunch ٤Ƥ͡顤Τˤ car ͡ʤ he came out right. No signal or anything. ʤǤä . . . ݤä补Gee. ʤʤä brake ä顤ʤʤääơʥ㡼ޤʤOh, gee.
MN: ???hose 墽?t's not your fault, eh? when you have an accident.
ܸȱѸڤؤࡼǤ뤳ȤƼ롥#1625. Ѹνդˤ code-switching ([2013-10-08-1]) Wright 2ܤΰѤǤҤ٤ƤȤꡤ衤code-switching Դʸ콬˴ŤݤȤŪˡ˷ŪˤȤ館Ƥ餫˸Ǥ롥code-switching طʤˤʣʡʼҲ˸ŪװѤƤ롥װˤĤƤϡεǡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
#1470. macaronic lyric ([2013-05-06-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤꡤѸˤϡʣθ줬ڤؤߤ줿츫Ȥ12ȤۤʺΤ褦˻פ뤬ʸṲ̣̄аտŪ code-switching ǤäȤ狼롥ѸˤηŪȤ⤤뤳Τ褦 code-switching ϡΤߤʤ餺ʸޤۤȤɤΥ˴ѻ롥㤨СWright ϡ"medical writings, other scientific texts, legal texts, administrative texts, sermons, other religious prose texts, literary prose, poems, drama, accounts, inventories, rule-books and letters" (148) Ƥ롥Wright (148--49) ϻʸζȤưʲ2ĤƤ롥
1. Religious prose text in English and Latin: sermon (early fifteenth century)
Domini gouernouris most eciam be merciful in punchyng. Oportet ipsos attendere quod of stakis and stodis qui deberent stare in ista vinea quedam sunt smoþe and lightlich wul boo, quedam sunt so stif and so ful of warris quod homo schal to-cleue hom cicium quam planare.
(The lord's governors must also be merciful in punishing. They should take notice of the stakes and supports that should stand in this vineyard, some are smooth and will easily bend, others are so stiff and so full of obstinacy that a man will split them sooner than straighten them out.)
2. Letter in English and Anglo-Norman: from R. Kingston to King Henry IV (1403)
Tresexcellent, trespuissant, et tresredoute Seignour, autrement say a present nieez. Jeo prie a la benoit trinite que vous ottroie bone vie ove tresentier sauntee a treslonge durre, and sende yowe sone to ows in helþ and prosperitee; for in god fey, I hope to almighty god that, yef ye come youre owne persone, ye schulle haue the victorie of alle youre enemyes.
(Most excellent, mighty and revered Sir, otherwise I know nothing at present. I pray to the blessed trinity to grant you a good life with the fullest health of the longest duration, and send you soon to us in health and prosperity; for in good faith, I hope to almighty God that, if you come yourself, you shall have a victory over all your enemies.)
code-switching Ǥϡäʽˤϸڤؤ뤳ȤˤꡤҲŪ뤤ϸŪʸ̤տޤƤȤȤˤ롥Wright (149) ۩
It has often been assumed that texts which show code-switching are indicative of an ill-educated scribe, who did not know the other languages fully. However, studies on present-day code-switching show that, on the contrary, the speakers usually have a full grasp of both languages, but choose to switch for social and discourse-pragmatic reasons. Similarly, it can frequently be demonstrated that the scribe of a code-switched text did in fact command the grammar and vocabulary of all the languages used, but that he chose to combine them. At present, we are not fully sensitive to the discourse-pragmatic reasons for medieval code-switching, and it is one of the things to which the present-day reader of a medieval text is deaf. (149)
嵭Τ褦˸Ťνդ˸ code-switching ΰտޤɤ뤳ȤϺˤ뤬ξˤ "social and discourse-pragmatic reasons" ϤƲäΤ code-switching ˤꡤҥȤ뤫⤷ʤ
Wright, Laura. "The Languages of Medieval Britain." A Companion to Medieval English Literature and Culture: c.1350--c.1500. Ed. Peter Brown. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2007. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. 143--58.
[2013-09-02-1]ε˰³Philippine English ˤȸˤĤơ (162--63) ˤȡŪʸ줬ڥ줫ѸؤȥեȤΤϡ1910--20ǯΤȤȤ
ƹϡȬȬǯΥեԥΰ衤٤ƤζѸǹԤʤäƤ줬ǯۤɤδ֤ˡ˸ƤΤǤ롥ξǤαϡޤǥڥǹԤʤƤĤ˰ǯѸˤǽα⤬ǹԤʤ줿եԥˡпȤͤεİѸǤäƤΤΤǯˤʤȡޥ˥ԵIJ֤٤ƤεİѸɤ߽פȤͳǡIJѸ˱ѸѤȽǤѸ줬Ȥ褦ˤʤꡤ٤ƤδģǯޤǤˤϱѸκѻڤؤȤ
ڥۤȥꥫۤñ㲽ħŤȤСԤϥꥹȶڡԤ϶ڤȤäƤ褤ơꥫʸϸ˸դΤǤ롥ߤǤ⡤եԥζǤϡֱѸפƤ롥Ρ1986--92߿ˤϡϤθ줬ʤˤƤȤ礭ʴؿʧäƤ˸礭ʿŸä櫓ǤϤʤڤˤȡեԥι̱ε°ռҲ̷κϡֱѸפˤ롥
ߥեԥǤϡեԥȱѸΡ춵פعԤʤƤ롥եԥѸȤơ졤ҲΰʤɤƤ롥ѸǶƤΤϡѸ졤ʤʤɤǤ롥ΤΩعǤϱѸˤ붵ˤĤƤʤ̤³Ф鸽ϹܤɽƤ纮𤷤Ƥ롥ֱѸ줬פȤֱѸǶ뤫黻ʬʤפȤäͳǡйݤΩäƤȤҶĶϡײƤϤʤäơѸϥϰǤŤôˤʤꡤ¾ϰǤϻŤôˤʤäƤΤ¾ȤեԥϡֱѸפΩäƤ롥IJǤϱѸƤԤʤ졤ΤαѸǤ롥ģʸ⤹٤ƱѸǤ졤ΤȤˤϤȤǽ줿ʪۤΤǤ롥ģǤѸ줬Ȥ졤ҾҲȯɽ⤹٤ƱѸǤ롥ڤǤäƤϤζ顦ʸݡľʤǤ顤ȤƤ֥եԥѡפܵǼȤǤȤϤʤάեԥŪҲŪθϡեԥͤŻ뤷Ū˹⤤ϰ̤ȻפޤꡤѸѤθϩΤƤʤȤȤ꤬롥Ȥˡˤ뾮عκϡʤȮȤƤ٤ȤγϤåäƤ롥եԥͤ褯Ȥ "tao" ʽ̱ʿ͡ˤȤϤ٤θǤ뤳Ȥ˺٤ǤϤʤ(286--88)
ˡ (294) ϡŪ˸ȡѸ춵ϥեԥͤռĤꥫʸƴ줵֤פȤƤեԥܤȤƤαѸμϡեԥ̱θؤǤפȸФۤɡ̱ռޤˤƤפȼ긷
ꥫѸϤä20ΥեԥƤȤϴְ㤤ʤꥫζˤꡤ1930ǯˤϼΨƤ뤷η̤ȤƸߤǤ⥢Ǥⶵ餬褯ʤǤ롥ѸѸȤΤʤ4ܤ¿οʤƤ뤳Ȥ顤αѸ礭Ƥ⤤롥ڤ䤫˸Ѹ¦̤¦ˤϡ¦̤Τ뤳Ȥ˺ƤϤʤʤ
7ܤˡ12ǯ˥եԥ˽Ф뵡äǥեԥͤȡ뵡äѸݤζϾع٥ǸľϤƤ뤳ȡȤϤѸμҲŪʸҤϤޤäꤨƤ餺̱줿륿ơޤѸҶ˶褦ȤƤ̤Ǥ뤳Ȥʤɤʹں桤ȱѸ줬ߤ˼ͳ˾ "Taglish" code-mixing ⡤̤˼ˤ
եԥ ESL 1ĤˤʤѸ줬ˤ¾ˤ͡ʥѥꤦ̤αѸˤϡΥѥ11ĤҤƤ椯ɬפΤ
סʪեԥˡ١ҡӡ1997ǯ.
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