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pidgin - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2021-11-20 Sat

#4590. World Englishes Υץ [world_englishes][variety][scottish_english][scots][tok_pisin][pidgin][creole][aave][south_africa][nigeria][singapore_english]

1120ڡˤ 13:00?14:30 ˡΩ̿عݸʸμŤֹݱѸʸ¿˴ؤغݸץץȤΰĤȤơ "English" "Englishes" ءפΥȥǤäƤޤΩ̿ؤܹޤǤΤ꤬ȤޤˡZoom ˤ뻲äǽǤΤǡؿΤΰ
ޤīǤ˥åפβ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) ǤϡΩ̿ءܹȤ̡ݱѸȤϲꤹ̤ԤʤäƤޤΤǡ⤼İƤߤƤ
ơ"World Englishes" ˴ؤֱȤȤǡΥ֥ȤƤ͡ʱѸΥץ򼨤Ȼפޤ "Englishes" ¿򼨤ʬڤȴʥץ󤲤ˤޤΤǡϤλιֱǤϡʲѤäϤ᤿ȻפäƤޤɤ

Northern English (Yorkshire): B. Hines, Kes (1968) [qtd. in Gramley 198]

Hey up, where's tha been? They've been looking all over for thee.


Scots Leid: Aboot William Loughton Lorimer (2009) [qtd. in Gramley 201]

Lorimer haed aye been interestit in the Scots leid (syne he wis a bairn o nine year auld he haed written doun Scots wirds an eedioms) an his kennin o the strauchles o minority leids that he got frae his readins o the nautral press durin the Weir led him tae feel that something needit daein tae rescue the Scots laid.


Tok Pisin: from Mühlhäusler (1986) [qtd. in Gramley 223]

em i tok se papa i gat sik ["he said that the father was sick"]


Hawaiian Creole English: from Bickerton (1981) [qtd. in Gramley 226]

Jan bin go wok a hospital ["John would have worked at the hospital"]


Jamaican Creole: "William Saves His Sweetheart" [qtd. in Gramley 238]

nóu wants dér wáz, a úol wíč liedi lív, had wán són, níem av wiljəm. ["Once upon a time there was an old witch, who had a son whose name was William."]


AAVE (= African American Vernacular English): A. Walker, The Color Purple (1982) [qtd. in Gramley 269]

I seen my baby girl. I knowed it was her. She look just like me and my daddy.


Cape Flats SAfE: Malan (1996) [qtd. in Gramley 300]

Now me and E. speaks English. And when we went one day to a workshop --- and uh, most of the teachers there were Africaans --- and we were there; they were looking at us like that you know. And I asked E., "Why's this people staring at us?" She said, "No, I don't know."


Nigerian English: "Igbo Girls Like Money a Lot" (2006) (qted. in Gramley 319)

Igbo girls are hardworking, smart, successful and independent so ain't nuffin wrong in them lookin for a hardoworkin, successful man. if u ain't gats the money, they aint gon want u cos u below their level of achievement.


Hong Kong English: Joseph (2004) [qtd. in Gramley 321]

However, as Hong Kong is going through an economic down turn recently, we shall have to see. . . Last year we have raised more than two million Hong Kong Dollars.


Singapore English [qtd. in Gramley 328]

The tans [= military unit] use to stay in Sarangoon.


Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

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2021-09-26 Sun

#4535. 2üԤκ --- Bilingual Mixed Languages [contact][pidgin][creole][creoloid][terminology][code-switching][bilingualism]

2üԤɤ2Ĥθδ֤Ԥ褷ʤä code-switching code-mixing ȤΤƤ롥Ϥޤξδ֤Ԥ褷Ƥ륳ߥ˥βȤƤߤ٤Τǡξ򸻤Ȥ벿餫οѼ郎ޤ줿ȤȤˤϤʤʤ
ʤˤϤΤ褦ʥߥ˥ΥѥȤƲвȤ٤Τˤʤ礬롥θѼ "bilingual mixed languages" ȸƤФ롥#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1]) ˾Ȥ餻С"extreme language mixture" ̾βǡԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) Ʊ˰ѼǤ롥ԥ䥯쥪Ȥ¿ۤʤäƤ롥Winford (170) βѤ褦

There is general consensus that bilingual mixed languages are composites of materials drawn from just two languages. In what are perhaps the prototypical cases, the grammar is derived primarily from one of the languages, and the lexicon primarily from the other. Examples include Anglo-Romani and Media Lengua (a blend of Spanish lexicon and Quechua grammar). However, the neat separation of grammar and vocabulary by respective source language is not found in all cases. There are cases where structural materials are derived from both sources, as in Michif, which combines French NP structure with Cree VP structure. Whatever the nature of the mixture might be, there is agreement that the resulting outcome is a new creation, distinct from either of its source languages.


"bilingual mixed languages" ϡ̾Ȥꡤ2ѤԤʤƤĶˤ롥ħŪʤΤϡǤγơθͳ褹ΤΤ˶̤뤳ȤޤŵŪ˥ԥ˴ѻ褦ñ㲽 (simplification) ۤȤʤȤħ⼨
ȤƤϡץä륢ӥȥꥷ줬 Kormakiti Arabicꥷȥȥ륳줬 Asia Minor Greekȥ٥åȸ줬 Wutunޥˡȥڥ줬 CalóȥХȥ줬 Ma'aڥȥ奢줬 Media Lengua, ե󥹸ȥ꡼줬 Michifȥ塼ȸ줬 Mednyj (Copper Island) Aleut ʤɤ롥Ǹ2ĤˤĤƤϡ#1717. dual-source κ ([2014-01-08-1]) Ǥ夲

Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.

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2021-08-20 Fri

#4498. ѸȺŬ [ot][phonology][world_englishes][pidgin][contact][sociolinguistics]

ҲŪʸ̮ǵ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹ (world_englishes) ȡȤƤκŬ (Optimality Theory; ot) 2ĤȤ߹碌ƹͤƤߤ뤳ȤʤɡޤǤʤäUffmann ޤˤΤ褦ͤ󼨤Ƥ롥
"World Englishes and Phonological Theory" Ȥ򸫤Ȥˤϡ͡ʱѸѼβ٤ơŬˤŪ褦ȤΤȻפäɤ⤽櫓ǤϤʤ褦ˤɸȤƤϤΤ褦ʤȤͤƤΤ⤷ʤͤǤϡ Vernacular Liberian English (cf. #1697. Liberia ι ([2013-12-19-1])) ȤL2ѸѼβħL1ʤΥ󥭥󥰡ˤۤ줿Ȥͳ褹ȤΤˡŬѤƤ롥
ɷŪʸäܿ (contact) ȤƼҲŪȡηϤ˴ؤŪȤŬΥ󥭥󥰤𤷤ƷӤĤȤФ褤ʸξԤηӤĤɬ䤫󼨤줿櫓ǤϤʤޤǺβȤƼˤȤɤޤäƤϤ롥Ǥ⡤̤ȤƤͭ˾Uffmann (79--80) ϼΤ褦˸̤Ƥ롥

   We also still do not have a clear idea of how the social factors in language contact interface with the formal properties of a grammar. With respect to creoles, Uffmann . . . suggests that there are three main processes at work whose relative weighting will depend on the exact nature of the contact situation: (a) transfer of substrate rankings, (b) levelling across substrates, which will be levelling to the unmarked (unless the marked option is shared by a majority of speakers), that is, choosing the ranking from the pool of grammars in which markedness constraints are ranked highest, and (c) acquisition of the superstrate grammar, as reranking via constraint demotion . . . . How does this proposal transfer to other contact varieties?
   In this context, a particularly interesting model to look at could be the Dynamic Model of postcolonial Englishes proposed in Schneider (2007; this volume). It is interesting not only because it is the best developed framework to date to account for all postcolonial varieties, from settler varieties, via nativized varieties, to pidgins and creoles. Its special relevance lies in the fact that it links sociolinguistic and socio-historical conditions to identify construction and to linguistic effects. Why and how then do specific contact settings yield specific linguistic outcomes? How could this proposal tie in with Uffmann's model of constraint transfer, levelling to the unmarked and reranking (as acquisition)? This chapter cannot answer these questions. It can only serve as a call for more serious research in this field. Linking World Englishes to phonological theory and applying the models of phonological theorizing to varieties of English from around the world can be an exciting endeavour, and it is to be hoped that it can enrich our understanding of both the processes that lead to the emergence of new Englishes and of the fundamental principles that underlie phonological computation and processing.


ǤϡܿҲŪѥ᡼ζ١ظαƶŪ¸ߡȤäؤüüޤǤʤ򡤺ŬΥ󥭥󥰤Ȥ1Ĥ֤˼̤ƤȤ롥
ŬˤĤƤϡ#3848. 󥭥󥰤 "Optimality Theory" ([2019-11-09-1])#3867. Optimality Theory --- äʹΥˡθ줿 ([2019-11-28-1])#1581. Optimality Theory Ρϡס ([2013-08-25-1])#3910. Ŭ (Optimality Theory) Υ󥭥ɽɤ ([2020-01-10-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ΰѤǻȤƤ Schneider "Dynamic Model" ˤĤƤϡε#4497. ݥȥ˥ѸѼ˴ؤ Schneider Dynamic Model ([2021-08-19-1]) 򻲾ȡ

Uffmann, Christian. "World Englishes and Phonological Theory." Chapter 4 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 63--83.
Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.

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2021-08-16 Mon

#4494. "South Seas Jargon" --- ʿκ [world_englishes][variety][pidgin][tok_pisin]

ε#4493. αѸѼˡ --- Mesthrie and Bhatt 12ס ([2021-08-15-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ʬ (k) Jargon Englishes 1Ȥơ19 "South Seas Jargon" 󤲤Ƥ롥ʿκפȲ᤹٤ѸѼ̤ΤΡˤǡ¾θƤ̾⤢褦ˤĤ McArthur λŵĴ٤Ƥߤ

PACIFIC JARGON ENGLISH, also South Seas English, South Seas Jargon, Jargon. A trade jargon used by 19c traders and whalers in the Pacific Ocean, the ancestor of Melanesian Pidgin English. The whalers first hunted in the eastern Pacific but by 1820 were calling regularly at ports in Melanesia and took on crew members from among the local population. The sailors communicated in Jargon, which began to stabilize on plantations throughout the Pacific area after 1860, wherever Islanders worked as indentured labourers.


19ΥͥǡΤϸǰ׾ͤߤΥߥ˥Τ˻ѤƤǤꡤʿϰΥץơǹ夹뤳Ȥˤʤԥ "Melanesian Pidgin English" εȤʤäѼǤ롥Ǥϡȯã "Melanesian Pidgin English" ȤϤʤΤƱ McArthur λŵꡥ

MELANESIAN PIDGIN ENGLISH, also Melanesian Pidgin. The name commonly given to three varieties of Pidgin spoken in the Melanesian states of Papua New Guinea (Tok Pisin), Solomon Islands (Pijin), and Vanuatu (Bislama). Although there is a degree of mutual intelligibility among them, the term is used by linguists to recognize a common historical development and is not recognized by speakers of these languages. The development of Melanesian Pidgin English has been significantly different in the three countries. This is due to differences in the substrate languages, the presence of European languages other than English, and differences in colonial policy. In Papua New Guinea, there was a period of German administration (1884--1914) before the British and Australians took over. The people of Vanuatu were in constant contact with the French government and planters during a century of colonial rule (1880--1980). However, Solomon Islanders have not been in contact with any European language other than English.


"Melanesian Pidgin English" 켫Τ⡤Ū˾ܤߤʣѼνΤȤ٤ΤȤƤϸߤˤ褯Ƥ뤷ƶط⤢ä褦Ǥ롥ѥץ˥塼˥ Tok Pisin, Solomon Pijin, Х̥Ĥ Bislama ߴطˤĤƤϡ#1688. Tok Pisin ([2013-12-10-1])#1689. ʿϰΥԥȥ쥪θá ([2013-12-11-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
Υͥι񡹤ǤϳƥԥѸ줬 lingua_franca ȤƹѤƤ뤬ˤϤ150--200ǯۤɤʤȤȤˤʤ롥#1536. ǤʤعǤλѤػߤƤ Bislama ([2013-07-11-1]) ⤪⤷

McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.

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2021-08-15 Sun

#4493. αѸѼˡ --- Mesthrie and Bhatt 12 [model_of_englishes][world_englishes][new_englishes][variety][pidgin][creole][esl][efl][enl]

ε#4492. αѸѼˡ --- Gupta 5ס ([2021-08-14-1]) ˰³αѸѼˡˤĤơ World Englishes ȤХܤ路 Mesthrie and Bhatt (3--10) ˤ12פؤʬҲ𤷤Ʊ͡Schneider (44) ͳƼ

(a) Metropolitan standards (i.e. the "respected mother state's" norm as opposed to colonial offspring, i.e. in our case British English and American English as national reference forms).
(b) Colonial standards (the standard forms of the former "dominions," i.e. Australian, New Zealand, Canadian, South African English, etc.).
(c) Regional dialects (of Britain and North America, less so elsewhere in settler colonies).
(d) Social dialects (by class, ethnicity, etc.; including, e.g. Broad, General and Cultivated varieties in Australia, African American Vernacular English, and others).
(e) Pidgin Englishes (originally rudimentary intermediate forms in contact, and nobody's native tongue; possibly elaborated in complexity, e.g. West African Pidgin Englishes).
(f) Creole Englishes (fully developed but highly structured, hence of questionable relatedness to the lexifier English; e.g. Jamaican Creole).
(g) English as a Second Language (ESL) (postcolonial countries where English plays a key role in government and education; e.g. Kenya, Sri Lanka).
(h) English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (English used for external and international purposes; e.g. China, Europe, Brazil).
(i) Immigrant Englishes (developed by migrants to an English-dominant country; e.g. Chicano English in the United States)).
(j) Language-shift Englishes (resulting from the replacement of an ancestral language by English; possibly, like Hiberno English, becoming a social dialect in the end).
(k) Jargon Englishes (unstable pre-pidgins without norms and with great individual variation, e.g. South Seas Jargon in the nineteenth century)
(l) Hybrid Englishes (mixed codes, prestigious among urban youths; e.g. "Hinglish" mixing Hindi and English).


Ѹʻѡˤˡϰ̡ǽ4ĤΥѥ᡼Ȥ߹碌ʬȤ롥ºݤ¸ߤʤˤȤѸѼ夷Ƥ봶롥ϳ餵ʬȤ櫓ǤϤʤʬǤϡʣΥƥ꡼ˤޤäƽ°Ƥޤ褦ʱѸѼ⤢ΤǤϤʤ

Schneider, Edgar W. "Models of English in the World." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 35--57.
Mesthrie, Rajend and Rakesh M. Bhatt. World Englishes: The Study of New Linguistic Varieties. Cambridge: CUP, 2008.

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2021-08-10 Tue

#4488. Ѹ줬ʬۤ̾Ƥȸߤλ [history][world_englishes][irish_english][japanese][french][spanish][portuguese][pidgin][lesser-know_varieties]

ѸϡΥ󥬡ե (lingua_franca) Ȥʬۤ礵Ƥ롥ѸϤ̣ǤϡϤ뤫ΡΦꡤ֥ƥΥ̱²俷Φ轻̱Ϥ¿̱²θʬۤ̾ʬۤ礵Ƥˤġ
츫ȡ餱Τ餺פθΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤɬ⤽ǤϤʤ¾θȤζԤʬۤ̾ꡤȤԻѤȤʤ礹餢äߤ⤽Τ褦ʻ㤬ߤΤǤ롥ϡαѸʻˡˤΰճʻ򤤤ĤߤƤȤΤ Trudgill "English in Retreat" ꤹ (27--29) Ǥ롥
Ū˸ŤȤϤȡ12--15Υɤλ㤬롥Henry II ϡ1171ǯ˥󥰥Υޥ󷳤ǥɿΰ˱ѸüԤϤ䤬Ƹϲ˻ꡤѸ줬ŤȤϤʤäѸȤƤ˾ܳŪʬ۳˼ԤäȤcf. #1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1])#2361. ǯɽ ([2015-10-14-1]
ȸ˶Ť19ΤȤˤʤ뤬䤿ˤȤä˽פ --- ۤȤΤƤʤ --- Ѹ̤λ㤬롥ϤʤȾ޸Ǥ롥ηϤȤ̵ͤä1543ǯ˥ڥͤˤȯ졤θ塤˲ƷϤο͡ˤʤߡ19ˤϱѸ١Ρ־޸ԥѸ (Bonin English) ŸƤ19ȾܤϤͭẖ̂ܤؤεʤ᤿̡ܸ줬ͥȤʤꡤߤޤǤ˾޸ԥѸϤۤѤȤʤäƤ롥ܤϡ#2559. ޸αѸ ([2016-04-29-1])#2596. ־޸ȤСפ ([2016-06-05-1])#3353. ޸ִ50ǯ ([2018-07-02-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
ߤλǤСʥΥ٥å󤲤롥ե󥹸줬ͥƱˤơѸ줬ΩƤ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤcf. #1733. Canada ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-24-1])ˡͤε°ռ꤬ؤäƤꡤαѸפȤɤñʬۤ򹭤櫓ǤϤʤȤ褯Ƥ롥
ޤޤΤƤʤꥫΥֳߤˤ⡤ѸüԽĤǤʤŪҲŪΩƤ͡νޤϤߤƤ롥Υ롼Ĥ19ȾꥸޥʤɤꥫΦϰŸ͡ǡФȤƼҲŪϰ̤㤤ĤȤߤʤƤߤǤ⡤ϢƹθѸǤ륹ڥΤۤҿ⤯ϤǤϱѸѤΥåƥ뤬ĥƤ롥Ϣ뵭Ȥơ#1679. The West Indies αѸ ([2013-12-01-1])#1702. ֳϰؤΰ̱νпϡ ([2013-12-24-1])#1711. ֳϰαѸγȻ ([2014-01-02-1])#1713. ƤαѸBay Islands ([2014-01-04-1])#1714. ƤαѸBluefields Puerto Limon ([2014-01-05-1])#1731. English as a Basal Language ([2014-01-22-1]) 󤲤Ƥ
ۤˤ⡤19ȾФ˥ꥫԼԤȤʤä֥ͤ饸ƨ줿¹֥饸˱ѸüԽĤȤ餷Ƥ뤬ƱθѸǤݥȥ˲Ǥ롥ޤ1890ǯ˼ҲŪ桼ȥԥƥѥ饰˰ܽȥꥢͤλ¹餷Ƥ뤬Ԥδ֤ǤϤθǤ Guaraní ؤθؤʹǤ롥
Ѹϲˤ⸽ߤˤ餱Τ餺פä櫓ǤϤʤ

Trudgill, Peter. "The Spread of English." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes. Ed. by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola, and Devyani Sharma. New York: OUP, 2017. 14--34.

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2021-05-24 Mon

#4410. ܿη̤˴ؤ礭ʸ [contact][typology][borrowing][language_shift][pidgin][creole]

ܿ (contact) θǡǯäȤƶϤäȤ Thomason and Kaufman Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics (1988) źθܿλƤ͡ʴ෿褦Ȥ˲ͤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤ʲΤ褦ʵǾҲ𤷤Ƥʤۤεɤˡ

#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1])
#1780. ܿȼѤμ١ ([2014-03-12-1])
#1781. ܿ෿ ([2014-03-13-1])

Winford (23--24) Thomason and Kaufman ʬŪ˰͵򤷤Ĥ "Major outcomes of language contact" ꤹ෿ɽäƤ롥ָܿη̤˴ؤ礭ʸޡפȤäƤ褤ܿݤ˾˼긵֤ƤȤĤǡʲ˼  *

Winford's

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Winford, Donald. An Introduction to Contact Linguistics. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-18-1] [2021-06-02-1]

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2021-04-09 Fri

#4365. ԥ䥯쥪˴ؿä餳 [pidgin][creole][hel_education][world_englishes][review][khelf_hel_intro_2021]

ȤDZѸ١Υԥ (pidgin) 䥯쥪 (creole) ä򤹤ȡ¿ȿ롥䤿ΤäƤɸѸȤϤޤ˰ۤʤäƤꡤɬ֤졤Ѹ졩Ȥȿ֤äƤΤѸΰΤ褦ǤʤѸǤʤ뤤ϵդˡѸǤϤʤΤ˲ȤʤѸݤȤŪ¸ߤ񿴤ͶΤ
ܥ֥Ǥ⡤ԥ䥯쥪ˤĤƤ͡˰äƤޤԤԤޤǤꤽεåᤷƤϢ뤹٤Ƥεɤߤϡpidgin creole ɤ
ԥ䥯쥪˴ؤƽ񤫤줿ܤȤƤϡѸŪʴΩäԤȤơ߷ ͧˡαѸ줬Ǥޤǡ᤹롥Ѹ˸ΥȥɤȤʤäƤƤѸ (world_englishes) ˾Ƥɤߤ䤹Ǥ롥
46Ω夲ֱѸƳ2021ΰĤȤơѸ˥ƥĤåפƤƤ롥줿ƥĤԥȥ쥪˴ؤ֤졤Ѹ졩Ǥ롥Ҥ߷μȤ˱ƶȤˤԥȥ쥪ƳƥĤǡ˰פ񤤤Ƥ줿Ѹˤδԥ졦쥪ƶäƤսϤȤ櫓סҳ⤴ɤ

߷ ͧαѸ줬Ǥޤǡ١˼2016ǯ.

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2018-11-06 Tue

#3480. ;ΤȤϲ (3) [person][category][personal_pronoun][deixis][title][pidgin][fetishism]

ɸϡ[2018-10-20-1], [2018-10-25-1]ε³ԡؿѸؼŵ٤ The Oxford Companion to the English Language ꡤ ʿ;ΡˤȤѸȡ̣줿Ѹο;̾ˡξܺ٤ˤĤƤ꤬Ȥʤ뤬ֿ;ΡפȤեŪѤαָ롥Ĥ󤲤褦

Well, and how are we today? ʤɤˤֿƿȤ we (paternal we) ϡ1;ΡʣˤȤο;Ρ (generic person) 뤤ϡֶ̿;ΡפȤ٤as we know ʤɤƱ͡
;Τλؼоݤȿ;Τʸˡο񤤤ϰۤʤ롧Ȥ the (present) writer, the author, the speaker ʤɤϡؼоݤ1;Τʸˡ3;ΤǤ롥Ʊͤ your Majesty, your Excellency ʤɤؼоݤ2;Τʸˡ3;ΤǤ롥Does His Majesty wish to leave? Does Madam wish to look at some other hats? ʤɤ򻲾ȡϢơ#440. ˻ĤɾΤ you ([2010-07-11-1]) ⡥
դˡMother, where are you? Τ褦ʸƤӤǤϡ3;Ū̾Ѥʤ⡤2;Ṳ̄ǻ
Ƽ Pidgin English Ǥ "inclusive" 1;ʣ yumi (< "you-me") ȡ"exclusive" 1;ʣ mipela (< "me-fellow") ̤ (cf. #1313. ɤΤ餤ŤޤǸ̤뤳ȤǤ뤫 ([2012-11-30-1]))
royal we Ȥƥꥹ餷Victoria ˤ We are not amused. ʢ1٤ǤäƤߤˤ򻲾ȡ
ܸ֤ʤɡˡפϳơ123;Τбȹͤ롥ʢʤۤɡ

⿮ ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.

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2018-07-02 Mon

#3353. ޸ִ50ǯ [pidgin][creole][japanese][timeline][lesser-know_varieties]

޸ִ50ǯ꤬ǥǼ夲Ƥ롥628ִäīʹǥꡤĤεؤΥ󥯤ĥ1830ǯ˽ƾ޸ؤäƤꥫͥܥ졼λ¹μ̿ߤ롥

䳤硤ұۤʸϤ礦޸ִԣǯ
֤ޤϥɥޡ仺޸οʱ̿
褬嫤־޸ִԤβΡá
˴̴פˡɤ夤޸̱Ϻ

޸θˡüǤꡤ#2559. ޸αѸ ([2016-04-29-1]) ȡ#2596. ־޸ȤСפ ([2016-06-05-1]) ˤƤޤʬäƤʤȤ¿Τ캮ǻ̩Ĺ®ƤˤĤȤָΰפȸƤФƤʥ󥰡p. 155ˡ
ʲ71īʹī˷ǺܤƤ־޸ǯɽפѤƤ޸ˡߡ̤ۤڤޤ礦

1830ǯ˲Ƥʿν󽽿Ͱܽ
76ǯܤͭ
82ǯƷ̱餬
95ǯο͸4ͤˡʺ1944ǯ7711͡
1941ǯʿȯ
45ǯ2Ƴʼ⤬βΦԤƹ¦6821͡¦21Ķ8
46ǯƷ̱129ͤ
52ǯե󥷥¾ȯ޸硦졦ƹ
65ǯܿ͵̱軲
68ǯ626޸ִԡܿͤεϤޤ
72ǯ4֤
76ǯ5硦֤
79ǯ4褬޸¼
83ǯ6޸ڴ֤á¨äǽ
88ǯλԾ߰Ƥɽ
96ǯԾͽϤǴʪĤꡤԾƤű
2005ǯĶ®ײ褬ܺ
2011ǯ6仺Ͽ7֥ߤϾǥİ®ǡ̿ǽ


󥰡˥롡¾ܿ˼Ҳء޸ξס˼Ҳ١ʹ ԡë ʡ ջҡˡˡ罤ۡ2015ǯ134--55ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2026-04-16-1] [2021-08-10-1]

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2018-04-11 Wed

#3271. Ѳ multiple causation ƹ [causation][multiple_causation][contact][pidgin][creole][link]

ɸˤĤƤϡʲεϤȤƲ٤ƤθѲؤδؿΥˤǤ롥

#443. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ ([2010-07-14-1])
#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1])
#1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1])
#1582. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (2) ([2013-08-26-1])
#1584. Ūװȸ쳰ŪװϤɤ餬פ (3) ([2013-08-28-1])
#1977. Ѳˤܿν (1) ([2014-09-25-1])
#1978. Ѳˤܿν (2) ([2014-09-26-1])
#1986. Ѳ multiple causation 뤤 "synergy" ([2014-10-04-1])
#3152. Ѳ "multiple causation" ([2017-12-13-1])

ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ܳŪ˹ Hopper and Traugott (213) ˡؤθڤ롥

. . . distinctions are often made in historical work between "internal" and "external" factors in change. Roughly speaking, "internal" change is associated with child language acquisition in a relatively homogeneous speech community, and "external" change with contact, whether with communities speaking dialects of the "same language" or other languages. This distinction is essentially similar to the contrast regarding the locus of change between mind/brain and grammar (= "internal") and social interaction and use (= "external"). . . . [S]uch a polarization obscures the realities of language change, in which structure and use, cognitive and social factors continually interact: "speakers' mutual accommodations can draw materials from either the same linguistic system or separate ones" (Mufwene 2001: 15). This is nowhere clearer than in pidgin and creole situations, where the notion of "homogeneous speech community" is typically not appropriate, and where, as we will see, second language acquisition plays a significant role in structural innovation.


ѲǤŪװȳŪװʬ뤬ζΤǤϤʤˤξԤȤ߹蘆äƸѲʤळȤ¿ȤޤäȤʸȻפ¿θѲˤϡmultiple causation ͿƤ롥

Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
Mufwene, Salikoko S. The Ecology of Language Evolution. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2017-12-11 Mon

#3150. ܿϸñˤ뤫ʣˤ뤫 [contact][language_change][geolinguistics][linguistic_area][pidgin][creole][creoloid][koineisation]

ܿ (contact) ϸñˤΤ뤤ʣˤΤźθܿλ򻲾ȤȡΥ⤢ΤƤ롥Trudgill ˤĤƤΤǡҲ𤷤褦ޤܿϸʣ˴ͿȤˤĤơ

. . . there is considerable evidence that language contact can lead to an increase in linguistic complexity. This appears to occur as a result of the addition of features transferred from one language to another . . . . This is then additive change in which new features derived from neighboring languages do not replace existing features but are acquired in addition to them. A sociolinguistic-typological consequence of language contact is therefore that languages which have experienced relatively high degrees of contact are more likely to demonstrate relatively higher degrees of this type of additive complexity than languages which have not. (301)


ȴϢơϰؤΩ줫顤बޤ䤹Ū¿äŪñʸ칽¤򼨤䤹 "spread zones" Ȥư²ιԤʤƤϰʤɡˤȡȿФ˸Ū¿ʣħŤ "residual zones" Ȥƥ˥塼˥ʤɡˤȤǰˤĤƤ⿨Ƥ롥Ĥޤꡤ"contact among languages fosters complexity, or, put differently, diversity among neighbouring languages fosters complexity in each of the languages" (303) ǤȤĤιͻФȤǾ嵭ŤΤβսǤ롥

We can thus take seriously the sociolinguistic-typological hypothesis that languages spoken in high-contact societies are relatively more likely to have relatively more complexity, not just in terms of having more features such as grammatical categories and articulation types, but also in terms of possessing features which are inherently more complex. (305--06)


ǡŪʤ⡤ܿñ㲽⤿餹ϹǧƤʤۤˡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ⻲Ȥ줿ˡ

. . . the paradox here is that contact can also, and just as clearly, lead to simplification. This is very well known, and is a point which has been made by many writers. Pidgins, creoles, and creoloids . . . are all widely agreed to owe their relative structural simplicity to language contact; and koines to dialect contact . . . . (306)


ǤϡܿΤʤ¦̤ʣñ㲽ꤹΤTrudgill ϡܿζ١֡콬˴ؤ׳ȤװŦƤ롥׳ȤϡפˡܿиƤο͡ҶͤȤ㤤Ǥ롥Trudgill ηϰʲ̤ꡥ

1 high-contact, long-term pre-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to additive (and only additive) complexification;
2 high-contact, short-term post-critical threshold contact situations are more likely to lead to simplification;
3 low contact situations are likely to lead to preservation of existing complexity.


Ӻ෿Τ褦ˤ⸫뤬̣Ǥ롥

Trudgill, Peter. "Contact and Sociolinguistic Typology." The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 299--319.

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2017-11-01 Wed

#3110. 붵ո [japanese][pidgin][code-switching][bilingualism][sociolinguistics][variety]

ꥫͤǥ̤붵դ㤤2ǯ֤ۤɶ彣ȲںߤƤȤѤƤȤ붵ոפ "Senkyoshigo" ˴ؤʸɤൡ񤬤äSenkyoshigo 붵֤ΤǾѤդǤꡤܸͳƸ¿Ѥħ롥Senkyoshigo ȤäʸɮԤ Smout ϡ餽δ̯ʸդ˶ä䤬Ƥä괷ƤޤɸѸäΤ񤷤ʤäƤޤäȤ㤨СΤ褦1򸫤Ƥߤ褦ʸ fud ϡ֤Ϥסdish-chan Ȥϡ֤פȤȤǡֻפؤ褦

Hey dode, okinasai! It's time I got a start on asagohan so we can have some oishii muffins before benkyokai. You're dish-chan this week, so you go take the first fud. Come on in and I'll show you how to tsukeru the mono.


(1) ܸ lexifier ȤԥΤ褦Ǥ⤢ꡤ(2) ξΥХ󥬥ˤ code-switching Τ褦Ǥ⤢ꡤ(3) ͷӿǺ夲ͷΤ褦Ǥ⤢롥ºݡ붵ոפ3Τ줫ŪΤ˶ʬ뤳ȤϤǤˤʤʼҲ˸ŪˤϤ֤˰֤Ȥۤʤ̯ʸѼ뤤ϸѤǤ롥
ʸǤϤŪʰ֤ŤƤΤǽŪˤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥

   Senkyoshigo is clearly a phenomenon that cannot be adequately categorized within current linguistic terms. In terms of its origin and its similarity to varieties that have been previously classified as pidgins, it is a pidgin. In terms of the rule that govern its interface with Japanese and English, it is bilingual code-switching. In terms of its rather ordinary English grammar, its lack of speakers who rely on it as a sole means of communication, and the playful exuberance with which it is used, it is is (sic) a recreational language. In the final analysis, the most important factors that determine the label one affixs (sic) to this variety will probably be social and political. Those who think the phenomenon is significant and interesting will tend not to equate it with a child's language game but will see in it examples of other linguistic processes at work. They may classify it as a near-pidgin which has not stabilized because it remains in the presence of its lexifier language and because its most proficient speakers use it for only two years of their lives. Alternately, they may classify it as early bilingualism that would stabilize and regularize in a society that allowed continuing roles to emerge for each variety. For those who do not particularly value the language or find it interesting, it will probably seem to be a recreational language which in some minds ought to be suppressed but in most deserves only to be ignored.
   No matter how we label it, this missionary English of Japan is an unusual language phenomenon.


ѸܸȤ2Ĥθζ֤ˤäơ붵ȤŪΤ2ǯۤɤؤ³ȤतޤʼҲŪĶĸ춦ƱΡޤ˼Ҳؤ¸Ǥ롥Τ̾Ѽ4λȤơܸθѤѸѼȸ뤳ȤǤ
ϢƼѤ code-switching κۤäƤϡ#1661. Ѥ code-switching ζ֡ ([2013-11-13-1])#1985. Ѥܿˤ봳Ĥζ֡ ([2014-10-03-1])#2009. ؤˤܿ2 ([2014-10-27-1]) 򻲾ȡܤˤԥˤĤƤϡ#2596. ־޸ȤСפ ([2016-06-05-1]) ɤ
ʤߤˡʸؤĹˡֵʬžˡפȤҲ𤤤ΤǤĹ꤬Ȥޤޤ˵ʬžˡ

Smout, Kary D. "Senkyoshigo: A Missionary English of Japan." American Speech 63.2 (1988): 137--49.

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2016-08-19 Fri

#2671. Ѹˤ flat adverb λ [adverb][flat_adverb][dialect][pidgin][creole][estuary_english][ame]

ѸˤƻƱ flat_adverb ñˤλѤˤĤơ#982. ꥫѸθѽФ flat adverb ([2012-01-04-1])#983. flat adverb μ ([2012-01-05-1])#993. flat adverb ˤĤƤ줳 ([2012-01-15-1])#996. flat adverb ΤӤӤʡ ([2012-01-18-1])#997. real bad ȡ֤Фס ([2012-01-19-1]) ʤɤǿƤȤƥꥫѸθ졦¯϶ɽȤѤ뷹ȽҤ٤
ɸѸǤ flat adverb ϤۤΩʤȤ뤬ɸѸγܤСλѤ20ȾˤƤ⹭𤵤Ƥ (Tagliamonte 73--74) ФСɸŪסָŪסֶܤΤʤס罰ŪפʤɤΥ졼٥뤬Ž뤬DZΧԹǡֻŪפˤѤ롥˥ԥ졤쥪졤ꥫѸä Appalachian and Ozark EnglishˤǤʹ뤷Tristan da Cunha Channel Islands αѸʤνѼdzǧƤ롥ꥹǤ⡤ʲ˸褦˽Ǥ̤˻ѤƤ뤷Estuary English ǤŵŪʹ롥Ĥޤꡤ¿αѸѼ flat adverb ѤƤΤΤ٤Ƥ1ĤṲ̄ȤϸڤʤŪ flat adverb η³Ȥ륱ϾʤʤȻפ롥
Tagliamonte ϡ"Roots Archive" ȸƤФ륤ꥹˤåѥˤꡤCumnock (south-west Scotland), Cullybackey (Northern Ireland), Maryport (Cumbria) 3Ǥ flat adverb λΨĴflat adverb ٤ȡб -ly ٤Ȥ碌100%761ˤȤȤԤΨϡCumnock 49%Cullybackey 47%Maryport 18%ä (Tagliamonte 77) ˤä flat adverb λΨ˥ХĥϤ뤷ޤ켫Τۤʤ褦ˤƤ褷٤㤯ʤȡޤ flat adverb ϶ŪŪʰ̣Ѥ뤳Ȥ¿ȤʬäȤʺǸˤĤƤϡ#1174. Ѹñ -ly Υڥ ([2012-07-14-1]) 򻲾ȡˡΤ褦ɸѼܤСflat adverb ϸߤߤȤäƤ褵
flat adverb ˤˤĤƤϡ˥󥯤ĥäΤۤ#984. flat adverb ϥƥϤηƻ줬ƻ򳫤 ([2012-01-06-1])#998. Ѹ flat adverb -ly adverb ([2012-01-20-1])#1172. ѸΥƥñ ([2012-07-12-1])#1190. Ѹˤȯã ([2012-07-30-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

Tagliamonte, Sali A. Roots of English: Exploring the History of Dialects. Cambridge: CUP, 2013.

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2016-06-05 Sun

#2596. ־޸ȤСפ [japanese][world_englishes][pidgin][creole][creoloid][code-switching][bilingualism][sociolinguistics][contact][lesser-know_varieties]

#2559. ޸αѸ ([2016-04-29-1]) ǡĤƾ޸äƤѸѼҲ𤷤ϰθˤϡ180ǯۤɤĹϤʤΤΡʣǤ롥 (134--35) ˤС޸ǻѤƤ͡ʸѼΤ־޸ȤСפȸƤ֤Ȥˤȡ־޸ȤСפŪϰʲΤ褦ꤹ뤳ȤǤ롥
19ˤϤ餯־޸ԥѸפäƤꡤ줬ȤƤΡ־޸९쥪ѸפؤȯŸ19ˤϡܸä͡餬¤ưΡ֥ܸ͡פ줿ơ20Ⱦ޸αѸܸ줬򤸤äԤθ (matrix language) Ȥ־޸פ줿Ȥ
Τ褦ɬʸŪ΢դƤΤǤϤʤŪʾڵ˴Ť˼ҲŪʴ¬ΥʥꥪǤ롥㤨С1ʳȤƤΡ־޸ԥѸפԤʤƤȤĥˤĤƤϡ (134--35) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

ޤϡѸظȤ־޸ԥѸפȤΤǤ롥19ˤ餯äƤǤȻפ뤳ȤФǤ뤬ºߤȤڵϤʤȤΤϡξ餹Сԥ󤬶̤Υߥ˥ʤȤƻȤƤȽǤΤϺǤǤϤ뤬ʸˡηϤξܺ٤Ǥ뤫Ǥ롥줬ߤ̤ʤ͡Ʊ˽ߡߥ˥ƥƤȤʬäƤΤǡ̤Υߥ˥ʤȤƥȯȹͤΤԼǤϤʤ̸ά͡


Ʊͤˡ־޸९쥪ѸפȯˤĤƤܺ٤ʬäƤʤξƤԥѸǥߥ˥äƤ¿äȤڵ򤬤뤿ᡤλҶ९쥪 (creoloid) ȹͤ뤳ȤϡʤĤȤľܤξڵ򤬤櫓ǤϤʤ
嵭ŪǺǸʳ־޸פˤĤƤ⡤򤯤٤꤬¿ĤƤ롥㤨СʤܸѼȱѸѼ郎2ʻ (bilingualism) 䥳ɥå (code-switching) ˤȤɤޤ餺¤ƺȤʤ˻äΤơʤκݤܸѼΤۤθȤʤäΤȤ˼ҲŪˤĤơ (148--55) ٤ͻԤʤäƤ뤬ˤϤʤ븦椬ɬפΤ褦Ǥ롥
(155) ϡʣʸ뤲Ƥ޸ξָΰפȰŪˤʤ館Ƥ롥

޸˼ҲؼԤˤȤäƤϸˤǤ롥Ǥ椨ˡ줾λˤƼҲŪװͤߤ뤳ȤŪñǤ롥μҲŪװȤϡ㤨Сäͤͤ餤ǡïȲۤƤ򤷤褷ƤïȴؤäƤʤɤװǤ롥
޸Τ褦Ϥ褯ȸƤФ롥Τ˳ŪΩƤ뤷Τ餽Ǥäꡤοʹ֤ߤ˵ڤܤƶθܿٹ礤ǻ
ϡڡˤΤ褦ʰŪʸҲǿɴǯ褦ѲϾ޸Τ褦ʸǤϿǯ٤ǵ롥ϸѲΡְפǤ롥


󥰡˥롡¾ܿ˼Ҳء޸ξס˼Ҳ١ʹ ԡë ̦ ջҡˡˡ罤ۡ2015ǯ134--55ǡ

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2016-04-29 Fri

#2559. ޸αѸ [world_englishes][pidgin][creole][map][lesser-know_varieties]

޸ϡѸ̾ Bonin Islands ȤͤǤʤäȤ顤ܸΡ̵͡ʤ֤ˤˡפͳ褹Ȥ⤬롥¤ϡˤǺǤΤƤʤѸüԤζƱΤ롥Trudgill Ѹ콸ꡤBonin Islands ι (18) Ƥߤ褦

Bonin Islands Perhaps the least-known anglophone community in the world, these Japanese-owned islands (Japanese Ogasawara-gunto) are in the central Pacific Ocean, about 500 miles southeast of Japan. The population is about 2,000. The islands were discovered by the Spanish navigator Ruy Lopez de Villalobos in 1543. They were then claimed by the USA in 1823 and by Britain in 1825. The originally uninhabited islands were first settled in 1830 by five seamen --- two Americans, one Englishman, one Dane and one Italian --- together with ten Hawaiians, five men and five women. This founding population was later joined by whalers, shipwrecked sailors and drifters of many different origins. The islands were annexed by Japan in 1876. The English is mainly American in origin and has many similarities with New England varieties.


޸硤硤3ˤޤྮ޸ˤʣǤ롥ȤȤ̵ͤϰǤꡤ1543ǯ˥ڥͥӥܥˤȯ줿ȤƤ롥ܿͤȤƤϡ˭ýȤ̿ҳ޸꤬1593ǯȯΤǽȹˤꤳȯԤ̾դ졤ߤ̾ΤȤʤ롥1675ǯܤϳޤ뤬ޤ1727ǯ˾޸²ˤ⼺ԤθгŪк鳫ȯĤϽФ줿¼Ūˤϼ¤ʤä
Ȥ뤦ˡ19Ⱦ˥ꥫˡꥹδˤ줾ơͭ1830ǯˤϥꥫͥܥ꡼餬ϥ磻ϽͤϢưܽ°äƱѴ֤ʶĤ⡤ΰܤ1862ǯΤȤͭܤϤΤȤȬ̱ΰܽƤԤƤ롥θ塤ܤ1873ǯ˽ܳŪʷбĤ˾轻Υꥫͤܤ˵2Ǥβ礬ƤηϤȤʤꡤϥꥫ˻ܤä1968ǯܤִԤ줿
άˤ狼̤ꡤ޸ǤϡͭͲǽʳ顤ܸǤϤʤʤѼΡ˱Ѹ줬äƤȤ롥αѸѼ᤯ԥ첽20ˤƤܸȺ¤ƥ쥪ȤʤäơΥǥƥƥȷӤĤ褦ˤʤäWikipedia: Bonin English ˤС20ˤǤ Bonin English ̤Ѥ줿Ȥäܸʤñ˲ʤǤƤȤΤȤǤ롥

Map of the Ogasawara Islands

Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.

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2016-04-03 Sun

#2533. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" (2) [terminology][pidgin][creole][language_change][terminology][tok_pisin][cognitive_linguistics][communication][teleology][causation][origin_of_language][evolution][prediction_of_language_change][invisible_hand]

ε ([2016-04-01-1]) ˰³"spaghetti junction" ˤĤơϡθݤ˴ؤ Aitchison 1989ǯʸɤΤǡݡȤ롥
Aitchison ϡѥץ˥塼˥ǹä Tok Pisin λꡦˡηϤ͡ʼʤκʤäƤȤȤ˰ӤΤˤʤäƤͻҤѻ "spaghetti junction" θ̤ˤΤTok Pisin ˸뤳Τ褦ηϤѲϡϢʤ¾Υԥ䥯쥪ǤѻƤꡤΤ2ĤΩͤ󵯤ƤȤ1Ĥ Bickerton ʤɤؼԤĥ褦ˡʸˡ˶ŪƯƤꡤѲɬŪˤηϤ˽뤹롤ȤΤΩϡŪ󤬥ҥȤΰҤȤ߹ޤƤꤹ뤿ᡤ"bioprogram" ȸƤФ롥⤦1Ĥιͤϡ졤ǧΡߥ˥˴ؤ͡ʰۤʤߤ˺Ѥ̡ǽŪ˻褦ʲФȤΤΩ줬 "spaghetti junction" Ǥ롥Aitchison (152) ϡ2ܤθʲΤ褦ٻƤ롥

This second approach regards a language at any particular point in time as if it were a spaghetti junction which allows a number of possible exit routes. Given certain recurring communicative requirements, and some fairly general assumptions about language, one can sometimes see why particular options are preferred, and others passed over. In this way, one can not only map out a number of preferred pathways for language, but might also find out that some apparent 'constraints' are simply low probability outcomes. 'No way out' signs on a spaghetti junction may be rare, but only a small proportion of possible exit routes might be selected.


Aitchison (169) ϡ2ĤΩΰ㤤͡ʸɽƤ롥"innate programming" Ф "probable rediscovery" ǤȤѲ "prophylaxis" ͽɡˤФ "therapy" ʼšˤǤʡͽɡפȡּšפˤĤƤϡ#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) 򻲾ȡˡAitchison ϡξΩȿΤȤϡŪ⤷ʤȹͤƤ褦
"spaghetti junction" ΩĤΤǤСθѲβϡФ䤹ƻڡפ򤤤ͽ¬뤫ȤȤˤʤAitchison (170) ϡʸ򼡤Τ褦᤯äƤ롥

A number of principles combined to account for the pathways taken, principles based jointly on general linguistic capabilities, cognitive abilities, and communicative needs. The route taken is therefore the result of the rediscovery of viable options, rather than the effect of an inevitable bioprogram. At the spaghetti junctions of language, few exits are truly closed. However, a number of converging factors lead speakers to take certain recurrent routes. An overall aim in future research, then, must be to predict and explain the preferred pathways of language evolution.


Τ褦ʸ̤ϸȯȽȯãˤ⿷ʸƤƤ뤫⤷ʤ͡褬ä˽װˤФ䤹ƻڡפѤ졤ˤĤʤηǤΤǤϤʤȡ

Aitchison, Jean. "Spaghetti Junctions and Recurrent Routes: Some Preferred Pathways in Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 151--71.

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2016-04-01 Fri

#2531. Ѳ "spaghetti junction" [terminology][pidgin][creole][language_change][terminology][invisible_hand]

ŪˤΥ줿2ĤΥ쥪줬˻ȯŸ򤿤ɤꡤ˻ħ˻뤳ȤФФ롥Aitchison (233--34) ˤȡΤ "bioprogram" "spaghetti junction" ȤȤԤ Bickerton ξǤꡤʹ֤ˤʪŪ˥ץव줿ļ̿ꡤ쥪ˤߤŪħϤɬŪ߽ФȤ (see #445. ԥȥ쥪ε˴ؤ ([2010-07-16-1])) Ԥϡ¿ƻϩ򺹤 spaghetti junction Τ褦ˡԥ줫饯쥪줬ȯãˤϡ͡ʲǽ߽ФΤΡǽ褬ˤФޤꡤǽŪˤ1Ĥνиؼ̤Ȥʥꥪ
ŪˤξȤꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤬ĴƤߤȡ٤ƤΥ쥪줬Ʊϩ򤿤ɤ櫓Ǥʤħȯ櫓ǤʤʤΤǡspaghetti junction ⤬ǤȡAitchison (234) Ƥ롥
spaghetti junction ⤬Ѳδ鶽̣Τϡ쥪ȯã˴ؤƤФǤϤʤ̾θѲ˴ؤƤƱ褦ˡꤹ뤳ȤǤ뤳Ȥ̾θѲˤ͡ʷϩΥץ󤬤Ȼפ뤬ΨŪˤϡˤ٤ηʤͽ¬ǽʬʤ꤬ѻΤ¤Ǥ롥ΰ̣Ǥϡۤɺ߹äƤʤ spaghetti junction ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ쥪ȯãȰۤʤΤϡȯã®٤ޤ®ⶹʣ¿ spaghetti junction 椷Ƥ褦ˤߤ
̾θѲȥ쥪ȯãΰ㤤⤷Τ褦®٤¸ˤʤΤǤСԤѻ뤳ȤϡԤǤѻ뤳ȤˤۤʤʤȤȤˤʤ롥쥪츦ȸѲϡߤˤΤ褦ʴطˤΤ⤷줺ΤξԤϢưդƤɬפ롥Aitchison (234) ۩

. . . the stages by which pidgins develop into creoles seem to be normal processes of change. More of them happen simultaneously, and they happen faster, than in a full language. This makes pidgins and creoles valuable 'laboratories' for the observation of change.


Aitchison, Jean. Language Change: Progress or Decay. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

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2016-02-02 Tue

#2472. եꥫαѸ [demography][world_englishes][new_englishes][esl][map][timeline][pidgin][creole][standardisation][africa]

#2469. αѸ([2016-01-30-1]) ˰³ϥեꥫαѸο͸פˤĤơGramley (307, 309, 311) "Anglophone Southern African countries", "Anglophone West African countries", "Anglophone East African countries" ɽǺܤ褦  *  *

countrysignificant UK contactcolonial statusindependencetotal populationEnglish speakers
percentagetotal number
Botswana19th century188519661,640,000--38%630,000
Lesotho protectorate19661,800,000--28%500,000
Malawi18781891196413,000,000--4%540,000
Namibia18781920 (S. Afr.)19901,800,000--17%> 300,000
South Africa17951795191047,850,000> 28%13,700,000
Swaziland18941902 (UK)19681,140,000--4.4%50,000
Zambia188819241953, 196413,000,000--15%--2,000,000
Zimbabwe189019231953, 198013,300,000--42%5,550,000
 
Cameroon19141916196018,500,000--42%7,700,000
Gambia1661, 1816189419651,700,000--2.3%40,000
Ghana (formerly gold coast)1824, 18501874, 1902195723,480,000--6%1,400,000
LiberiaUSA 1822none18473,750,000--83%3,100,000
Nigeria18511884, 19001960148,000,000--53%79,000,000
Sierra Leone1787180819615,800,000--83%4,900,000
 
Kenya18861895, 1920196339,000,000--9%2,700,000
Tanzania1880s1890, 1920196142,000,000--11%4,000,000
Uganda1860s1888, 1890196231,000,000--10%2,500,000


South Africa Nigeria ¸ߴȴƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ޤǰƤեꥫ䥢αѸѤƤѸϡºݾۤܤ٤ ESL ȹͤƤ褤եꥫǤϰ ENL ԤƤꡤ¾ϰǥ쥪Ѹ줬ԤƤȤ⤢뤬Ūˤ ESL ϰȸƤ֤ˤդ路¿ιϰαѸѤˤĤƶ̤ƤΤϡȼαѸ줬 "endonormative" ǼҲŪϰ̤ơٲĤĤ뤳ȤǤ롥Gramley (306) ϼΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥

In most of these countries a kind of indigenization or nativization is currently taking place, a process in which the domains of the language are expanding and in which increasingly endonormative standards are becoming established for usages which were once stigmatized as mistakes. This is opening the way to wider use of English in creative writing and to the institutionalization of local forms in schools, the media, and government . . . . English may well still be far from being a language of the emotions among the vast majority of its users; indeed, the institutionalization of English may be making it ever more difficult for those without English to close the social gap between "the classes and the masses." All the same, English is more and more firmly a part of everyday linguistic experience.


"New Englishes" λѤ˴ؤ˼ҲŪʻˤĤƤϡ#1255. "New Englishes" Υ饤ե ([2012-10-03-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿ޤեꥫαѸΤĤϰˤĤƤϡ#343. եꥫ¹αѸѡ ([2010-04-05-1])#412. 롼αѸ ([2010-06-13-1])#413. 롼ˤѸؤ language shift ([2010-06-14-1])#514. Nigeria ˤѸΰ֤Ť ([2010-09-23-1]) Ǽ夲ƤΤǡGramley αѸ˳ѥ˥󥵥βPDFեΤʤ "colonial expansion into West Africa" εͭѡ

Gramley, Stephan. The History of English: An Introduction. Abingdon: Routledge, 2012.

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2015-02-13 Fri

#2118. pidgin creole ؤƻ [pidgin][creole]

#1987. ԥȥ쥪Ϣ³ ([2014-10-05-1]) ǡԥȥ쥪˴ؤ饤եŪʸؤβҲ𤷤饤եŪʸȤϡάԥ줬üԤĤ˵ڤʣ쥪ȤʤȤȯŸλꤹΤǡ pidgin creole ŪʶʽεҤ롥
ԥ줫饯쥪ȯŸȤѤˤƤ⡤ʳθȡĤμꤻ򤨤ʤ¤ˤϰʲ3ηϩǧ (Jenkins 11 οޤѡˡ

Route from Pidgin to Creole

οޤϡ饤եŪ pidgin ʤ뤤 jargonˤȤʳ creole ػ뤳ȤˤˤƤ⡤creole Ȥɤʳⵯ뤳Ȥ򼨤Ƥ롥ޤcreole 򵯤 jargon pidgin ʳˤȤɤޤäƤ Type 0 Ȥʳ򡤹碌ƲꤷƤ褤⤷ʤˤۤΥפ⤢뤫⤷ʤΥפФ뤫ϡ줾ʳˤѼθŪˤȤϡ줬ѤƤҲˤҲŪʾˤΤpidgin creole ˻ƻϼ̡Ǥꡤ°פʰ̲񤷤ФǤϤʤcreole ܼ򸫼碌뤳Ȥ⤢뤫⤷ʤ

Jenkins, Jennifer. World Englishes: A Resource Book for Students. Abingdon: Routledge, 2003.

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