
118ڡˡīʹǥǤ˥ӥ塼dzѸǤʤȥᡩ ռפȤϡޤεϡƱϢֺܴʹʤפΰĤȤơʬȤؤΥӥ塼ˤơԽ줿ΤǤ
ϢܤôԤꡤֱѸפǰƬˡˤѸΰ֤ŤȡαѸФƻ䤿ϤɤΤ褦פФ褤ˤĤƻǤȤΤϢΥӥ塼»ܤǤŤʵīʹδطԤ˴տ夲ޤ
줿ǥǤͭȤʤäƤޤեСǤɤߤޤޤ̤Ǥ119ˤīˡƱûǤǺܤͽǤ
ơӥ塼ʵˤƤǤѸ˸ԤΩ줫顤Ѹ줬ˤ̤ۤ夲ƤŪϰ̡ܸüԤѸؽ빽¤ŪװơռۤƼäƱѸȤΡפˤĤƤäޤ
ޤŪDZѸ줬̸ (lingua_franca) ȤƵǽƤȤҴŪ¤ǧޤξǡѸ줬Ūϰ̤طʤˤϡΥꥷƥʤɡĤƤͭϸ줬ɤäƻڤȼŪˤƱ¤뤳ȤŦƤޤιȤŪкŪϤθγȻ٤ƤȤŪ¤ϡϳؤǽפǤεϡѸˤˤ礭1ĤǤֱѸȽפȤؤäƤޤ
ˡܿͤˤȤäƱѸ콬Ȥ빽¤ŪͳˤĤƤޤܸȱѸϡȯʸˡηϡäʤɤǶ˾ʤεΥȤ¤ޤʿǯ٥ǸС˸ߤȤäƤ褤طˤ衼åѽüԤ٤ȡܿͤѸνĹ֤פΤϡषʤȤǤ
ˡñʤμĶơƿͤܿͤδ֤ˤϡߥ˥Ȥʤ뽡ˡʸ̤Ǥζ̹⾯ʤѸǤβäˤֺˡפΤʤȤΤ⤦1Ĥ礭ɤˤʤäƤ뤳ȤŦޤο͡ѸǤβäˤޤʤΤ٤ȡܿͤϤäȤȤˡ֤⤽ɤΤ褦˲äϤ褤ΤפȤǤ䤹褦Ǥ
ơΤʤǺǤܤƤΤռääΡפǤŪƤϤǤƤޤѸˤҲؤθ˴ŤߤαѸѤμ֤˴դߤŪʥɥХȤʤäƤȻפޤȤʤΤϡαѸü20ͤΤƿͤʤɤüԤϥޥΥƥǤȤ¤Ǥ
ֱѸפˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ linguistic_imperialism Υ夤ϤȤơ͡˵ƤޤǤ Voicy heldio δϢ⤷ƤȻפޤҤİС
#1607. ѸѸء
#145. 3ʳdzĥƤѸ
ơ̤Ǥ119ˤīûǤǺܤͽǤΤǡ餫⤴ɤйǤ
1950ǯ줿ɷˡʱѸǡ3431ˤСϢˮθѸ (official_language) ϥǡʡʸ (Devanagari) ǽ줿ҥǥ (hindi) ȤƤ롥15ǯ֤ϱѸλŪѤǧ롤ȤâबäƤˡ15ǯθˤ⡤Ѹ³Ū˻Ѥ뤳ȤǤϳƤɤθѸᤰϡǤ˷ˡꡤΤ褦˱ʪޤä褦ʸǻϤޤäƤȤȤѸǤ343Ѥ褦
343. Official language of the Union.---(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script.
The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement:
Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.
(3) Notwithstanding anything in this article, Parliament may by law provide for the use, after the said period of fifteen years, of---
(a) the English language, or
(b) the Devanagari form of numerals,
for such purposes as may be specified in the law.
ˡεܤνǤСҥǥ줬ɮƬθѸǤ롥ºݡɹǤϥҥǥüԤǤ¿2020ǯλ6ͰʾȤСԡˡp. 70ˡˤСҥǥϡǤ3ܤüԤ¿ĶǤ롥2020ǯΥ˥塼ˤȡEthnologue ˤפ˴ŤΤ褦ʲ⤬ʤƤ롥
Hindi is the 3rd most spoken language of the world in 2019 with 615 million speakers. The 22nd edition of the world language database Ethnologue stated English at the top of the list with 1,132 million speakers. Chines Mandarin is at the second position with 1,117 million speakers.
⥤ɤοäϢưƥҥǥüԿƤΤȻפ롥ɤΥʥߥåʸ𤫤ܤΥʤ
Ϣ Ethnologue θüԿˤĤơ#3009. üԿˤȥå252017ǯǡˡ ([2017-07-23-1]) ¿ȤθѸȤơ#3291. 11θѸեꥫ¹ ([2018-05-01-1]) ȡ
ԡˡWorld Englishes ١Ʋ2023ǯ
ε#5268. ԡˡWorld Englishes ١ʾƲ2023ǯˡ ([2023-09-29-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȯ䤬ϤȤʤä褦Ǥ

ޤܥ֥ǤWorld Englishes Ѹ'ˤˤĤƤ¿夲Ƥޤ (cf. (world_englishes)) 21äƤѸءѸˤǤäۤܤ褦ˤʤäȤǤ15ǯۤɤ֤äƤߤƤ⡤ѸءѸˤ칶θơޤȤ͵ΥȥԥåȤäƤ褤Ǥ礦 World Englishes ο͵ιޤˤϡְ㤤ʤҲŪطʤȹͤƤޤˤĤƤʵ˽äꤷƤޤܤƤͽǤ
ޤˡΡWorld Englishes ٤Ǥޤ줫顤ܽȤĤܥ֥ Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פˤơϢ夲ƤĤǤΤǡȼƤС
ëǷˤֽϡWorld Englishes---ѸפǤϡθѸ˴ؤǿλ¤פƤޤĤѤޤ
ߡˤ196¸ߤ7000ʾθ줬ȤƤ롥(p. 6)
2022ǯ1180ͤĶ 2022ˡΤѸѤ졤졤ȤƤαѸѼԡˤ145000͡ΤüԤ37000졤ȤƤλԤ108000ͤǤ (Ethnologue 2022) ΤȤüԤοüԤοϤ뤫˾äƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥(p. 9--10)
ǡѸѸ⤷ϽѸƤ54Ǥ롥4Τ1ѸѸѸˤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥(p. 10)
Υͥåϡ416000͡69%ˤǤ (Internet World Stats 2023) Τ26%ѸͿǤꡤͥåΨѸιˤĤʤäƤ롥(p. 10)
ǾǤƤDzΤѸ줬ѤƤΤ8ʾǤ롥 (p. 10)
ܽϥ⽼¤Ƥޤ㤨СϤΤʤ2ĤΥˤαѸDzdzؤָסʵΩءҲ𤵤Ƥޤ٤ƤαDz褬ѤʤäƤޤؤäƤޤ
ԡˡWorld Englishes ١Ʋ2023ǯ
ĸˤᴩؿε١ˤɤǤ롥 (anthropology) ϸؤʬ1ĤǤ⤢ؿƤ뤬եꥫʤɤDzпȯ뤿Ӥ˿ˤͤܤˤơʤȥԡɴΤʬʤΤȻפäƤ롥
(174) ǤϡͤεõϤǡָȥΥפδطˤĤƵŸƤ롥ΰѤ롥
ǯˤϡ쥢ˤƤθͽĤΥΥǡϤ졤νĤΰŪʬϴŪ˸콸ĤбƤ뤳ȤƤޤάƱ콸Ĥ°ͤӤȤϻ褦ʰŪʹƤȤȤɽƤޤϴŪˤƱ쥰롼פǹԤޤ顤η̤Ǥ礦ʬΤäȤפǤϸǤꡤ줬ĤΰŪʹꤷƤΤǤ
ΰѤˤ褦ˡȸ˴ŤĤʬۤפƤȤŦϡ餯¿ɼԤˤȤäľѤȾQ˸礦ˡʤȼΤˤȤäơΥȥ졼ȤʻŦϡʤʤåäͼδطˤĤơñ˷ӤĤ뤳Ȥ˲ŪǤ뤫
ҲؤǤϡȤ¾μΥѥϡشطˤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤΡŪʷӤĤϤʤȤȤ⤫졤ФжĴ롥Ҳؤϡ̣Ǥϡ¾ΥѥδطľѡQȤϴ˥ǤϤʤΤǡŪ˥ǷӤĤȤϵΥ֤ȼĥʬǤ⤢ȻϹͤƤ롥Τ褦Ω줫餹ȡ嵭ηϤޤ˥ȥ졼ȤǡäȿȹƤޤ櫓
ˤְפˤĤ糰Ǥ䤬뤳Ȥ뤫СǰʤʤǤϡϢʲεŦˤȤɤ
#2838. ͤоȽХեꥫ ([2017-02-02-1])
#2841. εȸεδط ([2017-02-05-1])
#2844. εȸεδط (2) ([2017-02-08-1])
#2872. Ǥȥۥ⡦ԥ ([2017-03-08-1])
#3146. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (1) ([2017-12-07-1])
#3593. ˥ȤݤΤ ([2019-02-27-1])
#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])
#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])
#3810. ҲŪʹʪȤƤΡֿͼס ([2019-10-02-1])
ǤλΤޤȤޤʤͤ첽ȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥ȸشطϡľѡQΤߤʤ餺ʳŪˤǻ̩Τ褦Ǥ롤ŪʥطǤϤʤ
졡ؿεDNAۥ⡦ԥΡ礤ʤιס١2022ǯ
Ѹ1Ĥθ졤ܸ1ĤθʤΤǡ碌2Ǥۤ͡˥ե졤ڥ졤ɥĸ졤졤졤ڹʤΤäƤ̾碌ƤȡϤƸˤϤĤθ줬뤳ȤˤʤǤ礦100Ĥ餤뤤1,000ġ⤷10,000ġΤ褦ʵȤʤĤʤȤ¿⤷ޤ
¤θؤˤƤ⡤͡ͳˤꡤΤʿФȤϤǤޤԤˤäɤ줬ߤΤǤդλޤơDz⤷Ƥޤ礦ʲİ
ؼԤ֤ȤĴĥäƸƤСΤʿФΤǤϤʤȵ˻פ⤷ޤ No ǤؼԤĥäƤ⡤Τʸ뤳ȤԲǽǤȤΤϡϸǤϤʤǤʤΤǤθȤȤϡäɤΤ褦ʹ٤ʤΤ䤤פʤ褦˻פޤ
ǤΤꤿȤΤ;Ǥ Ethnologue 23ǡ2020ǯˤȤƤߤޤȡθο7,117ȥȤƤޤȤ1ĤλͤˤޤΤǤդѤʵФƤϡȤƤϡֿ١פƨƤȻפޤ
ȤꡤӤ˴ϢȤơ##3009,270,1060,274,401,1949εå碌Ƥɤߤ
Crystal ˤѸɴʻŵ The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language 16ǯ˲Ǥ줿3Ǥνʸǡ15ǯδ֤˱Ѹ˴ؤ¿ΤȤäȽҤ٤ƤȤꡤɴʻŵȤơ̤ĤǤ롥äʸ2Ϥ7Ϥ Part I ϡ120ڡ˵ڤֱѸˤˤȤʤäƤ롥ʬܼįǤڤ롥ʲ˷Ǻܤ褦
PART I The History of English
2 The Origins of English
3 Old English
Early Borrowings
Runes
The Old English Corpus
Literary Texts
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
Spelling
Sounds
Grammar
Vocabulary
Late Borrowings
Dialects
4 Middle English
French and English
The Transition From Old English
The Middle English Corpus
Literary Texts
Chaucer
Spelling
Sounds
Grammar
Vocabulary
Latin borrowings
Dialects
Middle Scots
The Origins of Standard English
5 Early Modern English
Caxton
Transitional Texts
Renaissance English
The Inkhorn Controversy
Shakespeare
The King James Bible
Spelling and Regularization
Punctuation
Sounds
Original Pronunciation
Grammar
Vocabulary
The Academy Issue
Johnson
6 Modern English
Transition
Grammatical Trends
Prescriptivism
American English
Breaking the Rules
Variety Awareness
Scientific Language
Literary Voices
Dickens
Recent Trends
Current Trends
Linguistic Memes
7 World English
The New World
American Dialects
Canada
Black English Vernacular
Australia
New Zealand
South Africa
West Africa
East Africa
South-East Asia and the South Pacific
A World Language
Numbers of Speakers
Standard English
The Future of English
English Threatened and as Threat
Euro-Englishes
7Ϥ "World English" ¤Ƥ롥ȤбѸüԤοפåץǡȤƤꡤǤפ23ͤĶƤȤ (115) ʤߤ2ǤǤο20ä
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.
䤿ʳؤӡѤƤɸѸ (Standard English) ˾夤ȯŸƤȤϡѸˤκǽץơޤ1ĤǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ standardisation ε濴͡˼夲ƤʤȤ櫓#3231. ɸ˼ Blake αѸ˻ʬ ([2018-03-02-1])#3234. ָȿʹ֡ (HLC) νմߥʡɸѸȯãˤĤäޤ ([2018-03-05-1]) ȡˡ
ѸɸಽˤϡɤαѸˤγǤɬ夲ؤγ路 Foley νƤ "The Development of Standard English" Ȥ1֤褤ʸϤǤ롥ʤ顤ʽŪɸѸȯŸ˾ˤޤȤƤ롥3ڡˤ錄ΤǡѤΤˤ褷ûϤʤȤιɤȤƤȤʤΤǡPDFѰդƤ
εҤƤ1ĤϡɸѸΥ١ȤʤɥѸ줬κʪǤ뤳ȤˤĤơŪаޤʬ䤹ƤƤ뤳ȤȤŪǤ¿ʬ˴ޤǤɥαѸ줬14--15ΤˡкŪ˱ɤƤοήŪǤˤϡ14Ⱦι¤˵ήưιޤؤäƤˡ15ˤϡʤǷкŪ˽äüԤ⡤¿ɥξήؤήߡ̤ȤơκȤƤΥɥѸ줬Ωơ줬ɸѸΤȤʤäƤäΤǤ롥
⤦1ܤ٤ϡѸˤ˸ꤵʤŪΩ줫顤ɸಽ3ĤξƵäƤǤ롥1ĤϡкŪŪͭϤϰθ졦ɸȤʤȤȡ⤦1Ĥϡθ졦ȽĤΤΤǤ뤳ȡǸˡʸä졦ɸȤʤ䤹ȤβǤ⡤ʲľܰѤƤ
To summarize, the rise of Standard English . . . exhibits a number of important general points about the how and whys of language standardization: first, if economic and political power is centralized in a particular area, the language of that area has a strong likelihood of being the basis of the standard, as the center imposes its hold upon the periphery (Standard French based on the Parisian dialect is another example of this); second, the standard is likely to be based on the speech of economically and politically powerful social groups, the elite, as their speech becomes imposed upon or diffused to lower status groups; ability to speak this dialect now becomes emblematic of higher social standing and thus a desirable skill, a kind of symbolic resource further empowering the elite, who may control access to the dialect through the education system, as is clearly the case in most modern nation-states; and third, a language or dialect which is the basis of literate forms and other cultural activities is a strong candidate for an imposed standard (Standard Italian based on the Tuscany dialect of Dante exemplifies this). (Foley 403)
Foley, William A. Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1997.
ε#3592. ʸγȻ migrationism diffusionism ([2019-02-26-1]) νǽҤ٤褦ˡʸϡŪˤ褦˥ˤܽˤΤäΤ (migrationism) 뤤礭ʿ֤ȼʤʿŪŤˤΤäΤ (diffusionism) Ȥ夲褦
Ū migrationism βФơȤưؤΩ줫diffusionism ǤҤȤ Oppenheimer Ҳ𤷤褦Oppenheimer ϡ5Υˤä轻Υȿͤݤ줿Ȥ "wipe-out theory" ٻŪʾڵϤʤȤषä٤Ȥˡ餯д夫鸽ޤǤοǯ֥֡ƥοϡŪˤߤ¤ꡤ礭ưƤʤȤ
ŪˤСɿͤ2/3ϡǽȤ⤿餵⤺äΤʳ褷衼åѿͤΰҤѤǤȤĤ1/3¿ϡ3000--1000ǯۤɤδ֤˼˥ǥʥäƤ衼åѿͤͳ褹롥ơ餯ԤȷϡԤޥϤʸȸä͡бȤơΨϡ5Υ8Υ11ΥΥޥˤää礭ư뤳ȤϤʤϢʤäƤʥɿˤ⤿餷ι5%١ˡ
ΤȤ̣Τϡ褷Ƥ5ϤȤꡤͤƤˡˤäƤϤ3ǯʾ̤äˡǤˡ֥Ȥǡפȡ֥ޥǡפȤʤ͡줾Φ֥ƥʽäƤƤΤǤϤʤȤȤơԤäƤϡαѸȯŸ륲ޥϡʤȤ櫓̥ޥϡˤθäΤǤϤʤȡ
βʤСˤ륱Ȥȥޥζ¸ˤϡ5Υ˻ϤޤΤǤϤʤäȸŤȤȤˤʤ롥5ΥϡǤξԤ¸˴ƤȤءΥää٤νǤꡤˡפȤ褦ʼҲŪưä櫓ǤϤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
βϡʤѸˤ˴ؤƤ⺬Ūʺƹͤ¥Ȥˤʤ⤽֥ƥ轻θ1ĤäȤȤˤʤ뤫
Ϣơ#2353. ʤͤϥɤΤ ([2015-10-06-1])#3094. 449ǯˤ⥲ޥͤϥɤ¸ߤ ([2017-10-16-1])#3113. ͤ˥ɤΤ ([2017-11-04-1]) ʤɤε⻲ȡ
Oppenheimer, Stephen. The Origins of the British. 2006. London: Robinson, 2007.
(245--46) ϡܸˤˤʹȾˤ̤ͥᤰ褤ָפȤʤ顤̤˸ξԤˤäƺΤʤΤˤĤƤ롥
ޤˡξԤϡñʸλѿʤɤˤäƤޤΤǤϤʤȤȤǤ롥ҤȤˤθϼԤθ줬¿ν̱ξ˷פȤä礬롥
ޤεϡŪˡʤˤ줽켫Τι¤ˤäƤޤΤǤʤ
ȤС첻ο¿餱Ȥ̾ȿ̤뤫龡ġȤäΤǤϤʤθ줬쵡ǽ˴ؤơҲŬǤƤ뤫ɤȤäϤ롥ˤҤĤƤСʣʼҲбǤ뤫ȤäȤɽʸΤμ䡤ʪؤθǽǤ뤫ȤäƤʤɤ롥ˡ쥳ߥ˥¾Υߥ˥ͥȡɤۤڤΥƤ뤫Ȥäʤɤ⤢뤫⤷ʤΤȤϡ餯ȤФʸΤγΩȡΥδطˤ롥
ñʤѿκϸξԤθˤʤʤȤ⤷¿ԤλѸ줬μҲʣбơǤ˽Ҥ٤쵡ǽᡤ夵¿οͤӤȤΤ߹ǤϤȤäΤƤȤȤȷӤĤ褦ˤʤСϡƤȸǤФơ¯Ūʾϡ쵡ǽ̤ǡˤĤ礬¿˻פ롥ޤλѿ¿θҲηкŪŪʸṲ̄ͥ˷ӤĤơΰҿȤäΤطʤˤʤ뤳ȤϤꤦ롥ΤȤ褤ɤˤͤˤäƤ⡤ȤؤθɬפȤʤäƤ롥
ϿŤʵŸƤ롥üԿ칽¤ΤΤľܤ˸ξ˹ȤȤϤʤ餬μҲŪʵǽ˺ѤꡤѤ줿ꤹСθ¤ˤƴŪ˹뤳ȤϤꤦȤǤ롥ɤΤȤҲŪǤߤƽƾԤؤιˤĤȤȤʤΤǡüԿ칽¤ΡľŪʡ٤ϤۤܥȹͤƤ褤ΤѸŪ첽פͤǡȤƤפǤ롥
Ѹ첽θäƤϡϢȤơ#1072. ѸϸȤäˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ ([2012-04-03-1])#1082. ʤѸȤʤä (1) ([2012-04-13-1])#1083. ʤѸȤʤä (2) ([2012-04-14-1])#1607. Ѹ춵Ū¦̡ ([2013-09-20-1])#1788. Ķ̱²νиȳ˴Ϳװ ([2014-03-20-1])#2487. νȤϡμҲŪϤΤȤǤ ([2016-02-17-1])#2673. ָˤѸνο͡ˤȤäƤͭˤס ([2016-08-21-1])#2935. ַкѡ줬ڤ뻰Ĥǡס ([2017-05-10-1]) ȡ
ΤȤ褤ס Ƶԡˡܸˡ١罤۽Ź1977ǯ243--86ǡ
#1949. ²ȤθüԿ ([2014-08-28-1]) #398. ²Ⱦʬ ([2010-05-30-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡ² (indo-european) θˤƶϤ¾ɿʤ
¸ǸŤʸ Hittite ΤǤꡤ4000ǯۤɤ̤롥2000ǯۤϸ奮ꥷ졤ƥ졤åȸʸ¿ꡤʹߤˤʤȡ¿θǵ줿ʸǽȤʤ롥ĤޤꡤǺǤ褯Ͽ˻ĤäƤ²ʤΤǤ롥
üԿδߤȡ2003ǯפǤϤ뤬²θȤüԤ25ͤȤɸѼ100ͰʾüԤʤϡ70ʾ夢롥400ǯۤޤǤϡ褽ΦȾʬˤüԤʬۤƤʤäǤˤʬۤȤƤ롥ޤ˶ḽɽ²ȤäƤ褤
ʾϡClackson ˤΥȥˤ롤²εҤޤȤΤǤ롥Clackson (2) θʸѤƤ
The IE language family is extensive in time and space. The earliest attested IE language, Hittite, is attested nearly 4,000 years ago, written on clay tablets in cuneiform script in central Anatolia from the early second millennium BC. We have extensive textual remains, including native-speaker accounts of three more IE languages from 2,000 years ago: Ancient Greek, Latin and Sanskrit. Also from the beginning of the Christian Era we have much more limited corpora of many more IE languages. The stock of recorded IE languages further increases as we move forward in time. In 2003, over 2.5 billion people spoke an IE language as their first language, and there were at least seventy codified varieties, each spoken by a million or more native speakers. Four hundred years ago nearly all speakers of IE lived in Europe, Iran, Turkey, Western Asia and the Indian subcontinent, but migrations have now spread speakers to every part of the world. The wealth of historical material makes IE the best-documented language family in the world.
Clackson, James. Indo-European Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 2007.
#3101. ѸμΨ ([2017-10-23-1])#3066. פȼΨ ([2017-09-18-1]) ˰³Ƥꡥ16衼åѤǤ϶٤˳Ƚ졤ʸɤ߽Ǥ͡¿ʤäƤȤϳΤΨȤƶŪʿͿ뤳ȤԻԤκ麹˽ʤɤ礭̲뤳ȤǤФǤʤ⤽¿פ並椬äΩäƤȤ𤬤롥ȤϡˡŪ˽̾ǤͤʸɤळȤǤȤΤǯǾʳؤθˤСȤɤळȤϤޤä̤ι٤ǤꡤξԤϢưΤȹͤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ǡڥƥ (317--19) ϡ͡ϰ褫μǽϤ˴ؤŪʾơΨŪ˵Ȥˡʤη̤ȤơʲθƳФƤ롥ޤԻԤμΨκۤˤĤƤϡۤ礭ʤäΤǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥͡ǯδ֤ˤ˰ưνޤԾǤϤɤǤʪŽФƤпȼԤǤäƤ⡤ʸƤϤ
Ψ˽ˤĤƤϡäȤǤƤ⡤줬Ū˳Τ褦ʻ˳Ϲ⤤ǽϤᤵŻˤĤȤϤʤäˡϿȤƤĤˤΤǤ롥Ǥܤɤߡڤ¿褦ǤϤ롥
褯ϿλĤäƤԻ˸ꤹС⤤ΨؤԻԤϰ¸ߤ16ΥͥĥǤ33%ۤɤä1530ǯΥ衼Ǥ20--25%ۤɤäΥ衼ΨϡƱޤǤˤ41%ˤޤķ;夬äƤ롥
16³17˥ɤμΨ˾徺Ȥϴְ㤤ʤγȽڡ¾μҲŪװξ徺˹Ƥ뤬νװϤޤѸֻɸಽˤŪ˴ͿƤΤǤ롥褤罰ܳŪʸܤϤȤˡɸŪֻ褦ˤʤäΤ
ڥƥɥ롼ˡ ʡˡذȤ̿ͥܤ١ҡ2015ǯ
#3043. ѸμΨ ([2017-08-26-1])#3066. פȼΨ ([2017-09-18-1]) ǡѸҲμΨˤĤˤϿ (116--17) ꡤƥ塼ī濴Ȥ16--17ΥɤμΨߤƤߤ褦
ȥλҤɤ⤿ˤȤäƤϹ餬ҲŪɬפǤäԤˡΧȤˤʤˤϤˡʤäޤԻԤξͤλҤɤ⤿ˤȤäƤɤ߽ȷΤɬפǤäϹۤǡ͵ؤβǤҤɤ˹뤿ˤϡȷפǤγ褦ʽи礻ͤФʤʤäΤǤ롥ϤؤǤϻҤɤϫƯϤȷפˤɬפäΤǡҤɤ⤬ɤ߽¼Įνع˹ԤäȤƤ⡤Ż˽̳ؤû֤ǽ뤳Ȥ¿äɤ߽ƤԲķȤ櫓ǤϤʤȤ깩ȤηиŪʵѡμμΤۤפȹͤ뤳Ȥ¿ä
λΥɤǤϥȥء͡͵̱ؤ濴˼Ψ夷켷˥ȥޥؤμΨϤۤܰ졻%˶դƤءͷ̱ؤǤȾ褦ˤʤ롥ؤϤ̱μΨ㤯켷Ǥ졻%%ã٤ǤäȿꤵƤ롥
ޤǿפǤ뤷ؤˤäƿͤۤʤȤä櫓ʤΤǡμΨĤळȤưפǤϤʤλΰѤڡʪ̤ȯԡפ˸岡줿ɽθʤɤˤꡤ¤˿͡μΨ夷ƤȤϴְ㤤ʤɸֻϺ⡤ޤˤλνäȤ碌ƳǧƤ
Τҡؿ⡡ƥ塼īˡ١Ͻн˼2011ǯ
17Υɤγ Samuel Pepys (1633--1703) ϡ1660--69ǯɥǤνϿ The Diary of Samuel Pepys Τ롥1665--66ǯ˥ɥäڥ (The Great Plague) ˤĤƤ⡤¤äƵϿƤ롥ϢսĤȴФ
Sunday 30 April 1665 . . . . Great fears of the sickenesse here in the City, it being said that two or three houses are already shut up. God preserve as all!
Sunday 7 June 1665 . . . . This day, much against my will, I did in Drury Lane see two or three houses marked with a red cross upon the doors, and "Lord have mercy upon us" writ there; which was a sad sight to me, being the first of the kind that, to my remembrance, I ever saw. It put me into an ill conception of myself and my smell, so that I was forced to buy some roll-tobacco to smell to and chaw, which took away the apprehension.
Sunday 10 June 1665 . . . . In the evening home to supper; and there, to my great trouble, hear that the plague is come into the City (though it hath these three or four weeks since its beginning been wholly out of the City) . . . .
Saturday 16 September 1665 . . . . At noon to dinner to my Lord Bruncker, where Sir W. Batten and his Lady come, by invitation, and very merry we were, only that the discourse of the likelihood of the increase of the plague this weeke makes us a little sad, but then again the thoughts of the late prizes make us glad.
3ĤΰѤˤȤꡤڥȤƥäƤΤ610Ǥ롥6ܤˤϡɥĹȻԻϢ̾ǥڥȾ㤬ۤƤ롥Υɥο25ͤۤɤȤ⤬뤬1/5ۤɤ鷺1ǯΤڥȤݤ줿Ȥ顤ޤ¢pp. 219--226ˡڥȤ1666ǯˤϲФˤʤäƤΤΡ֤äƤϤڥȤ줿Τϡˤ92ΥɥФˤäƤä Pepys (Sunday 2 September 1666) ⻲Ȥ줿
¢ Ի顡إڥȤʸ衼åѤ̱ʸȱ¡١īʹҡīӡ1995ǯ
Ѹˤˤ (black_death) ΰյϡ¢ѸüԤμҲŪƬѸȤä̴طϢŵŪˤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥äȹˤΰ̴طͻȡ¢¶徺ѳȤϢǧ졤εѳŪ˱ѸݡȤȤ¦̤⤢ꤽ
ع¡ڥȤˡ٤ΤʤΡɬפѤפȤǡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (376--77)
ϵѳˤ礭ʱƶڤܤϫƯϤ˸Ȥ顤ͼʤ֤γȯʬǿʤߡҺˤ⤽ư줿Ƚˤϡͤض翦俦ͤʤɤγ餬ĹȤ顤Ҥؤμפ¤˿Ӥ¤ܤϤϫƯŪʺȤäޤͤμ̻ʬưܤޤꤺĽ̤ϫƯ¶⤬¤ä°λˤϡˡǤ٤Ф°ʸι¶λˤʤȡϤʤäǥɥĤΥޥĤޤ줿Ȥμԥϥͥƥ٥륯оǤ롥̻λ夫褽ɴǯΰǯƥ٥륯ΰФ
ʾꡤ1ۤɤλȤϤ¢¶徺ѳѤȯȤϢ줿Ѥȯθ³ϢˤĤƤϡ#2927. סѡѸϰ̤θ ([2017-05-02-1]) ȡ#2937. סѡѸϰ̤θ (2) ([2017-05-12-1]) Ȥ줿¤ǽŪˤϱѸμҲŪϰ̤θˤĤʤ롥
(377--79) ϡ¤˵뵻ѳѲ¤ܤΤۤ۶ȡȡ֡šʤ¿ʬȤƤꡤǤ˶ŪʲʳؤˡϤǤĤĤäȤҤ٤Ƥ롥㤨СѲˤĤơ֥ڥήԸγοԷԤפ˸ڤƤʥp. 379ˡؤ֤ƤˤĤƤϡ#1206. ɤˤѸˤ붵λϤޤ ([2012-08-15-1]) ӡ#3055. ¤ˤԤ̻ ([2017-09-07-1]) ȡ
ˡ ˮҡˡع¡ڥȤˡ١ҡ2008ǯ
Ϣ (black_death) ꤢƤ롥ε#3054. ¤ˤҲήưȽοʿ ([2017-09-06-1]) Ǥ Gooden αѸܤȤ¤äƤ⤦1ĤΥݥԥ顼ʱѸܤȤơBragg (60--61) 褦¤αѸˤˤյ˴ؤäܿȤҤ٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤɤޤǤϤ롥
In 1348 Rattus rattus, the Latin-named black rodent, was the devil in the bestiary. These black rats deserted a ship from the continent which had docked near Weymouth. They carried a deadly cargo, a term that modern science calls Pasteurella pestis, that the fourteenth century named the Great Pestilence and that we know as the Black Death.
The worst plague arrived in these islands, and much, including the language, would be changed radically.
The infected rats scaled out east and then north. They sought out human habitations, building nests in the floors, climbing the wattle and daub walls, shedding the infected fleas that fed on their blood and transmitted bubonic plague. It has been estimated that up to one-third of England's population of four million died. Many others were debilitated for life. In some places entire communities were wiped out. In Ashwell in Hertfordshire, for instance, in the bell tower of the church, some despairing soul, perhaps the parish priest, scratched a short poignant chronicle on the wall in poor Latin. "The first pestilence was in 1350 minus one . . . 1350 was pitiless, wild, violent, only the dregs of the people live to tell the tale."
The dregs are where our story of English moves on. These dregs were the English peasantry who had survived. Though the Black Death was a catastrophe, it set in train a series of social upheavals which would speed the English language along the road to full restoration as the recognised language of the natives. The dregs carried English through the openings made by the Black Death.
The Black Death killed a disproportionate number of the clergy, thus reducing the grip of Latin all over the land. Where people lived communally as the clergy did in monasteries and other religious orders, the incidence of infection and death could be devastatingly high. At a local level, a number of parish priests caught the plague from tending their parishioners; a number ran away. As a result the Latin-speaking clergy was much reduced, in some parts of the country by almost a half. Many of their replacements were laymen, sometimes barely literate, whose only language was English.
More importantly, the Black Death changed society at its roots --- the very place where English was most tenacious, where it was still evolving, where it roosted.
In many parts of the country there was hardly anyone left to work the land or tend the livestock. The acute shortage of labour meant that for the first time those who did the basic work had a lever, had some power to break from their feudal past and demand better conditions and higher wages. The administration put out lengthy and severe notices forbidding labourers to try for wage increases, attempting to force them to keep to pre-plague wages and demands, determined to stifle these uneasy, unruly rumblings. They failed. Wages rose. The price of property fell. Many peasants, artisans, or what might be called working-class people discovered plague-emptied farms and superior houses, which they occupied.
ˡԤä˥ڥȤα¿ȤʤäȤˤꡤɼҲˤƥαƶϤȤ롥ްդȤơŪ¿ο͡ǤѸ줬ƶϤɤ롥ԤȤ櫓ﳲȤΤʤΤɤˤĤƤ褬ꡤ¤ɬ餫ˤƤʤȤϤԤȤΤϡΩؤ뤤ϵ߽ư˿ȤǡԤԤȤܿ٤̿ͤϤ뤫礭٤⤫äס¼塤p. 131ˤȤΤϡŬäƤ褦˻פ롥ʤԤ϶ԤǤ⤢äȤդäƤ (cf. #1206. ɤˤѸˤ붵λϤޤ ([2012-08-15-1]))
Bragg, Melvyn. The Adventure of English. New York: Arcade, 2003.
¼ ۰Ϻإڥή --- 衼å ---١ȽŹҴȿӡ1983ǯ
ѸˤǤˤѸȴϢơƤ¤ΤȤ롥ñ˸ڤˤȤɤޤꡤͤùΤʤΤ¿Τʤǡ̸αѸܤ路 Gooden (67--68) ϡ¤Ф1䤯ۤɤδؿƤ롥ɤʪȤƤ⤷ΤǰѤƤʤѤ21ϡBlack Death θ츻ȴϢơ#2990. Black Death ([2017-07-04-1]) Ǥꤢ
The Black Death had a devastating effect on the British Isles, as on the rest of Europe. The population of England was cut by anything between a third and a half. Probably originating in Asia, the plague arrived in a Dorset port in the West country in 1348, rapidly spreading to Bristol and then to Gloucester, Oxford and London. If a rate of progress were to be allotted to the plague, it was advancing at about one-and-a-half miles a day. The major population centres, linked by trading routes, were the most obviously vulnerable but the epidemic had reached even the remotest areas of western Ireland by the end of the next decade. Symptoms such as swellings (the lumps or buboes that characterize bubonic plague), fever and delirium were almost invariably followed within a few days by death. Ignorance of its cause heightened panic and public fatalism, as well as hampering effectual preventive measures. Although the epidemic petered out in the short term, the disease did not go away, recurring in localized attacks and then major outbreaks during the 17th century which particularly affected London. One of them disrupted the preparations for the coronation of James I in 1603; the last major epidemic killed 70,000 Londoners in 1665.
The term 'Black Death' came into use after the Middle Ages. It was so called either because of the black lumps or because in the Latin phrase atra mors, which means 'terrible death', atra can also carry the sense of 'black'. To the unfortunate victims, it was the plague, or, more often, the pestilence. So Geoffrey Chaucer calls it in The Pardoner's Tale, where he makes it synonymous with death. The words survive in modern English even if with a much diminished force in colloquial use: 'He's a pest.' 'Stop plaguing us!' Curiously, although pest in the sense of 'nuisance' has its roots in pestilence, the word pester comes from a quite different source, the Old French empêtrer ('entangle', 'get in the way of').
The impact of the pestilence on English society was profound. Quite apart from the psychological effects, there were practical consequences. Labour shortages meant a rise in wages and more fluid social structure in which the old feudal bonds began to break down. Geographical mobility would also have helped in dissolving regional distinctions and dialect differences.
¤ˤˤꡤĤäϫƯԤ¶⤬夬ꡤμҲŪϰ̤徺ȤȤǤѸμҲŪϰ̤徺ȤΤ¤αѸ˾ΥѥȤȸ롥ѤκǸˤ褦ˡ͡ҲŪˤŪˤήưȤˤܤ٤Ǥ롥ˤꡤ͡ޤޤȤ櫓ɥΤ褦ԲǤϽʿƤ椯Ȥʤä (cf. dialect levelling) ¤ϡΤ˱ѸιԤ˴ŪʱƶͿȤ
Gooden, Philip. The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World. London: Quercus, 2009.
1348ǯ˵ä (black_death) ˤĤơܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤ꤢƤcf. #119. ѸˤΤϥޥͥߤ!? ([2009-08-24-1])#138. ¤ȱѸδطˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2009-09-12-1])#1206. ɤˤѸˤ붵λϤޤ ([2012-08-15-1])ˡϡѸˤˤ¤ΰյͤˤäơäȷкѤѲ˾ƤĤġŪطʤҲ𤷤
¤˴ؤ McDowall (46--47) ʸϤ
Probably more than one-third of the entire population of Britain died, and fewer than one person in ten who caught the plague managed to survive it. Whole villages disappeared, and some towns were almost completely deserted until the plague itself died out.
The Black Death was neither the first natural disaster of the fourteenth century, nor the last. Plagues had killed sheep and other animals earlier in the century. An agricultural crisis resulted from the growth in population and the need to produce more food. Land was no longer allowed to rest one year in three, which meant that it was over-used, resulting in years of famine when the harvest failed. This process had already begun to slow down population growth by 1300.
After the Black Death there were other plagues during the rest of the century which killed mostly the young and healthy. In 1300 the population of Britain had probably been over four million. By the end of the century it was probably hardly half that figure, and it only began to grow again in the second half of the fifteenth century. Even so, it took until the seventeenth century before the population reached four million again.
The dramatic fall in population, however, was not entirely a bad thing. At the end of the thirteenth century the sharp rise in prices had led an increasing number of landlords to stop paying workers for their labour, and to go back to serf labour in order to avoid losses. In return villagers were given land to farm, but this tenanted land was often the poorest land of the manorial estate. After the Black Death there were so few people to work on the land that the remaining workers could ask for more money for their labour. We know they did this because the king and Parliament tried again and again to control wage increases. We also know from these repeated efforts that they cannot have been successful. The poor found that they could demand more money and did so. This finally led to the end of serfdom.
Because of the shortage and expense of labour, landlords returned to the twelfth-century practice of letting out their land to energetic freeman farmers who bit by bit added to their own land. In the twelfth century, however, the practice of letting out farms had been a way of increasing the landlord's profits. Now it became a way of avoiding losses. Many "firma" agreements were for a whole life span, and some for several life spans. By the mid-fifteenth century few landlords had home farms at all. These smaller farmers who rented the manorial lands slowly became a new class, known as the "yeomen". They became an important part of the agricultural economy, and have always remained so.
Overall, agricultural land production shrank, but those who survived the disasters of the fourteenth century enjoyed a greater share of the agricultural economy. Even for peasants life became more comfortable. For the first time they had enough money to build more solid houses, in stone where it was available, in place of huts made of wood, mud and thatch.
¤ȯ1358ǯˤ⡤¡áϤǤ礭ȤʤäƤꡤȷкѤϹԤͤޤäƤ (serfdom) ʤʤäƤꡤ¶ϫƯԤ뼫ͳ̱ (yeoman) ȤʬиϤƤع¤褷Կ㸺˵ڤǡĤäԤμҲŪϰ̤ޤäΤ褦ˤơȤ櫓ͳ̱ؤ15ˤ¸ߴȯϤƤäơäդѸäΤǤ롥
McIntyre (15) Ҥ٤Ƥ̤ꡤ"the greater the influence a particular group has within society, the more likely it is that the language spoken by that group will be seen as prestigious."Ǥ롥ѸϡɤȷкѤѲ鼫ͳ̱ءˤȤȤ̤Ȥ롥
¤ɬȷкѤľܤαƶڤܤ櫓ǤϤʤϵγȤ븫⡤ǯƶϤƤƤ褦ǤϤޥˡʲp. 58 ȡˡ
McDowall, David. An Illustrated History of Britain. Harlow: Longman 1989.
McIntyre, Dan. History of English: A Resource Book for Students. Abingdon: Routledge. 2009.
ꥢࡦHޥˡˡ סˡر¤ˡ塦١ҡʸˡӡ2007ǯ
μҲμΨ뤳Ȥϰ̤ѸαѸҲˤĤơʬäƤ뤳Ȥ롥ʲ˥⤷Ƥ
ޤFairman (265) ϡ19ξȤƼλ¤ŦƤ롥
1) In some parts of England 70% of the population could not write . . . . For them English was only sound, and not also marks on paper.
2) Of the one-third to 40% who could write, less than 5% could produce texts near enough to schooled English --- that is, to the type of English taught formally --- to have a chance of being printed.
Simon (160) ϡ19μΨηä˽ͤäˤĤƿƤ롥
The nineteenth century witnessed a huge increase in literacy, especially in the second half of the century. In 1850 30 per cent of men and 45 per cent of women were unable to sign their own names; by 1900 that figure had shrunk to just 1 per cent for both sexes.
Τ褦ʼΨȴϢơTieken-Boon van Ostade (45--46) λֻˤĤƤ롥Ϥ椨˽ش֤ûȾüֻ餷ʤäҶϡñ֤ˤʤäΤȤϡϤ褽֤뤬ۤ¿줫ʤƥե줫μѸ֤ʤȤ̣롥ʸΥ٥ι⤤Ѹͳ˰ʤ褦ǤϼҲŪˤ̵ܤȤߤʤΤ顤Ͻդˤ¥ɡ (restricted code) ˴ŤʤäɽƤ褤
Ψֻ顤ȼѸ졤¥ɡϸȼҲɤǤ롥
Fairman, Tony. "Letters of the English Labouring Classes and the English Language, 1800--34." Insights into Late Modern English. 2nd ed. Ed. Marina Dossena and Charles Jones. Bern: Peter Lang, 2007. 265--82.
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
#397. üԿˤȥå25 ([2010-05-29-1]) Ƥ7ǯǯФäEthnologue (20th ed) κǿǤФΤǡSummary by language size ɽ3ˤꡤüԿˤȥå23κǿ
| Rank | Language | Primary Country | Countries | Speakers (20th ed, 2017) | Speakers (16th ed, 2009) | (13th ed, 1996) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chinese | China | 37 | 1,284 million | 1,213 | 1,123 |
| 2 | Spanish | Spain | 31 | 437 | 329 | 266 |
| 3 | English | United Kingdom | 106 | 372 | 328 | 322 |
| 4 | Arabic | Saudi Arabia | 57 | 295 | 221 | 202 |
| 5 | Hindi | India | 5 | 260 | 182 (242.6 with Urdu) | (236 with Urdu) |
| 6 | Bengali | Bangladesh | 4 | 242 | 181 | 189 |
| 7 | Portuguese | Portugal | 13 | 219 | 178 | 170 |
| 8 | Russian | Russian Federation | 19 | 154 | 144 | 288 |
| 9 | Japanese | Japan | 2 | 128 | 122 | 125 |
| 10 | Lahnda | Pakistan | 6 | 119 | 78.3 | |
| 11 | Javanese | Indonesia | 3 | 84.4 | 84.6 | |
| 12 | Korean | Korea | 7 | 77.2 | 66.3 | |
| 13 | German | Germany | 27 | 76.8 | 90.3 | 98 |
| 14 | French | France | 53 | 76.1 | 67.8 | 72 |
| 15 | Telugu | India | 2 | 74.2 | 69.8 | |
| 16 | Marathi | India | 1 | 71.8 | 68.1 | |
| 17 | Turkish | Turkey | 8 | 71.1 | 50.8 | |
| 18 | Urdu | Pakistan | 6 | 69.1 | 60.6 | |
| 19 | Vietnamese | Viet Nam | 3 | 68.1 | 68.6 | |
| 20 | Tamil | India | 7 | 68.0 | 65.7 | |
| 21 | Italian | Italy | 13 | 63.4 | 61.7 | 63 |
| 22 | Persian | Iran | 30 | 61.9 | ||
| 23 | Malay | Malaysia | 16 | 60.8 | 39.1 | 47 |
ɤˤ륢ɸ줫Ѹؤθ (language_shift) ˤĤơ#2798. ̦رѸȤɤκ١ȽŹ2016ǯ ([2016-12-24-1])#1715. Ireland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-06-1]) Ǽ夲ؤϸߤʹɸ (irish) ϤޤΤ˻ѤƤ롥ɸѤμ֤ˤĤơ (20--20) εҤվˤޤȤƤߤ褦
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2011ǯιĴˤȥɸüԡʡ֥ɸ줬äüԡסˤ177ͤǡ3аʾο40.6%
ɶ¹ˡ8ˤϥɸ줬 (national language) Ǥ1ѸǤ뤳ȤƤʱѸ2Ѹ
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̱²Ǥ륢ɸ뤳ȤϸؤλŻ˽ɬܤǤꡤ⤯ɾ
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ϤǤϥɸϡ֥ (Gaelic) ȾΤ졤ϰϡ֥륿ϥȡ (Gaeltacht) ȸƤФ
Ǹ˿줿륿ϥȤϡ濴˾ȤߤƤʤˤϥåȥɤΥϰޤˡÚdarás na Gaeltachta Υۡڡˤȡ"The Gaeltacht covers extensive parts of counties Donegal, Mayo, Galway and Kerry --- all along the western seaboard --- and also parts of counties Cork, Meath and Waterford." 롥ʲ˴ñϿޤƸƤʡ#774. ȸʬۡ ([2011-06-10-1]) Ͽޤ⻲ȡˡ

ɸˤγάˤĤƤϡBackground on the Irish Language εͭѡϢơɤˤˤĤơ#762. ꥶ٥Ūʥˬ ([2011-05-29-1])#2361. ǯɽ ([2015-10-14-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
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