ؤȡ֥ߡ (meme) ˤĤơޥδ#3188. ߡȤƤθ (1) ([2018-01-18-1]) #3189. ߡȤƤθ (2) ([2018-01-19-1]) ˤƤ
ϥͥåȾǡߥʰ̣ǤθΡ֥ߡפήԤäƤ褦˥ͥåȥǥǷ֤Ѥ졤ѥǥʤ饦륹Τ褦̢䤷Ƥư衤ûʸƥȤǤ롥ŪˤϤûʸƥȤȤƤΥߡबȤʤ롥
Ȥ meme Ȥñϡ嵭βǾҲ𤷤Ƥ褦˥ꥹοʲʪؼ Richard Dawkins ¤Ǥ롥OED ˤ1976ǯ˽ФƤ롥ʪѸȤƤ meme ʸŪФơ2Ȥơʤ "An image, video, piece of text, etc., typically humorous in nature, that is copied and spread rapidly by internet users, often with slight variations. Also with modifying word, as internet meme, etc." ȤѤ줿1998ǯμʸǤ롥
1998 The next thing you know, his friends have forwarded it [sc. an animation of a dancing baby] on and it's become a net meme. (Sci. & Technol. Week (transcript of CNN TV programme) (Nexis) 24 January)
ǤϡͥåȾǿΥߡब̢䤷ƤϻǤƤäƤ롥Crystal (97) ꡤlinguistic memes βɤǤߤ褦
LINGUISTIC MEMES
The word meme was introduced in 1976 by evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins in Chapter 11 of The Selfish Gene as a shortened form of mimeme, from a Greek word meaning 'that which is imitated'. As Dawkins put it: 'I want a monosyllable that sounds a bit like "gene". I hope my classicist friends will forgive me if I abbreviate mimeme to meme.' The word echoes the -eme suffix used in linguistics (phoneme, morpheme, etc), but lacks its notion of minimal contrastivity. A meme is a unit of cultural transmission which spreads throughout a population and which can persist for a considerable time. Dawkins illustrated from tunes, ideas, fashions in clothing, ways of making pots or of building arches, and --- of relevance to this book --- catch phrases.
The notion has achieved great prominence as a result of the Internet, which promotes the rapid spread of images and text, while at the same time allowing a potentially infinite number of variations. Most are photos with superimposed captions (similar to speech bubbles) that have humorous or satirical intent, though many convey messages of political or social seriousness, and some try to express notions of philosophy.
For a meme to work, it has to be unique, distinctive, and consistent --- something that is easily achievable using language. The chief linguistic feature is the use of nonstandard forms --- in earlier developments such as text messaging, chiefly deviant spelling; in more recent varieties, deviant grammar. Among the best-known inventions are Leetspeak, LOLcats, Doge, and Doggolingo (pp. 458--9). But standard English can also be a fruitful memic source, as the examples below illustrate.
No language domain is sacrosanct, and political correctness is conspicuous by its absence. Y U NO uses upper-case textese (p. 455) to parody the simplified speech of foreign learners, using a sketch of a character from a Japanese manga series: its memic origin began with I TXT U / Y U NO TXT BAK!? Ermahgerd shows a young woman holding several books from the children's horror fiction series Goosebumps; the name is a version of 'Oh my God', as spoken by someone with a speech impediment; it is also known as Gersberms and Berks (books).
There are hundreds of meme wannabes on the Internet now, all hoping (but few achieving) a permanent place in language history. Some sites provide instruction in 'how to create your own meme'. We must expect a significant increase in the amount of linguistic idiosyncrasy both on and off the web now, srsly.
ߡήԤϱѸ˸¤ʤܡʸˤǤ⡤¿Ρ֡ʸפ߽ФƤ뤬ΥߡΰȤäƤ褤
Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.
ε#5720. little i ϲħ ([2024-12-24-1]) ˰³Jespersen ˤ[i] = פβħ (sound_symbolism) ˴ؤͤꡥ
Jespersen Ʊʸβħθ¿Ƥ뤬Ƭ˶ᤤʬǡħεˤ꤬ʸ2ˤĤơտ⤷Ƥ롥
In giving lists of words in which the [i] sound has the indicated symbolic value, I must at once ask the reader to beware of two possible misconceptions: first, I do not mean to say that the vowel [i] always implies smallness, or that smallness is everywhere indicated by means of that vowel; no language is consistent in that way, and it suffices to mention the words big and small, or the fact that thick and thin have the same vowel, to show how absurd such an idea would be.
Next, I am not speaking of the origin or etymology of the words enumerated: I do not say that they have from the very first taken their origin from a desire to express small things symbolically. It is true that I believe that some of the words mentioned have arisen in that way,---many of our i-words are astonishingly recent---but for many others it is well-known that the vowel i is only a recent development, the words having had some other vowel in former times. What I maintain, then, is simply that there is some association between sound and sense in these cases, however it may have taken its origin, and however late this connexion may be (exactly as I think that we must recognize secondary echoisms). But I am firmly convinced that the fact that a word meaning little or little thing contains the sound [i], has in many, or in most, cases been strongly influential in gaining popular favour for it; the sound has been an inducement to choose and to prefer that particular word, and to drop out of use other words for the same notion, which were not so favoured. In other words, sound-symbolism makes some words more fit to survive and gives them a considerable strength in their struggle for existence. If you want to use some name of an animal for a small child, you will preferably take one with sound symbolism, like kid or chick . . . , rather than bat or pug or slug, though these may in themselves be smaller than the animal chosen. (285--86)
1Ĥϡ[i] = פβħŪɬŪʤΤǤϤʤޤdzŪʤΤˤʤγǧǤ롥2ĤϡβħθƤˤĤơβỌ̇̄δط츻餫餢äΤ˷줿ΤʤȤȤ碌ơŪˤ̻Ūˤ⡤ħμطϴˤˤȤɤޤꡤꤹ붯ϤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤפǤ롥
Ǥ Jespersen ϡѤκǸǤѸȤ鷺⤷Ƥ̤ꡤħˤϸΡŬ¸ (survival of the fittest) Ĺ̤ȳοƤ롥ħϡˤʤ˺ѤƤϤȤߤʤȤǤȡ
Jespersen, O. "Symbolic Value of the Vowel I." Philologica 1 (1922). Reprinted in Linguistica: Selected Papers in English, French and German. Copenhagen: Levin & Munksgaard, 1933. 283--303.
ػˤΥϥɥ֥åɤǤ롥Mufwene θεʲ˴ؤϤǤϡޤǤƤƤ͡ʸ쵯ʲҲ𤵤Ƥꡤɤβͤ롥
褯Ѥʵ1ĤˡθʣäΤ뤤ñäΤȤε˴ؤΤ롥ʲδϡʳ鸽ޤǸñ㲽ƤΤʣƤΤȤϢ뵿䤬Ƥ롥
ʬʤΩˤĤƤԤ롥㤨СԤΤ Jespersen ȡԤ Bickerton ϹоȤʤMufwene (31) βѤ褦
His [= Jespersen's] conclusion is that the initial language must have had forms that were more complex and non-analytic; modern languages reflect evolution toward perfection which must presumably be found in languages without inflections and tones. It is not clear what Jespersen's position on derivational morphology is. In any case, his views are at odds with Bickerton's . . . hypothesis that the protolanguage, which allegedly emerged by the late Homo erectus, was much simpler and had minimal syntax, if any. While Bickerton sees in pidgins fossils of that protolanguage and in creoles the earliest forms of complex grammar that could putatively evolve from them, Jespersen would perhaps see in them the ultimate stage of the evolution of language to date. Many of us today find it difficult to side with one or the other position.
ξرĤȤȼ˴ŤƤꡤ⤽ΤɤǧʤʤΤǡʿɤ餶ʤޤʣñȤϲȤ̤ΩϤ롥ǸˤĤƤϡ#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#4165. ʣˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2020-09-21-1]) ʤɤȡ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
Charles Darwin (1809--82) ϡοʲϿοʲΤΤʿŪʤȤȹͤƤꡤޤοʲȤطƤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ä˸Ԥ˴ؤƿʲͤǸȤӤĤƤߤԤϡDarwin ǽ˶ᤫä褦Mufwene (23) Ѥ롥
Charles Darwin commented in The Descent of Man (1871) that the evolution of language was in several ways reminiscent of that of mankind itself. He hypotheisized that it had emerged gradually, had not been given by God or invented by design by humans, and could also be explained by natural selection. He was among the first to correlate the evolution of language with that of the human mind . . . , thus accounting for why parrots cannot produce original spoken messages intentionally, although they can imitate human speech fairly accurately. Showing what an important driver role the human mind has played in the evolution of language, he argued that it was for the same reason that other primates do not use their buccopharyngeal structure to speak.
AIФ줬θʤΤȤˤؤäƤǡŤƿ⤷ʤ
ˡβ³ Mufwene (23) ϡǽϤȯȽȯΩƤ뤫ݤȤ⤦1ĤνפŦƤ롥
We now know that Charles Darwin was only partly right. The other primates' buccopharyngeal structure is not shaped in exactly the same way as that of humans, although, based on the parrot's phonetic accomplishments, we must wonder how critical this particular structure was for the emergence of language (not speech!) in the first place. After all, humans who cannot speak produce signed language, which is just as adequate for communication. This argument may be claimed to support the position that the emergence of the capacity for language must be distinguished from the emergence of languages. However, one must also wonder whether the two questions can be considered independently of each other . . . .
⸽λߤ;פˤ⤷AIϡʹ֤ȯ¿δ¸θǡͥ륮ȤơǽϤ餷ΡΤˤи컺ФμˡˤǤ롥
λˡDarwin ɤǤߤΤͭյ⤷ʤ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
Ϣ Mufwene ȤĤĸεᤰˤ֤äƤ롥ϡ¿եůؼԡؼԤ Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698--1759) 夲Maupertuis ϸ¿Τˡ֥Х٥ (tower_of_babel) ȤϤ뤳Ȥ⤽ȯθ餫¿ͤʸ줬äȡĤޤεʣäñ쵯 (monogenesis) Ф¿ (polygenesis) Ǥ롥Mufwene (22--23) ϢʬѤ롥
Another important philosopher of the eighteenth century was Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, author of Réflexions sur l'origine des langues et la vie des mots (1748). Among other things, he sought to answer the question of whether modern languages can ultimately be traced back to one single common ancestor or whether current diversity reflects polygenesis, with different populations developing their own languages. Associating monogenesis with the Tower of Babel myth, which needs a deus ex machina, God, to account for the diversification of languages, he rejected it in favour of polygenesis. Note, however, that his position needs Cartesianism, which assumes that all humans are endowed with the same mental capacity and suggests that our hominin ancestors could have invented similar communicative technologies at the same or similar stages of our phylogenetic evolution. This position makes it natural to project the existence of language as the common essence of languages beyond their differences.
θǽϤ켫ΤΤɤǤǤۤƱ˳֤߽ФƤġθϸߤ˰ۤʤäƤꡤΤȤƸ¿Ф줬 Maupertuis ª
ñ쵯¿ˤĤƤϡ#2841. εȸεδط ([2017-02-05-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
ɸϲ褷褦ΤʤǤϤ뤬ػ (history_of_linguistics) ˤƤϸε (origin_of_language) ᤰΤʤǻڤƤ䤤Ǥ롥
Mufwene (22) Ȥơ2ͤԤȤθҲ𤷤ɥĤůؼ Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744--1803) ȥꥫθؼ William Dwight Whitney (1827--94) Ǥ롥
Herder also speculated that language started with the practice of naming. He claimed that predicates, which denote activities and conditions, were the first names; nouns were derived from them . . . . He thus partly anticipated Heine and Kuteva (2007), who argue that grammar emerged gradually, through the grammaticization of nouns and verbs into grammatical markers, including complementizers, which make it possible to form complex sentences. An issue arising from Herder's position is whether nouns and verbs could not have emerged concurrently. . . .
On the other hand, as hypothesized by William Dwight Whitney . . . , the original naming practice need not have entailed the distinction between nouns and verbs and the capacity to predicate. At the same time, naming may have amounted to pointing with (pre-)linguistic signs; predication may have started only after hominins were capable of describing states of affairs compositionally, combining word-size units in this case, rather than holophrastically.
Herder ϸ̾դ (naming) μϤޤäȹͤȤ̾դη̤ȤƤΡ̾פǽ̾ǤϤʤҸưäȤդϰճȯۤǶ̣Herder ϡ̾ϸư줫ΤǤȹͤϸʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤȤʸˡƤȯȤͤ˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
Whitney ϡư̾ζ̤Τʤʳǰɽ (holophrasis) ȯΤǤꡤޤǸˤʤäƤ餽ʸˡƤȯãȹͤ
쵯ʸˡϤΤ褦ˤƴطŤΤȴ补
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
եλ۲ȥ륽 (Jean Jacques Rousseau [1712--78]) ϡεϴŪӤˤȹͤθ塤ϿҲĶѲȤȤˡŪʤΤؤȯŸƤȤϸεȯã˴ؤŵŪɽŪʲ1ĤȤäƤ褤
륽ϸ쵯ȯãˤĤơ嵭δŪʹͤ˴ŤŪʰѤäˤڤƤ롥Mufwene (19--20) ˤ륽Ѥ
. . . Rousseau interpreted evolution as progress towards a more explicit architecture meant to express reason more than emotion. According to him,
Anyone who studies the history and progress of tongues will see that the more words become monotonous, the more consonants multiply; that, as accents fall into disuse and quantities are neutralized, they are replaced by grammatical combinations and new articulations. [...] To the degree that needs multiply [...] language changes its character. It becomes more regular and less passionate. It substitutes ideas for feelings. It no longer speaks to the heart but to reason. (Moran and Gode 1966: 16)
Thus, Rousseau interpreted the evolution of language as gradual, reflecting changes in the Homo genus's mental, social, and environmental structures. He also suggests that consonants emerged after vowels (at least some of them), out of necessity to keep 'words' less 'monotonous.' Consonants would putatively have made it easier to identify transitions from one syllable to another. He speaks of 'break[ing] down the speaking voice into a given number of elementary parts, either vocal or articulate [i.e. consonantal?], with which one can form all the words and syllables imaginable' . . . .
줬ʹ֤ȯãȤȤ "monotonous" ȤʤäƤơ"consonants" ƤȤọ̇ۤȯۤطʤˤϡĴѤִŪʡ줬ϰäƤ뤳Ȥ륽ΤäƤȤ¤롥륽и鼫ͳǤϤʤäȤ狼롥
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.

οظܼسǤϤǤ¿ΥǥǼ夲졤ȤʤäƤ롥ҤΥȤǤߥߤƤꡤ夬ͻҤ狼롥
䤬ƱνΰʼȤȤ˱ĤƤ YouTube ΡְʼδѸظإͥפǤ#141. ٥ȥ顼ܡĤߡĴظܼ٤äƤߤޤ2ۤ˾Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥ޤ͵ YouTube/Podcast ֤ͥإ饸Ǥ⡤ܽԤ1ͤǤ뺣Ĥνбޤ¿δϢۿƤ롥
ܽǤϡ(1) θظǤϼŪʰƤΥޥȥ (onomatopoeia) ʲ콬νʳˤƤ礭餸Ƥꡤ(2) δפξˡ (abduction) Ȥҥȸͭο˶ưǡǽϤȯŸ夷Ƥʡ֡ȥȥåԥ˥ǥ뤬ƤƤ롥ǥǤϤΤΡ˭٤Ը˴ŤĤȯãؤμ¾ڼ¸Ǥ줿ˤϡŪʳ롥
ܽϡѲѰۤͤǤ⼨ŪʻŦ٤ࡥϤǤ7Ρָ縶§פƤƤ뤬2ܤˡѲ뤳ȡפǤƤ롥Ѥ (258)
ϤȡʷỌ̇̄¤ƴæ褦ȤϤδ֤襤Ǥ
ŵŪʷ̣ΰ̲ȤƤϴ˹äƤƤ⡤˽ʤСָפ뤤ϡԼפȸʤ
쥳ߥ˥ƥȾʷ̣ȤС줬¸η̣Ȥο魯
ѲԲǤ
ϡݻ褦ȤϤѲ褦ȤϤɹȶѹդˤꡤɤѲƤȤϤηϤȤƤϰݻƤȤޤưŪʿ (dynamic_equilibrium) θԻĤ¸ߤǤ뤳ȤǤƤ롥
ظܼҤɤ
Ĥߡ ظܼ --- ȤФϤɤޤ졤ʲ١2023ǯ
Τ Comrie (248) εȯŸᤰͻˤơϺǽ餫ʣäݤȤˤĤƵƤ롥ʤߤˡǤʣȤϡ˷֡ʲŪʣؤƤ롥
One question that then arises is how some languages come to have such complexities as complex morphologies and morphophonemics.
One possible answer is that they have always had these complexities, i.e. that some languages, from the beginnings of human language, just started out being complex. After all, if languages with complex morphologies, like, say, the Eskimo languages, can be acquired with relatively little difficulty by children, then they are clearly within whatever limits exist on the acquisition and use of language by human beings in general, and as soon as humans attained the level necessary for dealing with such complexity they would have been able to deal with such a language. But although such a scenario cannot be excluded a priori, the nagging question keeps coming back of where such complexity could have come from, almost as if it were improbable to accept the complexity as always having been there and at least more tempting to try to explain its origin.
ѤκǸ˼Ƥ褦ˡComrie Ȥϡ줬ǽ餫ʣäȤˤŪΤ褦ñäΤʣƤȤȿФɽƤ櫓Ǥʤ餫ʣǰƬ֤Ƥȹͤ롥
⤽ˤʣȤ嵭ǤϷ֡ʲˤʣΤߤθƤˤʤ¾ʣޤŪɾɬפ뤫ơɾδˤĤƸԴ֤ǤιդϤʤȴϢơʲεȡ
#293. ٤¬뤫 ([2010-02-14-1])
#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])
#2820. ˤĤơ ([2017-01-15-1])
#4165. ʣˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2020-09-21-1])
Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.
եꥫ4Ĥθ²ˤĤơ#3811. եꥫθ²Ƚγס ([2019-10-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤#4846. ȸδط ([2022-08-03-1]) ǻȤĤˡȰҤδط˿Ĥĥեꥫθ²ˤĤƤä餫Ѥ (87--88)
ѰۤФ뤴ȤѤޤ顤ƱϰĹ餹ۤɸδ֤ΰŪʰ㤤礭ʤޤۥ⡦ԥ¾ΤɤϰĹեꥫΦ褷Ƥޤ顤եꥫƱΤϡ¾ΦοͤӤȤ礭ʰŪѰۤäƤޤºݡλİŪ¿Τ¤ȬޥѡȤޤǤϥեꥫͤäƤȿꤵƤޤDNAƱ֤͡ȤȤѲƤޤΥԡɤDNAѲϤ뤫ǯ⤵Τܤȸ֤ηطɤʤۤѲȤƤޤƱ褦Ѳ뤳Ȥ顤ʬۤȽĤˤΤˤ̩ܤʴط뤳Ȥͽۤޤ
եꥫˤϡ¸ߤλʬΰ롤褽θ줬¸ߤޤϡեꥫΦĹˤ錄äƿͤӤȤ餷Ƥ뤳ȤξڵǤ⤢ޤեꥫäƤ礭ͤĤΥ롼פʬƤꡤ̤顤ե졤ʥ롦ϥ졤˥롦졤줬ʬۤޤϤ˸ޤĤΥ롼פʬƤꡤߤζϤۤȤɤʤȤƤޤΤʬ췲θ²Τª٤ΤǤȤ⤢졤쥰롼פʬۤͻҤȽĤΰŪʹˤ̩ܤʴط뤳Ȥ狼äƤޤ̸ά͡
ޤեꥫο͡θ²ҡŪʬۤߤ˴ط뤳Ȥ˲äȤشطȤ߹ޤƤȤե²̱̱ȴϢŤ졤ʥ롦ϥ²̱ȡ˥롦²̱ȡ²ϼĺν̱Ȥ줾ϢŤ롥 *
(89) ϡָȡŪʬۤΰ㤤ϡˤ뽸Ĥΰưͻη̤ȹͤΤǡФDNAˤϹųŪʾڵηĴ٤뤳ȤǡΥեꥫĤΩΥʥꥪ¿ŪȤǤޤפƱäƤ롥
Ϣơ#3807. եꥫˤ¿ (1) ([2019-09-29-1])#3808. եꥫˤ¿ (2) ([2019-09-30-1])#3814. եꥫ͡Ķ̱² ([2019-10-06-1]) ۤ africa γƵȡ
졡ؿεDNAۥ⡦ԥΡ礤ʤιס١2022ǯ
ĸˤᴩؿε١ˤɤǤ롥 (anthropology) ϸؤʬ1ĤǤ⤢ؿƤ뤬եꥫʤɤDzпȯ뤿Ӥ˿ˤͤܤˤơʤȥԡɴΤʬʤΤȻפäƤ롥
(174) ǤϡͤεõϤǡָȥΥפδطˤĤƵŸƤ롥ΰѤ롥
ǯˤϡ쥢ˤƤθͽĤΥΥǡϤ졤νĤΰŪʬϴŪ˸콸ĤбƤ뤳ȤƤޤάƱ콸Ĥ°ͤӤȤϻ褦ʰŪʹƤȤȤɽƤޤϴŪˤƱ쥰롼פǹԤޤ顤η̤Ǥ礦ʬΤäȤפǤϸǤꡤ줬ĤΰŪʹꤷƤΤǤ
ΰѤˤ褦ˡȸ˴ŤĤʬۤפƤȤŦϡ餯¿ɼԤˤȤäľѤȾQ˸礦ˡʤȼΤˤȤäơΥȥ졼ȤʻŦϡʤʤåäͼδطˤĤơñ˷ӤĤ뤳Ȥ˲ŪǤ뤫
ҲؤǤϡȤ¾μΥѥϡشطˤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤΡŪʷӤĤϤʤȤȤ⤫졤ФжĴ롥Ҳؤϡ̣Ǥϡ¾ΥѥδطľѡQȤϴ˥ǤϤʤΤǡŪ˥ǷӤĤȤϵΥ֤ȼĥʬǤ⤢ȻϹͤƤ롥Τ褦Ω줫餹ȡ嵭ηϤޤ˥ȥ졼ȤǡäȿȹƤޤ櫓
ˤְפˤĤ糰Ǥ䤬뤳Ȥ뤫СǰʤʤǤϡϢʲεŦˤȤɤ
#2838. ͤоȽХեꥫ ([2017-02-02-1])
#2841. εȸεδط ([2017-02-05-1])
#2844. εȸεδط (2) ([2017-02-08-1])
#2872. Ǥȥۥ⡦ԥ ([2017-03-08-1])
#3146. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (1) ([2017-12-07-1])
#3593. ˥ȤݤΤ ([2019-02-27-1])
#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])
#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])
#3810. ҲŪʹʪȤƤΡֿͼס ([2019-10-02-1])
ǤλΤޤȤޤʤͤ첽ȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥ȸشطϡľѡQΤߤʤ餺ʳŪˤǻ̩Τ褦Ǥ롤ŪʥطǤϤʤ
졡ؿεDNAۥ⡦ԥΡ礤ʤιס١2022ǯ
(sign_language) äȤ1֤Ǥ뤳ȤˤĤơ#1662. äϸǤ (1) ([2013-11-14-1])#1663. äϸǤ (2) ([2013-11-15-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
Woll (96) ˤСäθˤ17ˤΤܤ뤬ܳŪʼø椬ϤޤäΤϡĤǶȤ⤤1950--60ǯΤȤǤ롥Tervoort (1953) Stokoe (1960) θ椬ŪȤƤ롥θ1970ǯʹߤϡήɸؤø椫ɷΰؤδؿƤʲʬؤΥѥȤ礭ä褦Woll (104) ۩
. . . sign languages are the creation of humans with 'language-ready' brains. Thus it is inappropriate to view sign languages as comparable to the communication of pre-linguistic humans. Perhaps the most important contribution of sign linguistics to language evolution theory is the recognition that human communication is essentially multi-channel.
μøؤ70ǯۤɤˤĤȤˤʤ뤬ηи̤Ƽä3Ĥħ⤭ĦˤʤäƤ Woll (92) ϽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Sign languages are complex natural human languages.
Sign languages are not related to the spoken languages of the surrounding hearing communities.
Sign languages can be compared and contrasted in terms of typology and modality with spoken language.
øϲ줫ʪǤϤʤäȤ1֤ǤꡤӤǤ¦̤ȤǤʤ¦̤ġȤȤ
ʤߤ˼øϤĤΤEthnologue 2009ǯǡˤǤ170μø줬Ƥ뤽̤Υǡ١ˤȿΥȥǧǤȤ (Woll 93) ¿ͳǡƱͤˡݤʾˡΤ˿夲ΤϺʤ褦
Woll, Bencie. "The History of Sign Language Linguistics." Chapter 4 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 91--104.
Tervoort, Bernard T. Structurele analyse van visueel taalgebruik binnen een groep dove kinderen. Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandsche Uitgevers Maatschappij, 1953.
Stokoe, William C. "Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American deaf." Studies in Linguistics Occasional Papers 8 (1060): 1--78. University of Buffalo.
#4612. εȯã ([2021-12-12-1]) ǰѤ Mufwene (51) ϡεȯãˤĤơǶᲿƤФƤƤȤ¤ϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ֽפ18ůؼԤμˤꡤǤ˽ФäƤȤǧ
For instance, the claim that language is what distinguishes mankind the most clearly from the animal kingdom is already evident in Condillac. It is also hard to sharply distinguish eighteenth-century arguments for the emergence of human language out of instinctive cries and gestures from Bickerton's position that the predecessor of his 'protolanguage' consisted of holistic vocalizations and gestures. The idea of gradualism in the evolution of language is not new either; and Rousseau had already articulated the significance of social interactions as a prerequisite to the emergence of language. And one can keep on identifying a number of current hypotheses which are hardly different from earlier speculations on the subject.
ǤϡȤäƤΰˤ븦椬ʤǤʤȤС櫓Ǥʤ Mufwene (51--52) ϵ³롥18ůؼԤ19θؼԤȡβ桹Ȥδ֤ˤϽפʰ㤤ĤȤ
1ܤϡ桹10--20ǯβпȲ桹Ȥ˶ŪˤֳŪˤۤʤä¸ߤǤ뤳ȤǧƤ뤳ȤεȯãǡǧϽפǤ롥
2ܤϡ桹εȯã⤬ "speculative" ʵǤȤȤǧƤ뤳Ȥ̤θС桹Τۤ夲äƲʳŪμθ³˼ŪʤΤǤ롥
3ܤϡ桹ϸȯãˤĤƳͥ˥ƤȤȤ줬ˤäͿ줿ǽϤǤȤΩԤ⡤ɤǤȤϤ¸ߤ롥ήθǤϡǽϤѰۤˤäƤΤȤƤ롥
4ܤϡ桹ϸι¤⥸塼벽줿ΤǤ (modular) ȹͤƤ롥ĤƤΤ褦˸ιǤ٤ƤȤƱȯȹͤɬפϤʤȤȤߤϡ줬ȯãƤȤȤƤ褤롥
Τ褦ˡˤʤäƲ⤬Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ18--19ˤȤƤʤäȤǤȤƤ褦ˤʤäȤȤϡ줳ʤΤ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
εȯãˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ origin_of_language evolution εǼ夲Ƥ夫鸽˻ޤ䤤³ƤŤƿȤ櫓ϳغŪʥץԲķǤ롥ޤ˿ΰǤꡤˤ̤˾ΤۤɤMufwene (14--15) "The Origins and the Evolution of Language" ꤹͤǡϢΰüꥹȤǼƤΤǡѤ롥
1. Was language given to humans by God or did it emerge by Darwinian evolution?
2. From a phylogenetic perspective, did language emerge abruptly or gradually? If the emergence of language was protracted, what plausible intermediate stages can be posited and what would count as evidence for positing them? Assuming that the structure of modern languages is modular, would gradual evolution apply to any of the modules, only to some of them, or only to the overall architecture? What is the probable time of the emergence of the first real ancestor of modern language?
3. Does possessing Language, the non-individuated construct associated exclusively with humans, presuppose monogenesis or does it allow for polygenesis? How consistent is either position with paleontological evidence about the evolution of the Homo genus? How did linguistic diversity start? Assuming Darwinian (variational rather than transformational) evolution, can monogenesis account for typological variation as plausibly as polygenesis?
4. What is the chronological relationship between communication and language? What light does this distinction shed on the relation between sign(ed) and spoken language? Did some of our hominin ancestors communicated by means of ape-like vocalizations and gestures? If so, how can we account for the transition from them to phonetic and signed languages? And how can we account for the fact that modern humans have favoured speaking over signing? Assuming that language is a communication technology, to what extent are some of the structural properties of language consequences of the linearity imposed by the phonic and signing devices used in their architecture.
5. Is the evolution of language more biological than cultural? Or is it the other way around, or equally both? Are languages as cultural artifacts deliberate inventions or emergent phenomena? Who are the agents in the emergence of language: individuals or populations, or both?
6. What is the relationship between language and thought? Did these entities co-evolve or did one cause the other?
7. Is there such a thing as 'language organ' or 'biological endowment for language'? How can it be characterized relative to modern humans' anatomical and/or mental makeups? What are the anatomical, mental, and social factors that facilitated the emergence of language?
8. Can we learn something about the evolution of language from historical language change, especially from the emergence of creoles and pidgins? Can we learn something from child language and/or from home sign language? And what can be learned from 'linguistic apes'? Does it make sense to characterize these particular communicative 'systems' as fossils of the human protolanguage . . . ? In the same vein, what can modelling contribute to understanding the evolution of language. This is definitely the kind of thing that scholars could not do before the twentieth century; it is important to assess its heuristic significance.
į䤤ȤȤ褯ʬ롥θ椷ƤѸˤѲ (language_change) ϡΤʬߤ¸ߤˤ⤳ʬľŪ˻뤫ʬʤٻǤ롥
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
˸ز2019ǯΥݥֿʲؤؤξԡפǤδĴֱ˴Ťʸ˸ء٤κǿ˷ǺܤƤ롥ʲؤȤʬˤĤƻ伫Ȥ糰ƣʸֳŪȡʼʡ˲ܲפɤߡΤ褦ʵʤƤΤȶ̣ФƱʸϡƬ (p. 69) ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
äˡʹָ礭ħȤʤäƤŪŪˤĤơ줬ʪΤȤ߹碌γŬŪʲˤȤֱư浯 (Fujita 2009, 2017, ƣ 2012 ¾ˤ֤ꡤǻĤƤ֡ʼʡ˲ܲ ((self-)-domestication)פδ褹ǽˤĤƹͻƤߤ
ʲؤʸˡˤơʻ (merger) ϡ2ĤΡʸùܤӸùܤʤ뽸ˤȤ߹碌1Ĥ̵ (unordered set) Ū黻סƣġp. 71ˤؤ꼰ȡMerge(, ¡ {, } ȤȤ2ĤΤǤȤ߹碌ñ1षʤʤ "Pairing Strategy" ȸƤФˡ3ĤΤȤʤȡάפϤäʣˤʤ롥
A ʾ, B , C ˤ3ĤΥåפꤷ褦3ĤΥåפäݤϤ2̤ꤢ롥B C ˤϤᡤǸ˺Ǿ A 碌ƤϤȤ1 ("Pot Strategy") ⤦1Ĥϡ A B ˤϤƤΰβΤ C ˤϤȤ ("Subassembly Strategy")
ƣĤβˤСάοʲϡ"Pairing Strategy" "Pot Strategy" "Subassembly Strategy" νǵäƤΤǤϤʤȤΤ褦ʡֹưʸˡפοʲϢưǡΤʻʲƤΤǤϤʤȡơβΤȤֱư浯פȸƤǤ롥
"Subassembly Strategy" κħϡ˷ߤƤΤʬʤȤƺѤסƣġp. 76ˤˤ롥ȿٱ䤵ǽϡʿкȤϤȤȤ館Ƥ褤⤷ʤϿʹ֤椹ǽϤ˴ؤΤǡּʲܲפȤФƤȤ
糰ȤƸѤˤĤޤޤ줿뤬ʲؤεʷϵΤ뤳ȤǤ
ƣ ̻ʡֳŪȡʼʡ˲ܲס˸ء9˸زԡˡ2020ǯ69--85ǡ
#3905. ؤ˸ؤؤŬѤˤĤ (1) ([2020-01-05-1]) ȡ#3906. ؤ˸ؤؤŬѤˤĤ (2) ([2020-01-06-1]) ǡʪؤȸؤϢȲǽ˿줿ʪʲʬǵˤʤäƤѸ졦ǰˡƱ (homology) (analogy) 롥2ĤΤΤߤˡֻƤפȤƤͳˤ2बȤƶ (11) ˤ⤬ʷפƤ롥
A α äƤȤͳǻ¹ B C α ݻƤΤǤСη α ƱǤȤ롥¾ A α äƤ餺¹ B C 줾̸ĤĶŬƷ α Ƥ硤ηǤȤ롥
Encyclopaedia Britannica βƤ
Homologous structures develop from similar embryonic substances and thus have similar basic structural and developmental patterns, reflecting common genetic endowments and evolutionary relationships. In marked contrast, analogous structures are superficially similar and serve similar functions but have quite different structural and developmental patterns. The arm of a man, the wing of a bird, and the pectoral fins of a whale are homologous structures in that all have similar patterns of bones, muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and similar embryonic origins; each, however, has a different function. The wings of birds and those of butterflies, in contrast, are analogous structures---i.e., both allow flight but have no developmental processes in common.
2ΡֻƤפƤϤȤɤʤ2ĤθˤƷǽȤ˻ƤʤȤñˤߤ硤ϤƱ2ब̤롥Ʊ츻ˤΤܤ뤬椨˻Ƥ硤ȤбѸ one ȥե un ϡƱǤ롥Ѹ bow-wow ȥե ouah-ouah ϸĤ (cf. onomatopoeia) ΩϤ̡Ƥ륱ȹͤΤǡȤ롥
ʪˤϤۤȤɤߤ줺ˤ̤ˤߤ3ΡֻƤפ롥 (borrowing) ʤʪˤָפλϤˤϤˡѸ people ȥե peuple ϻƤ뤬ԤԤѤǤ롥Ѥˤְפ1ѥȤȤ館ΤǤаƱطȤ⤤ʤϤʤˤϰ⤢ѤǤϤʤƱȤ⤤ˤͭΡֻƤפ
Ϣơ#1136. ۤʤδ֤줬 ([2012-06-06-1]) ⻲ȡ
ʸβ뤳ȡʸʲΥѥȥץסʸؤؤξԡ ԡˡҦ˼2012ǯ1--16ǡ
ε ([2020-01-05-1]) ˰³ؤˡ˸ؤ˱ѤˤĤơ
ѤϡֹųؤϿʲؤ鲿ؤפꤷ̤ͤǡʪηؤ¾ʬŬѤ褦ȤݤˤȽФȿŸĤġ֥Ȥ˱̥ץõ᤹뤳Ȥν⤤Ƥ (207--08) ǰƬ֤ƤΤϡųŪʰʪηǤ롥
ʸŪʪȤƤιųŪʪΡַطפȤϲͻ뤳Ȥ礭ʰ̣롥ŪʹųظФ趯ȿаոΰĤȤơʪŪʸݤȤȯγǰȷˡΰʪˤΤޤŬѤ뤳ȤϤ⤽ޤǤϤʤȤȿǤ롥
ˡʪʪˤä߽ФȤ̣ǡʪʪ櫓ǤϤʤųŪʰʪˤɬϿͤ롥ιԤǽ俴ݤ뤤ʸṲ̄ơʪϰʪ߽ФȤ롥ά
оݤǤ륪֥ȤɤΤ褦ʰŪطʤΤȤ褫¹ؤƤϡȯΥѥǤϤʤष줾Υ֥ȸͭͳ˴ؤץǤȲ᤹ФΤǤϤʤżܤϤĤܤܤȤ̤Ȥ̥ץȤʤ롥ͭʪĤǤϤ줾θΤǤϰʤͺ¸ߤηȤƤϤƷȯDzʹԤ롥ޤʤʣüԤʤ뽸ġ²ˤꤷƤϤƸοʲ뤳ȤǤ
֥Ȥ鷺ϥޡɸˤȤʤˤäƥ٥ȤηӽФʪξǤäƤ⡤ȤзַˤƤ餷ξ硤ɽǤġηʤȤХȤ塞γѡˤˤȤŤϡפȤֳѤѤפȤ褦ʲ֤Ƥ櫓ǤϤäƤʤѤηϷΤΥޡˤʤǤ롥
ȤޤäƱͤˡξȤƤΰʪųŪޡȤߤʤʤСǽ˵褦ȿऱ뤳ȤǤ
ǤϡȤ֥Ȥꤷؤˤơʬΰ̥ץޡϲˤʤ19˶δӸؤξǤС̥ץβϡѲε§ ("Ausnahmslose Lautgesetze") ȡͭ롿ʤüԽĤΥ罸ȤȤˤʤޤޡϸβȤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦ʰ̥ץޡ꤬ɬ٥ȤȤϤʤϵǤ뤫⤷ʤؤѤӸؤΥƥ㤽ΤΤϽʬͭȤߤƤ褤
ֹųؤϿʲؤ鲿ؤסʸʲιųء ɧ ԡˡҦ˼2017ǯ125--65.
ʪʲʪʬθȯŸƤ (phylogenetics) ˡѲãʤɤʸʲˤŬѤ뤳ȤǤΤǤϤʤȤդΤϤۤɿΤǤϤʤνܤ褦ˤʤäΤϺǶΤȤǤ롥ؤνʬؤΰŪŬѤ˴ؤŪ˷سưԤʤäƤԤ1ͤˡ椬롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤˸ؤδ#3162. Űء ([2017-12-23-1])#3172. 饤ҥ㡼ηŪȯۤϥǤϤʤʸؤ ([2018-01-02-1])#3175. group thinking tree thinking ([2018-01-05-1]) εǾҲ𤷤Ƥ
ɤΤϡˤֹųؤϿʲؤ鲿ؤפꤹͤǤ롥ʪؤ˸ؤδϢҤ٤ս (129--30) ߤĤΤǡѤ褦ʰʸؤθڤάˡ
ְ̲֥ȷءפϡʬˤ֤ʤСۤʤʬǷ֤ȺȯɤƤåǤ롥ȤСܷϿؤ˸ؤˤƺˡʬءˤ˴Ťˡʪؤ¹ԤΩˡȺȯɤƤޤ٤ܤž̲βѲǤʤѰۤ뤲Ȥ̥ץǤȤ¸¹ܤ¹ξ˴Ťܤĸꤹ뤳ȤŪ˲ǽǤ롥ơηѲǾȤ֤СʪΤߤʤ餺ܤηط̤κˡˤäƿǤ롥䤬ꤷƤ̲֥ȷؤϡΡ֥֥פˤͼŪΥåȤߤʤƤ롥
ʤǤ⡤ʪؤȤδؤǯƤ˸ؤǤϡʪʬҷؤΤޤޤץǥѤĤĤ롥ͽۤ褦ˡʪȸϤλŪѲô̲˰㤤Τ顤̤ηˡΤޤŬѤΤϤޤäƤΤǤϤʤȤȽºݤƤ롥̤ΥåŬѤ뤳Ȥȸ̤ξĴ뤳Ȥ̤Ǥ롥ȤƱʪǤäƤ⡤ͭ뤫ʤɤ䤹ɤʲ뤫ɤϾˤä礭ۤʤꡤ˱Ʒ¹ԤȤǥ礭Ѥǽ롥ͤʤС֥ȴ֤ΰ㤤ˤοõˤȤäƤϼ¤ϿǤϤʤȷƤʤष֥ȤΤΰ㤤θοʲιͻŬڤ˹ԤäƤ뤫ɤΤۤϤ뤫˽פǤ롥ųؤ˳ؤˤƤ⡤ޤäƱͤˡʪʤʸʪη椹ݤˤϡ̤ȤƤΥåȸ̤γȤƤΥ֥ȤʬƵɬפ
ʪؤȯŸƤˡΤޤѲθƤϤȤˤϡȽ⤢ʪȸϤޤäۤʤ륪֥ȡʿʲҡˤǤꡤѲѰۤΤ礤˰ۤʤäƤˤ⤫餺Ʊˡ¹ŪŬѤΤϴǤȡϷؤμˡ֤ΤޤޡŬѤʤɤȤϰҤ٤Ƥʤष֥ȤۤʤȤˤϡ¤դʧ٤ȼĥƤ롥֥Ȥ˱ƺ٤塼˥ɬפʥåˤΤΤ϶̤ƻȤ롤⤷ƤΤ
ŪˤؽŪˤ⡤ʪȸϤФиߤȤƤ2ĤϤޤǰۤʤ륪֥ȤǤꡤûŪӤϿޤʤФʤʤ⡤ޤǤˤդƤĤǤcf. #807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1])#2529. evolution evolution (3) ([2016-03-30-1])#3146. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (1) ([2017-12-07-1])#3147. ˤְŪطפȤϲ (2) ([2017-12-08-1])#3148. ˤְŪطפδñ̤ϸΤ狼 ([2017-12-09-1])#3149. ʤŪʬहΤ ([2017-12-10-1])ˡûŪǤʤθ줿ӤʤС¿ξ硤ͭפʤϤˤʤؤ˸ؤؤŬѤˤĤơ⤦˹ͤƤ褵
ֹųؤϿʲؤ鲿ؤסʸʲιųء ɧ ԡˡҦ˼2017ǯ125--65.
ɸȴϢ#2980. 30ǯκǸŤΥۥ⥵ԥ ([2017-06-24-1])#1544. εȿʲǯɽ ([2013-07-19-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥۥ⡦ԥ˺ǤᤤǤͥǥ륿ͤϡϤƸäƤΤɤ
Ȥʤˤϡ(1) ǤǾⵡäƤ뤳ȡ(2) 첻ȯ뤿αưäƤ뤳ȡ2Ĥξ郎ʤФʤʤ2˴ؤơФųŪʾڵȤ͡ʸƤäƤ뤬ʤʤ¬ΰФʤ褦[2013-07-19-1]ǤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ȥ1Ĥθˤʤ
ͥǥ륿ͤϹƬޤ⤤֤ˤȤɤޤäƤꡤư¤Ƥᡤȯ뤳ȤΤǤ벻褬¤ƤȹͤƤ롥ϷͤԤáԤʤɤʣʼҲưųŪʾڵ뤳Ȥ顤Τ褦ʼҲΩɬǤȤƽŪʸ¸ߤȤ롥
(204--05) ⡤嵭ȤãƤ뤬οʲˤĤƤ⿷ʼäƤ롥ۥ⡦ԥȥͥǥ륿ͤξΤȤʤäۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ڤӤΤäǽΤ뤵˸Ťۥ⡦쥯ȥӤʤ顤ͥǥ륿ͤθǽϤˤĤƥȤƤ롥
ۥ⡦쥯ȥǤǾη顤֥̤Ǥ褦ˤʤäۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ǤФˤʤäͥǥ륿ͤǤǹη꤬ꡤFOXP2 ҤŬפˤʤäդϤʤ긽줿ΤǤϤʤʳŪ˾ȯŸƤΤ
äơͥǥ륿ͤޤääʤäȤϹͤˤдȻޤȤ߹碌äꡤ֤ȶϤƼꤹ뤿ˤϡ٤ϸդä뤳Ȥɬפϥۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ˤ뤳Ȥη顤ʤ꼫ͳϽФȹͤ롥
ɤ٤ʸˡȤäդäƤΤϡ狼ʤ餯ܤǵƤ븽ߤΤȤˤĤƤäΤȤˤĤƤϤɤäΤˡȤäơ¤ˤϵƤʤȤޤäΤˡϾħưκǤΤǤ롥ҥȤȥͥǥ륿ͤΤǾħư礭ʺäȤСդˤĤƤƱͤˡ礭ʺäȹͤΤǤ롥ŪʤȡȤСʿ¡פդȤ鷺˹ͤ뤳ȤϤʤͥǥ륿ͤμˤϡֻפפϤäƤ⡤ʿ¡פϤʤäΤǤϤʤ
Ǥοˡ١NHKǡNHKǿӡ2018ǯ
ѸˤϡŪ첻 (Great Vowel Shift; gvs) Ȥ̤ˡѸζŪʸݤȤƤ "Modern English Vowel Shift Rule (alterations)" ȤΤ롥ԤϡѸڥˤߤ벻ŪѰۤ˴ؤ붦Ūʵ§Ǥ롥Chomsky and Halle üȯθθ÷ǤⰷƤȥԥåȤСΤ褦ʥڥ첻˴ؤƸؤߤ롥various ? variety, comedy ? comedian, study ? studious, harmony ? harmonious; divine ? divinity, serene ? serenity, sane ? sanity, reduce ? reduction, fool ? folly, profound ? profundity (McMahon 342) .
McMahon ϡζŪʵ§Ŭ (Optimality Theory; ot) ʬϤԸŦʤ顤ƱϱΧ (prosody) ΤˤĹƤ뤬첻ؤΤ褦ʬ˴ؤˤŬѤˤΤǤϤʤƤ롥ξϡ̤ˤƱֲפˤȤϤºݤˤΩ⤤ΤǤϤʤȤMcMahon (357) ϡΩκʤ鼡Τ褦Ƥ롥
. . . we must recognise prosodic and melodic phonology as two different systems, and in fact there are many different strands of evidence pointing in that direction. For instance, prosodic phonology shows clearer connections with emotion, with gesture, and with aspects of call systems in other primates. Prosodic and segmental phonology behave very differently in cases of language disorder and breakdown, with some children who are seriously language-impaired finding considerable compensatory strength in prosody, for instance. Prosodic phonology is also acquired early, and there is evidence that the brain lateralisation of prosody and melody is different too, with more involvement of the right hemisphere in prosody, and strong left hemisphere localisation for segmentals. If prosody phonology and segmental phonology are actually two very different systems, which have evolved differently, are processed differently, are acquired differently, and interact with different systems (as with the paralinguistic uses of prosody, for instance), then there is no need for us to expect a single theory to deal with both.
θϡOT Ūʰ˴ؤˤȤɤޤ餺ؤˤ벻ΰ֤ŤˤĤƤƹͤ¥ΤȤʤ
Chomsky, Noam and Morris Halle. The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.
McMahon, April. "Who's Afraid of the Vowel Shift Rule?" Language Sciences (Issues in English Phonology) 29 (2007): 341--59.
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