hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     1 2 ڡ / page 1 (2)

exaptation - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2024-03-11 Mon

#5432. ʣ -(r)en ϤȤǶǤϤʤä [exaptation][language_change][plural][morphology][derivation][inflection][indo-european][suffix][rhotacism][sound_change][germanic][german][reanalysis]

Ĺ餯̾ʣˤ򸦵椷ƤȤűѸǸԵ§פʣ -ru -n 줾ĸʳǤäȤΤʤäԤ ċildru "children" ʤɤˤߤ뤬ư̾äȤԤ ēagan "eyes" ʤɤˤߤ뤬̲ΰ̣ôä褦
ˤĤơFertig (38) ޥʣܼάˤ򤨤ʤ鶽̣äƤ롥

There are a couple of cases in Germanic where an originally derivational suffix acquired a new inflectional function after regular phonetic attrition at the ends of words resulted in a situation where the suffix only remained in certain forms in the paradigm. The derivational suffix *-es-/-os- was used in proto-Indo-European to form action nouns . . . . In West Germanic languages, this suffix was regularly lost in some forms of the inflectional paradigm, and where it survived it eventually took on the form -er (s > r is a regular conditioned sound change known as rhotacism). The only relic of this suffix in Modern English can be seen in the doubly-marked plural form children. It played a more important role in noun inflection in Old English, as it still does in modern German, where it functions as the plural ending for a fairly large class of nouns, e.g. Kind--Kinder 'child(ren)'; Rind--Rinder 'cattle'; Mann--Männer 'man--men'; Lamm--Lämmer 'labm(s)', etc. The evolution of this morpheme from a derivational suffix to a plural marker involved a complex interaction of sound change, reanalysis (exaptation) and overt analogical changes (partial paradigm leveling and extension to new lexical items). A similar story can be told about the -en suffix, which survives in modern standard English only in oxen and children, but is one of the most important plural endings in modern German and Dutch and also marks a case distinction (nominative vs. non-nominative) in one class of German nouns. It was originally a derivational suffix with an individualizing function . . . .


child(ren), eye(s), ox(en) ˴ؤϡޤǤ͡˼夲ƤʲΥƥ򻲾ȡ

hellog #946. ̾ʣˤγס ([2011-11-29-1])
hellog #146. child ʣ children ʤ櫓 ([2009-09-20-1])
hellog #145. child children 첻Ĺ ([2009-09-19-1])
hellog #218. ʣ ([2009-12-01-1])
hellog #219. eyes ɽ172ֻ̤ ([2009-12-02-1])
hellog #2284. eye ȯˡ ([2015-07-29-1])

hellog-radio ʢ heldio ȡ #31. ʤ child ʣ children ʤΤǤ

heldio #202. child children 첻Ĺ
heldio #291. ͺ ox ʣ oxen
heldio #396. ʤ I eye ƱȯˤʤΡ

Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-03-10 Sun

#5431. ؼ thatthe Ωޤ줿 [exaptation][language_change][article][demonstrative][determiner][oe][pronoun][voicy][heldio][reanalysis]

ѸˤǤϡؼ thatthe ʬΩǤ뤳ȤΤƤ롥űѸ괧ʵŪˤϻؼǤꡤޤ괧ȤƤˡǤ˳ΩƤϤʤäص夳Τ褦˸ƤǤˤ se ʤ˱ƶޤ͡ʷ֤äΤʤñʡгʤη֤ þæt ä줬Ѹλؼ that η־Ǥ롥θűѸλ˴դߤȡthat the 1֤ˤʤȤȤˤʤ롥
Ǥϡʤθ that the ֥롼פȴФΩؼȤȯãΤűѸ줫Ѹˤơ괧͡ʶ޷֤ the ȤƱ֤ؤȿʿƤäή줬³Сthe 1޷ˤʤ that 䤬ƾä椯̿ǤϤäȤthat ϻؼȤ̤εǽä椯̿æ뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥ΤˤСȤ the ȤˤؼεǽϤäȤˡλؼεǽ the å褦ˤ that ΩȤȤĤޤꡤؼ that εǽ the ߤƤȤˤʤ롥θ塤¸ΡֶΡפλؼ this ȤʬĴ˿ʤߡthat ϡֱΡפλؼȤƳΩ˻ä
Fertig (37--38) ϡΰϢθѲŬ (exaptation) λȤƾҲ𤷤Ƥ롥

A simple example can be seen in the modern survival of two singular forms from the Old English demonstrative paradigm: the and that. The contrast between these two forms originally reflected a gender distinction; that (OE þæt) was an exclusively neuter form, while the predecessors of the were non-neuter. One would expect one of these forms to have been lost with the collapse of grammatical gender. They survived by being redeployed for the distinction between definite article (the) and demonstrative (that).


ؼ that ȯãȴϢơʲ heldio hellog ΥƥĤ򻲾ȡ

heldio #493. ؼ this, that, these, those θ츻


hellog #154. űѸη se ζޡ ([2009-09-28-1])
hellog #156. űѸ se ʻϲ ([2009-09-30-1])

Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2021-06-01 Tue

#4418. ʻ硤Subassembly Strategyʲܲ --- ʲؤˤŪʻε [syntax][biology][evolution][exaptation]

˸ز2019ǯΥݥֿʲؤؤξԡפǤδĴֱ˴Ťʸ˸ء٤κǿ˷ǺܤƤ롥ʲؤȤʬˤĤƻ伫Ȥ糰ƣʸֳŪ󥿥ȡʼʡ˲ܲפɤߡΤ褦ʵʤƤΤȶ̣ФƱʸϡƬ (p. 69) ǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

äˡʹָ礭ħȤʤäƤŪŪ󥿥ˤĤơ줬ʪΤȤ߹碌γŬŪʲˤȤֱư浯 (Fujita 2009, 2017, ƣ 2012 ¾ˤ򿶤֤ꡤǻĤƤ֡ʼʡ˲ܲ ((self-)-domestication)פδ褹ǽˤĤƹͻƤߤ


ʲؤʸˡˤơʻ (merger) ϡ2ĤΡʸùܤӸùܤʤ뽸ˤȤ߹碌1Ĥ̵ (unordered set) Ū黻סƣġp. 71ˤؤ꼰ȡMerge(, ¡ {, } ȤȤ2ĤΤǤȤ߹碌ñ1षʤʤ "Pairing Strategy" ȸƤФˡ3ĤΤȤʤȡάפϤäʣˤʤ롥
A ʾ, B , C ˤ3ĤΥåפꤷ褦3ĤΥåפ򤹤äݤϤ2̤ꤢ롥B C ˤϤᡤǸ˺Ǿ A 碌ƤϤȤ1 ("Pot Strategy") ⤦1Ĥϡ A B ˤϤƤΰβΤ C ˤϤȤ ("Subassembly Strategy")
ƣĤβˤСάοʲϡ"Pairing Strategy" "Pot Strategy" "Subassembly Strategy" νǵäƤΤǤϤʤȤΤ褦ʡֹưʸˡפοʲϢưǡΤʻʲƤΤǤϤʤȡơβΤȤֱư浯פȸƤǤ롥
"Subassembly Strategy" κħϡ˷򵭲ߤƤΤʬʤȤƺѤסƣġp. 76ˤˤ롥ȿٱ䤵ǽϡʿкȤϤȤȤ館Ƥ褤⤷ʤϿʹ֤椹ǽϤ˴ؤΤǡּʲܲפȤФƤȤ
糰ȤƸѤˤĤޤޤ줿뤬ʲؤεʷϵΤ뤳ȤǤ

ƣ ̻ʡֳŪ󥿥ȡʼʡ˲ܲס˸ء9˸زԡˡ2020ǯ69--85ǡ

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2020-04-03 Fri

#3994. űѸͿʷε [oe][dative][germanic][indo-european][case][syncretism][instrumental][suppletion][exaptation]

ε#3993. Ǥư쥫ƥ꡼κ̾ⵯ䤹ä ([2020-04-02-1]) ǡűѸ̾Ϳ (dative) ε˿줿Ϳʡåʡʡ̳ʤȤˤо˴ؤ4Ĥγʤͻ (syncretism) ơʡͿʡפȤޤѤäȤȤäˤĤơLass (Old English 128--29) ˤʹƤߤ褦

The transition from late IE to PGmc involved a collapse and reformation of the case system; nominative, genitive and accusative remained more or less intact, but all the locational/movement cases merged into a single 'fourth case', which is conventionally called 'dative', but in fact often represents an IE locative or instrumental. This codes pretty much all the functions of the original dative, locative, ablative and instrumental. A few WGmc dialects do still have a distinct instrumental sg for some noun classes, e.g. OS dag-u, OHG tag-u for 'day' vs. dat sg dag-e, tag-e; OE has collapsed both into dative (along with locative, instrumental and ablative), though some traces of an instrumental remain in the pronouns . . .


ʤͻä䤳ʤ꤬ʤΤϡͻ礹˶̤ƤʣγʤΤ1Ĥ̾Фơͻ1ĤȤʤäΤ˳Ƥ뷹뤫űѸξˤ⡤Ϳʡåʡʡ̳ʤͻ礷1ĤˤʤäȤΤʬ뤬ʤʳʤϡͿʡפ̾դ뤳ȤˤʤäΤŪˤСͿʷϸŤͿʷʬŪˤϼѤǤ뤬षʷκפǻ
ŪˤСͿʣŵŪʶ޸ -um ζʣͳ褹롥ͿñˤĤƤϡޥįƤߤȡ̾Υ饹ˤäƵʣ褷ƤΤͿʷˤΤܤΤ⤢Сʷ̳ʷˤΤܤΤ⤢롥űѸͿñˤĤƤС褽ͿʷˤΤܤȹͤƤ褵ˤƤⵯ˹äƤ롥
Lass ̤ͤǿͿʤ "local" ("Data" 398) ȤǤƤۤ褤󵯤Ĥġޥĸʸʣʷаޤ򤶤äƤƤ ("Data" 399)

. . . all the dialects have generalized an old instrumental in */-m-/ for 'dative' plural (Gothic -am/-om/-im, OE -um, etc. . . ). But the 'dative' singular is a different matter: traces of dative, locative and instrumental morphology remain scattered throughout the existing materials.


פˡűѸ䥲ޥͿʤϡ֤νпȤõʤСִ󤻽ӡפȤäƤ褤ʪǤ롥󤻽ӤȤȤǤС#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Dz⤷ be ưξȰۤʤʤbe ư͡ʷ֤⡤4Ĥΰۤʤ캬줿ΤޤƼ佼ˡ (suppletion) ƱͤǤ롥 pure Ǥ purist Ǥʤ

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Lass, Roger. "On Data and 'Datives': Ruthwell Cross rodi Again." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 92 (1991): 395--403.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-07-01-1] [2020-04-04-1]

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2020-04-02 Thu

#3993. Ǥư쥫ƥ꡼κ̾ⵯ䤹ä [verb][category][exaptation][tense][aspect][perfect][case][dative][instrumental]

ӸؤȰˤߤƤȡʸˡƥ꡼䤽ΥСν̸űѸȤˤǰƬˤƤ⡤Ȥưβη֤ϡˤΰĸˤ봰λ (perfect) ̵ (aorist) η֤ˤΤܤ롥ưλꥫƥ꡼ˤäȤȤ cf. #2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]
ۤˤϡĸưεˡ (optative) ³ˡ (subjunctive) ǤϤȤȰۤʤ֤ȤäƤűѸޤǤԤη֤Ԥ߹ɽȤʤäο֤դ줿̾Τ³ˡפ顤䤳cf. #3538. Ѹ subjunctive ֤ϰĸ optative ֤ ([2019-01-03-1]
̾ˤƱͤθݤߤ롥űѸͿ (dative) ϡͿʡåʡ (instrumental)̳ʤʤɤǽŪ˵ۼΤ־εˤϵ롥űѸηƻ졤졤̾ʤɤˤ鷺˺פĤʤ⡤ŪˤζʤѤΤǤϤʤȤ (Marsh 14) ¤ˤ䤳Τ
Clackson (114) ϡˤư쥫ƥ꡼κ̾ⵯ䤹äȤͳϰʲ̤ꡥ

   In the documented history of many IE languages, the verbal system has undergone complex restructuring, while the nominal system remains largely unaltered. . . . It appears, in Indo-European languages at least, that verbal systems undergo greater changes than nouns. If this is the case, it is not difficult to see why. Verbs typically refer to processes, actions and events, whereas nouns typically refer to entities. Representations of events are likely to have more salience in discourse, and speakers seek new ways of emphasising different viewpoints of events in discourse.
   It is certainly true that . . . the verbal systems of the earliest IE languages are less congruent to each other than the nominal paradigms. The reconstruction of the PIE verb is correspondingly less straightforward, and there is greater room for disagreement. Indeed, there is no general agreement even about what verbal categories should be reconstructed for PIE, let alone the ways in which these categories were expressed in the verbal morphology. The continuing debate over the PIE verb makes it one of the most exciting and fast-moving topics in comparative philology.


ȤȤϡ̣Ūˤư쥫ƥ꡼Τۤʣǰ񤷤ȤȤͽۤ줽Τ˰ŪˤäơŪ̾ưŪưΤۤˤȤΤϹ

Marsh, Jeannette K. "Periods: Pre-Old English." Chapter 1 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1--18.
Clackson, James. Indo-European Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2020-04-03-1]

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2020-02-14 Fri

#3945. "<h> second" 2Żεȯã [digraph][spelling][orthography][latin][greek][consonant][h][exaptation][gh]

Ѹˡˤ <ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <sh>, <th>, <wh> ʤɡ2ʸ1Ĥβɽ魯2Ż (digraph) ʤ餺¸ߤ롥1ʸ1줤бΤե٥åȤۤȤС2ݏߤ뤳Ȥۤΰæˤۤʤʤ¤ˤϸűѸΤ鸽ߤ˻ޤǡ¿2ŻѤƤ켫Τˤαɸˤ餵Ƥ
ϡ˵󤲤2ʸܤ <h> 2Ż夲褦"verb second" θʤ "<h> second" 2ŻǤ롥 "<h> second" 2Żϡ§ȤñҲб롥<ch> /ʧ/, <ph> /f/, <sh> /ʃ/, <th> /θ, ð/, <wh> /w, ʍ/ ʤɤǤ롥<gh> ˤĤƤϡȤ /f/ ʤɤб뤬̵б뤳ȤŪ¿ȤդäƤʡ#2590. <gh> ޤñˤĤƤס ([2016-05-30-1])#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]
Ѹˤߤ "<h> second" 2ŻѸǻȤϤ᤿Τϡ褽ѸѸΤȤǤ롥θűѸѸǤϡ<ch>, <gh>, <ph>, <th> Ҳϳơ <c>, <ȝ>, <f>, <þ, ð> 1ʸ֤Ƥ<sh>, <wh> Ҳϳơ <sc>, <hw> Ȥ̤2Ż֤Τ̤ä
<ch> <th> ˤĤƤϡƥˡǺѤƤȤѸμ̻⸫ƤȤϤ˼ΤǤ롥ޤ<ph> ˤĤƤϥꥷʤ뤤Ϥ˼ѤƤƥˤμѤǤ롥
Ѹϡƥ䥮ꥷ줫Ѥ줿嵭Τ褦2Ż˿ȯǡ˥ե󥹸ǤʿŪ2ŻλѤߤ줿Ȥؤäơ2ʸܤ <h> Ŀ2Ż򼫤ȯƤ˻ä<gh>, <sh>, <wh> ʤɤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡѸ "<h> second" 2Żϡƥˤä2Żľܡܤ˱ƶΩΤǤ롥ʤ⤽ƥǤ2ʸܤ <h> Ѥ2ŻȯŸΤϡ<h> ʸбꤵ /h/ ȤҲƥޥ󥹽λ˸ƾüƤȤʬ̤ꡤŪ԰ʲǤäϢư <h> ʸ¾ʸ٤¸ߴäΤȻפ롥<h> Ȥʸϡ֤ͷƤȤ館졤ζ̤ƱȤä̤εǽ򤢤Ƥ줿ȹͤ롥γŬ (exaptation)
¤ϡѸǤⲻǤȤƤ /h/ ¸ߤɬŪǤϤʤ̣ǤϥƥȻäξäΤ褦˹ͤСѸǤ⡤Ⱦü¸ߤǤ <h> 2ŻιǤȤѤǤĶäƤǤ롥cf. #214. ԰ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1])#459. ԰ʻҲ /h/ (2) ([2010-07-30-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1])#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1899. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (3) ([2014-07-09-1]
ʾ塤Ȥ Minkova (111) 򻲾ȤȴϢơʲε⻲ȡ

#2423. digraph (1) ([2015-12-15-1])
#2424. digraph (2) ([2015-12-16-1])
#3251. <chi> ϡ֥פ֥פ֥פ֥ҡפ ([2018-03-22-1])
#3337. Mulcaster θåꥹ "generall table" ˤ츻Ūֻ (2) ([2018-06-16-1])
#2049. <sh> Ȥΰֻˡ ([2014-12-06-1])
#1795. Ĥ wh ȯ ([2014-03-27-1])

Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-01-13-1] [2020-02-20-1]

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2018-12-16 Sun

#3520. ֳŬפ [exaptation][terminology][language_change]

#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) 䤽¾εǾҲ𤷤Ƥ褦ˡǯθѲǤŬ (exaptation) ȤѸ졦ǰФʹ롥Lass ʲʪؤؤ˼ͭäơξޤޤʰո蘆ƤLass ϶޷ˤѲ뤿˳ŬФΤιͤޤˤĤơѲؤŬѲǽŦ褦ˤʤäƤŬθؤؤαѤ˲ŪԤ¿Velde and Norde (1) ˤСɤ3Ĥ롥
ޤʲʪؤγǰؤ˱ѤΤϡŪˤäƸǤϤʤȤΩ줬롥ʪʲȸѲδ֤ˤ˿¤ꡤ䤹䤹Ӥ٤ǤϤʤȤͤϡؼԤΤʤˤϡSchleicher θͭΤɽ19ΡָʪפȤѤؤȲ󵢤ƤޤΤǤϤʤ԰¤ФԤ뤳Ȥ򼨺Ƥ뤫⤷ʤ
ˡ⤽ʲʪؤΰˤƤ顤ŬͭʳǰǤϤʤȤո롥Lass Ͽʲʪؤ褯򤷤ʤޤޤˡ®˳ǰؤ˱ѤƤޤäΤǤϤʤȤȽǤ롥
3ĤˡŬλȤѲϡǤ¾Ѹ䳵ǰǽʬ˥СǤΤǤꡤƳɬϤʤȤȽ롥㤨СŤƤƤΤŪǶΤΤޤƴطοѸ󤲤Сregrammaticalization, degrammaticalization, functional renewal, hypoanalysis, renovation, morphologization/grammaticalization-from-below, lateral shift, refunctionalization and adfunctionalization, demorphologization, morphosyntactic emancipation, regrammation, secretion ʤɥ꤬ʤ (Velde and Norde 10--11) ˿˥äƺ𤵤ΤϡʤΤȤո
ѲˤȤäƳŬϤɤΤ褦˰֤Ť٤ؿΤϡNorde and Velde ˤäԤޤ줿ŬܳŪʸΤǡ򻲾Ȥ줿

Velde, Freek Van de and Muriel Norde. "Exaptation: Taking Stock of a Controversial Notion in Linguistics." Exaptation and Language Change. Ed. Muriel Norde and Freek Van de Velde. Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2016. 1--35.

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2018-06-19 Tue

#3340. ޥˤưζѲȸƬȤߴط [germanic][indo-european][stress][gradation][exaptation][aspect][tense][suffix][contact][stress][preterite][verb][conjugation][grammaticalisation][participle][dental_suffix]

#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1]) 6ĤκΩäޥŪħ󤲤Kastovsky (140) ˤȡΤʲ3ĤˤĤƤϡޥĸ줬ȯãǸߤ̩ܤʴطäȤ

(2) ư˸ߤȲ2λ
(3) ư˶Ѳ (strong conjugation) ȼѲ (weak conjugation) 2γѤ
(4) 촴1˶

One major Germanic innovation was a shift from an aspectual to a tense system. This coincided with the shift to initial accent, and both may have been due to language contact, maybe with Finno-Ugric. Initial stress deprived ablaut of its phonological conditioning, and the shift from aspect to tense required a systematic marking of the new preterit tense. From this, two types of exponents emerged. One is connected to the secondary (weak) verbs, which only had present aspect/tense forms. They developed an affixal "dental preterit", together with an affix for the past participle. The source of the latter was the Indo-European participial -to-suffix; the source of the former is not clear . . . . The most popular theory is grammaticalization of a periphrastic construction with do (IE *dhe-), but there are a number of phonological problems with this. The second type was the functionalization of the originally non-functional ablaut alternations to express the new category, i.e. the making use of junk . . . . But this was somewhat unsystematic, because original perfect forms were mixed with aorist forms, resulting in a pattern with over- and under-differentiation. Thus, in class III (helpan : healp : hulpon : geholpen) the preterit is over-differentiated, because the different ablaut forms are non-functional, since the personal endings would be sufficient to signal the necessary distinctions. But in class I (wrītan : wrāt : writon : gewriten), there is under-differentiation, because some preterit forms and the past participle have the same vowel. (140)


Kastovsky ˤСޥĸϡ餯 Finno-Ugric Ȥθܿη̡(a) ĸŪ (aspect) Ż뤹줫 (tense) Ż뤹ؤɤڤꡤ(b) ѥȤŪʸƬȤؤڤؤäȤ˶̤٤褦ˤʤäη֤ϡȤȤϰĸŪʥѰۤ˰¸Ƥ첻Ѱ (gradation or ablaut) ǽŪˡѤƺäΤȡ (dental suffix) դȤΤȤäηȿʣȤؤˤꡤѸưŪʻѲϢʤפΩƤäΤǤ롥츫ȸߤ̵ط˻פ븽ݤ֤εˤƸߤ˴ϢƤȤ1Ĥ
ΰѤǿƤȴϢơ#3135. -ed ε ([2017-11-26-1])#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ ([2015-03-20-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) ⻲ȡ

Kastovsky, Dieter. "Linguistic Levels: Morphology." Chapter 9 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 129--47.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-07-07-1]

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2018-06-10 Sun

#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ [indo-european][germanic][category][voice][mood][tense][aspect][number][person][exaptation][sanskrit][gothic]

Lass (151--53) ˤȡSanskrit ŵŪưˤϡ;ΡΥƥ꡼˱126롥ޥΤʤǺǤʣʶޤ򼨤 Gothic Ǥϡ22ζ޷롥ޥΤʤǤ⤪褽ŵŪȤäƤ褤űѸϡ8Ĥζ޷򼨤ʤѸǤϺǤ3Ĥλ¤ϡŪФ뤴ȤˡޤμबäƤƤΤǤ롥
ĸǤϡ̤Ƥʸˡƥ꡼Ȥ̣ϰʲ̤ꡥ

(voice) ǽư (active) ư (middle)
ˡ (mood) ľˡ (indicative) ³ˡ (subjunctive)ˡ (optative) ̿ˡ (imperative)
ꡦ (aspect/tense) (present) ̵ (aorist) λ (perfect)
(number) ñ (singular) ξ (dual) ʣ (plural)
; (person) 1; (first) 2; (second) 3; (third)

Υƥ꡼ˤĤơĸ줫饲ޥĸؤκͻҤάҤ褦
֤Υƥ꡼ˤĤƤϡĸǽư vs ư֤ζ̤ϡޥĸǤϡǽư֡ vs ʼư֤ȺƵ֡ˤȤǤ⤤٤̤˺줿
ˡΥƥ꡼˴ؤƤϡĸ4Ĥζʬϡ̡ޥɤǤϡľˡ³ˡ̿ˡ3ʬ뤤Ϥͻ礬ʤߡűѸǤľˡ³ˡ2ʬؤȺ줿
ĸλΥƥ꡼ϡŪˤ˴ŤΤȹͤƤ롥Ϥ褦ȤưĸΡִλפޥĸˤֲפ˺줿褦̤ȤơޥĸǤϡοֲפȡߤޤפȤΡ˴Ť2ʬˡΩ롥
Υƥ꡼ϡűѸǤξ;̾ˤ鷺˻¸ƤΤΡŪˤСñʣ2ʬ˺줿κˤĤƤϡ#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1])#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ ([2015-03-20-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿
Ǹˡ;ΤΥƥ꡼ˤĤƤϡѸΡ3ñ -sפˤħ褦ˡ褽3ʬˡޤǼѤƤ롥

Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

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2016-03-30 Wed

#2529. evolution evolution (3) [evolution][history_of_linguistics][language_change][teleology][invisible_hand][causation][language_myth][drift][exaptation][terminology]

2֤ˤ錄ɸε ([2016-03-28-1], [2016-03-29-1]) ˤĤƤ3ơϡevolution 3θߤʪؤǼƤ˸Ѳ˱Ѥ줦뤫ˤĤƹͤ롥McMahon (334) ꡤ3θǧƤ

the development of a race, species or other group ...: the process by which through a series of changes or steps any living organism or group of organisms has acquired the morphological and physiological characters which distinguish it: the theory that the various types of animals and plants have their origin in other preexisting types, the distinguishable differences being due to modifications in successive generations.


ˤʤäƤƤˤ evolution εκüϡޤˤθǤ evolution ȤƤ롥ޤǤ2εǸƤ褦ˡ1920θȾˤơؤˤ evolution ȤѸˤϼ깤ĤƤޤäؤˤơѸϥβʳŪ򼨤ʤ⡤üʲʹѤӤӤƤ뤳ȤŪʥåƥŽƤʪʳءˤȸʳءˤ°פӤƤ椨ǤꡤǫξԤʿʿСͭѤȤǤ³ǽϻĤ롥Ӥκݤ˵äΩĤ٤ evolution Ȥϡ嵭θ evolution Ǥ롥ˤϴޤޤƤʤʪʲʬǹƤ mutation, variation, natural selection, adaptation ʤɤѸ졦ǰ򡤤˸Ѳ˱ѤǤ뤫Ǥ롥
McMahon (334--40) ϡʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤιͻΤ褯ޤȤƤ롥ߤΰƱ褯򤷤ǤСˡ˸ؤˡʪؤؤ֤٤Ȥ¿षԤΤƤΰǤȼĥƤ롥McMahon (340) ᤯ϼ̤

[T]he Darwinian theory of biological evolution, with its interplay of mutation, variation and natural selection, has clear parallels in historical linguistics, and may be used to provide enlightening accounts of linguistic change. Having borrowed the core elements of evolutionary theory, we may then also explore novel concepts from biology, such as exaptation, and assess their relevance for linguistic change. Indeed, the establishment of parallels with historical biology may provide one of the most profitable future directions for historical linguistics.


ʪʳءˤȸʳءˤΡʿˤĤƤϡ#807. ޤʪޤ ([2011-07-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Referrer (Inside): [2020-01-05-1] [2016-03-31-1]

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2015-11-03 Tue

#2381. Gould and Vrba γŬ (2) [exaptation][terminology][evolution][causation][language_change]

³ơGould and Vrba γŬ (exaptation) ꡥGould and Vrba (11--13) ϡʲˤ볰ŬȤѸȳǰν4ۤɻŦƤ롥

(1) Ŭϡ "preadaptation" տ魯Ū (teleology) ŪʴްդʧƤ롥 "preadaptation" ϡѸηϤˤƤ "preaptation" ȸƤ֤٤ΤǤꡤλ¤ˤƹͤ줿 "exaptation" ΰʤ "potential, but unrealized, exaptations" (11) ȤߤʤȤǤ롥
(2) 1˳Ŭ2ŬѤȤ"Feathers, in their basic design, are exaptations for flight, but once this new effect was added to the function of thermoregulation as an important source of fitness, feathers underwent a suite of secondary adaptations (sometimes called post-adaptations) to enhance their utility in flight" (11). Ŭˤäޤ줿θ塤ŬѤβФƤ˵ǽŪˤʤäƤ椯ȤȤϡ̤ΤȤǤ롥
(3) Ŭλ񸻤̵¤Ǥꡤ٤ࡥ"[T]he enormous pool of nonaptations must be the wellspring and reservoir of most evolutionary flexibility. We need to recognize the central role of 'cooptability for fitness' as the primary evolutionary significance of ubiquitous nonaptation in organisms" (12). Ϣơ"[A]ll exaptations originate randomly with respect to their effects" (12) Ǥ롥
(4) Ŭ⤿餷񸻤ϡnonaptation ä⤷ʤ adaptation ä⤷ʤ"Exaptations . . . are not fashioned for their current role and reflect no attendant process beyond cooptation . . .; they were built in the past either as nonaptive by-products or as adaptations for different roles."

Gould and Vrba (13) ϡȤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

We suspect . . . that the subjects of nonaptation and cooptability are of paramount importance in evolution. . . . The flexibility of evolution lies in the range of raw material presented to processes of selection.


ϡ#2155. Ѳȡ̵٤δӡס ([2015-03-22-1]) ǰѤ Lass θѲˤ "The joys of idleness" ľ̤ͤǤ롥

Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.

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2015-11-02 Mon

#2380. Gould and Vrba γŬ (1) [exaptation][terminology][evolution][diachrony][teleology]

ε#2379. Ƶ̾γŬ ([2015-11-01-1]) Ǥ夲Ŭ (exaptation) ϡ衤ʪʲѸǤ롥#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡGould and Vrba ˤʪʲγŬʪؤˤ褯̤ؼ Lass ѲƤϤ᤿Τä
Gould and Vrba ʸϡۤĹʸǤϤʤȯŪǤ롥ʪؤ糰ǤɤۤɤΰƤꡤ餳ؤؤŬѤ;ϤäΤʲˤѸ̤ơб복ǰߴط餫ˤ褦ȤʸǤꡤνѸ䳵ǰϡΤ˹פиѲˤƤϤ뤳ȤǤ褦˻פ롥ʸƬ׻ (4) 餷ŪͤƤΤǡΤޤްѤ

Adaptation has been defined and recognized by two different criteria: historical genesis (features built by natural selection for their present role) and current utility (features now enhancing fitness no matter how they arose). Biologists have often failed to recognize the potential confusion between these different definitions because we have tended to view natural selection as so dominant among evolutionary mechanisms that historical process and current product become one. Yet if many features of organisms are non-adapted, but available for useful cooptation in descendants, then an important concept has no name in our lexicon (and unnamed ideas generally remain unconsidered): features that now enhance fitness but were not built by natural selection for their current role. We propose that such features be called exaptations and that adaptation be restricted, as Darwin suggested, to features built by selection for their current role. We present several examples of exaptation, indicating where a failure to conceptualize such an idea limited the range of hypotheses previously available. We explore several consequences of exaptation and propose a terminological solution to the problem of preadaptation.


̻ŪȯȶŪͭκƱȤꡤƤ뤿οѸȤƤ exaptation ϡˤƤΩĤϤǤ롥ߥ˥ΩĤ٤̻ŪȯƤ (adaptation) ȡȯãƷŪΩĵǽ (exaptation) ̤ƤȤϡΤɬפޤexaptation ϡŪ (teleology) ŪʸѲѤйѸȳǰͿƤ褦ˤפ롥
Gould and Vrba (5) ϡ"A taxonomy of fitness" ꤹɽǡʲΤ褦˴ϢѸƤ롥

ProcessCharacterUsage
Natural selection shapes the character for a current use --- adaptationadaptationaptationfunction
A character, previously shaped by natural selection for a particular function (an adaptation), is coopted for a new use --- cooptationexaptationeffect
A character whose origin cannot be ascribed to the direct action of natural selection (a nonaptation), is coopted for a current use --- cooptation


νѸ췲ѲˡʬŪˤǤŬѤˤϻԺɬפʤȤϤޤǤʤˤ¿βǽƤ褦ľ롥

Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.

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2015-11-01 Sun

#2379. Ƶ̾γŬ [exaptation][reflexive_pronoun][personal_pronoun][syntax][speed_of_change][schedule_of_language_change][language_change]

#2376. myself, thyself ˤ my- thy- ([2015-10-29-1]) Ǽ夲 Keenan ʸǤϡḽѸκƵ̾줬Ŭ (exaptation) ηޤ줿ΤǤ뤳Ȥ⤫Ƥ롥oneself η֤ϡ顤;̾оŪˡȤƻϤޤä줬Ʊؼ뤤϶ɽŪ«Ȥ褦ʺƵŪˡȤƵǽ褦ˤʤäȤ ("pron + self is selected because of its contrast function, and later, losing contrast, survives because of its local binding function" (250))
Keenan (346) ϡűѸ줫ѸˤƤ oneself ˡ̤ʬۤꡤΤȤ򼨤ȤűѸ줪ѸˤơƵŪˡϡ줿 oneself ľŪȤƤΤ20%٤ˤʤѸˤǡȤ80%ۤ롥ϡѲ®٤䥹塼Ȥϡ޷SȤȤˤʤꡤ̣ݤǤ롥
Keenan (347) ϡоˡƵˡؤγŬƻڤ򡤼Τ褦˹ͤƤ롥

. . . by the end of ME bare object occurrences of pron + self are losing their contrast interpretation. But this leads again to an ANTI-SYNONYMY violation on a paradigm level. Without the contrast interpretation a locally bound pron + self is synonymous with a locally bound bare pronoun. So him and him + self, her and her + self, etc. would become synonyms. This was avoided by an interpretative differentiation: pron + self in object position came to require local antecedents and bare pronouns came to reject local antecedents (in favor of the always possible non-local ones or deictic interpretations).


ʤKeenan ϡѲϤޤdzŬǤꡤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤϤʤȽǤƤ롥#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1]) #2146. ѸˤѲϡ͹¤εǽ͹¤ؤγŬǤ ([2015-03-13-1]) Ǽ褦ˡŬʸˡȤδϢ뤳Ȥ¿ξԤδطɬñǤϤʤΤ⤷ʤ

Keenan, Edward. "Explaining the Creation of Reflexive Pronouns in English." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. D. Minkova and R. Stockwell. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 325--54.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-02-25-1] [2015-11-02-1]

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2015-03-22 Sun

#2155. Ѳȡ̵٤δӡ [language_change][causation][exaptation][functional_load][functionalism][sociolinguistics][social_network][weakly_tied]

ε ([2015-03-21-1]) ǥꥦˤ#2154. Ѳͽ¬Բǽפ򡤤Ω2ε ([2015-03-19-1], [2015-03-20-1]) Lass ˤ볰Ŭ夲Ƥ줾ΩΤ褦˻פ뤬Ŭ¾θѲƱͤˤΤȤǤǤդβˤʤ Lass Ҥ٤Ȥ2Ĥ꤬Ĥʤä褦˻פѲǤդǤ꼫ͳǤȤˤĤơꥦ Lass Ωϻ̤äƤ롥
Lass (98) ϡŬˤĤƸƤʸ "The joys of idleness" ̵٤δӡˤꤹǽˤơ"historical junk" ŪʤˤФиѲξ뤳Ȥ˿ĤġۤȤΩʤ褦ˤߤबѲˤȤäƽפǤȤʤꤦ뤳ȤŦƤ롥

. . . useless or idle structure has the fullest freedom to change, because alteration in it has a minimal effect on the useful stuff. ('Junk' DNA may be a prime example.) Major innovations often begin not in the front line, but where their substrates are doing little if any work. (They also often do not, but this is simply a fact about non-deterministic open systems.) Historical junk, in any case, may be one of the significant back doors through which structural change gets into systems, by the re-employment for new purposes of idle material.
   Crucially, however, mere 'uselessness' is not itself either a determinate precursor of exaptive change, or - conversely - a precursor of loss. Historical relics can persist, even through long periods of apparently senseless variation, and it is impossible to predict, solely on the basis of such idleness or inutility, that ANYTHING at all will happen.


ʤۤɡǽ㤱㤤ۤɳŬ뤿ξ郎ΤǤ뤫顤"conceptual novelty" ޤ䤹ȤȤˤʤʤɬޤȤϸ¤ʤˡΰ⤤ˤϰ츫ȵŪʶ褦˻פ뤬ޤǤ#836. ǽôȸѲ ([2011-08-11-1]) ʤɤƤȤǤϤ롥ηϤȤƤθȤ餤СΩεǽô (functional_load) ʤоʤۤɡʤƤ褤ΩȤȤˤʤꡤäƾüʤꡤ̵٤¸ߤ³ʤꡤ̤εǽ˼äʤꤹ뤳Ȥ䤹̤θ򤹤СηȿΤʤ˶ǤȤ߹ޤƤ餺դդ餷ƤǤۤɡѲηˤʤ䤹ȤȤ#1232. ѲϱϳǤ ([2012-09-10-1]) #1233. ѲݤڤǤ ([2012-09-11-1]) Ǹ褦ˡѲηϤμˤ䤹Ȥ⡤̵٤δӡפȴط
¤ؤʤ餺ȤҲؤδ⡤ƱȤsocial_network ˤС夤嫤ǷФƤ (weakly_tied) Ŀ͡ηȿΤʤ˶ǤȤ߹ޤƤ餺դդ餷ƤװѲοޤˤʤ䤹Ȥ (cf. #882. Belfast νŹ ([2011-09-26-1])#1179. ťΥɸȤܿȡּ夤嫡ס ([2012-07-19-1]))
Ҥ̵Ѥѡפ⤤ϡηȿ˴ؤ뤢ѲƤϤޤΤ⤷ʤ

Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-11-03-1]

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2015-03-20 Fri

#2153. Ŭˤ륫ƥ꡼Ȥؤ [exaptation][tense][aspect][category][language_change][verb][conjugation][inflection]

ε#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ ([2015-03-19-1]) Ǽ夲ĸ줫饲ޥĸˤȤؤˤĤơܤ롥ĸΥƥ꡼Ƥ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޥĸˤƻȿΥƥ꡼ιװȤƤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ζ̤ؤȰܹԤŪʶ̤ݻޤޤˡŬäȤˤʤ롥ޤбγά޼Ū˼ȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥

(Indo-European)            (Germanic)

   PRESENT  PRESENT

   PERFECT  PRETERITE 1

   AORIST   PRETERITE 2

ޥμѲưˤĤƤϡĸ PERFECT AORIST ϷŪ˴ͻ礷Τǡޤμ褦 PRETERITE 1 2 ζ̤ϤĤƤʤѲưϤäݼŪǤꡤĤƤ PERFECT AORIST ηŪפĤʤ顤2 PRETERITE ؤȵǽ򥷥եȤʤĤޤ곰Ŭˡ2 PRETERITE ˤĤƤϡ#42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ȤǡĸǤưΥƥ꡼첻 (ablaut) ˤäɸ줿e-grade PRESENT o-grade PERFECT zero-grade 뤤 ē-grade AORIST ɽűѸΤĤζѲư PRESENT, PRETERITE 1, PRETERITE 2 η֤ߤȡbīt-an -- bāt -- bit-on, bēod-an -- bēad -- budon, help-an -- healp -- hulpon ʤɤȤʤäƤ롥ĸʹߤ첻ѲˤľܤϸˤʤäƤ뤬űѸ3ζѲ˸뤽줾첻ΰ㤤ϡĸ e-grade, o-grade, zero-grade κб롥Ĥޤꡤ3ζѲϲŪˤ³Ǥ롥äơޥĸˤܼŪѲƤäΤϷ֤ǤϤʤǽȤȤˤʤ롥餯ϰĸζ̤Ƥˤʤ˵ڤӡݻ줿ŪΩ̤Υƥ꡼ʤȿζ̤˿˱Ѥ줿ȤȤ
Lass (87) ˤȡγŬϰʲΰϢβФꤵƤ롥

(i) loss of the (semantic) opposition perfect/aorist; (ii) retention of the diluted semantic content 'past' shared by both (in other words, loss of aspect but retention of distal time-deixis); (iii) retention of the morpho(phono)logical exponents of the old categories perfect and aorist, but divested of their oppositional meaning; (iv) redeployment of the now semantically evacuated exponents as markers of a secondary (concordial) category; in effect re-use of the now 'meaningless' old material to bolster an already existing concordial system, but in quite a new way.


ĸˤ¸ߤʤäƥ꡼ޥĸˤƿȯ줿Ȥ̣ǡγŬϤޤ "conceptual novelty" λȤ롥

Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.

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2015-03-19 Thu

#2152. Lass ˤ볰Ŭ [exaptation][tense][aspect][language_change][grammaticalisation]

#2146. ѸˤѲϡ͹¤εǽ͹¤ؤγŬǤ ([2015-03-13-1]) ǸѲˤ볰Ŭ (exaptation) γǰƳˤĤܳŪʸΤ Lass Ǥ롥ʪʲʬ Gould and Vrba ѤǰLass ϤѲ˱Ѥ
ʪʲˤ볰ŬϡGould (171 qtd. in Lass 80) ΤȤФڤȰʲ̤Ǥ롥

We wish to restrict the term adaptation only to those structures that evolved for their current utility; those useful structures that arose for other reasons, or for no conventional reasons at all, and were then fortuitously available for other changes, we call exaptations. New and important genes that evolved from a repeated copy of an ancestral gene are partial exaptations, for their new usage cannot be the reason for the original duplication.


Ŭ (adaptation) ϤǤȯãƤ뵡ǽΤʤȯãؤФƳŬ (exaptation) ̤ͳˤ뿷ȯãؤLass (80) ΤȤФ󤹤ȡ"Exaptation then is the opportunistic co-optation of a feature whose origin is unrelated or only marginally related to its later use. In other words (loosely) a 'conceptual novelty' or 'invention'" ȤȤˤʤ롥
ơŬѲƤϤƹͤƤߤ褦εǽ졤ƥߤȤʤäƻĤä֤éƻ3Ĥ롥Ѵ뤫ߤΤޤް̣ʤĤ³뤫̤Ӥդƿ̿뤫Ǥ롥κǸƻŬȤȤˤʤ롥Lass (81--82) Ѥ롥

Say a language has a grammatical distinction of some sort, coded by means of morphology. Then say this distinction is jettisoned, PRIOR TO the loss of the morphological material that codes it. This morphology is now, functionally speaking, junk; and there are three things that can in principle be done with it: (i) it can be dumped entirely; (ii) it can be kept as marginal garbage or nonfunctional/nonexpressive residue (suppletion, 'irregularity'); (iii) it can be kept, but instead of being relegated as in (ii), it can be used for something else, perhaps just as systematic. . . . . Option (iii) is linguistic exaptation.


Lass ϡŬζ1ĤȤơĸΥƥ꡼ޥĸˤƻȿΥƥ꡼Ȥؤ줿Ȥ夲Ƥ롥ĸϡΥƥ꡼ˤ Present, Perfect, Aorist 3첻ˤäƶ̤ƤȤޥȯãǡ첻ˤֲŪʶ̤ݻʤ顤ζ̤Ȥ̤ӤդȤ׿ŪˤϡΩϾü˻ˤΩȲˤΩΩƤĤޤꡤĤƤ Present, Perfect, Aorist ζ̤ϡޤ Present, Preterite 1, Preterite 2 ؤȡֳŬפΤǤ롥
Lass (99) ʸκǸdzŬγǰҲŪ˱ѤǽˤޤǸڤƤꡤμι򼨺Ƥ롥

Gould, Stephen Jay and Elizabeth S. Vrba. "Exaptation --- A Missing Term in the Science of Form." Paleobiology 8.1 (1982): 4--15.
Gould, Stephen Jay. Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes: Further Reflections in Natural History. New York: Norton, 1983.
Lass, Roger. "How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in Language Evolution." Journal of Linguistics 26 (1990): 79--102.

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2015-03-13 Fri

#2146. ѸˤѲϡ͹¤εǽ͹¤ؤγŬǤ [exaptation][grammaticalisation][syntax][generative_grammar][unidirectionality][drift][reanalysis][evolution][systemic_regulation][teleology][language_change][invisible_hand][functionalism]

#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡѸˤƤפѲϤֵǽƤȯפȤª뤳ȤǤ뤬ϡֵǽ͹¤γŬפȴ뤳ȤǤ롥űѸ衤޸οȼäƸ͹¤ (Lexical Projection) ǽ͹¤ (Functional Projection) ؤȺʬϤˤƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ǽƤ濴Ȥ빽¤ؤȳŬƤäȤΤ
ʸˡεǤϡʪʲʬŪѤ볰Ŭ (exaptation) ȤǰѤ褦ˤʤäƤݺ (151) Τ狼䤹

ŬȤϡȤСʪʲ¦̤ǤϡȤβݻΤ¸ߤƤӤΩ줬¸Ŭ夲̤ȤʤꡤĻؤοʲĤʤäȤͤǤά͡Lass (1990) ϤγǰѲ˱Ѥư DO ȯãγŬʤȤȻưäΤ̵̣¸ߤȤʤꡤ̤Ӥ˳Ѥ줿ˤƤޤܽǤϡιͤʤᡤ¤ޤŬȼĥȻפޤά͵ǽƤϤȤȰĤ FP (Functional Projection) ȹͤ졤Ŭη̡ޤޤʹ¤Ȥƶ񸽲Ȥ櫓ǤѸϤ̻ŪѲβǡ̾ưζ޷֤ξüȶˡ濴ι¤鵡ǽ濴ι¤ؤȰܹԤƤȹͤ졤η̡졤ư졤ư֡λʹԷ¿ͤʬۤȸ櫓Ǥ


Τ褦ʸѲѤϡɭοʲȤͤˤĤʤ롥ҥȤͭθȯȿʲָʲפȸƤ֤ȤС嵭Τ褦ʸѲϡָξʲפȤߤ뤳ȤǤȤĴ碌ʤֿʲפȤߤǸ椬ʤƤ롥
ݺ (158) ϡμȿκѤ˿ʤ顤κǸ򼡤Τ褦᤯äƤ롥

켫ΤĤƻõѤϡ뼫ȿʼȯŪȤޤˤȸʤȤǽǤȿȤη뾽䥷ޥޤΥ֥ͭ̾ǤʪŪʪŪ¦̤ФǤʤȤСϤĻФԷ֡ʰδֳֻ֤ѡˡݸݡкѥƥҲΩʤɤˤڤӤޤξʲޤˤΰȤƹͤ졤ưŪŬѲᥫ˥ߤ¸ߤȤǤ줳ȤФοʲƳָפȸΤǤϤʤǤ礦ѸˤʸˡθݤϤޤˤιǤꡤѲθ椬ʣηϤʳؤĤμʤˤʤ뤳Ȥ򼨤ƤƤΤǤ


Ѳ礭1ĤβǤ롥

ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ

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2014-12-22 Mon

#2065. ʸμѼ (2) [contact][borrowing][loan_word][anthropology][sociolinguistics][speed_of_change][exaptation]

ε#2064. ʸμѼ (1) ([2014-12-21-1]) ³ʸμѤˤߤ붦ˤĤơʸΰȤСѤ˺ݤƤξԤδ֤˶뤳ȤԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ⤷ʤޤꤳΤ褦ʻӤϤƤʤäȻפΤǡηˤĤƤθڤߤĤȡʤۤɤȴƤޤ
ƱͤˡWeinreich Linton (Linton, Ralph, ed. Acculturation in Seven American Indian Tribes. New York, 1940) ˰͵򤷤ʤ顤ʤ붦2ĤۤɻŦƤ롥1Ĥϡ¸θƱ줬¾줫Ѥ˴ؤ롥Ǥ˼¸ߤƱ줬¾줫Ѥˤϡ(1) ξΰ̣˺Ʊ롤(2) Ѹ줬֤롤(2) ξθ줬̣㤨ʤ鶦¸롤Τ줫Ȥ롥(3) ƻʤɤʸŪʹܤμѤˤĤƤ뤳ȤǤϤʤWeinreich (55fn) ۩

Similarly in culture contact. "The substitution of a new culture element," Linton writes . . ., "by no means always results in the complete elimination of the old one. There are many cases of partial . . . replacement. . . . Stone knives may continue to be used for ritual purposes long after the metal ones have superseded them elsewhere."


¸ιबòʤɤʤ餢ޤĤȤϡʸˡʤɤܤƤ exaptation ˤӤ (cf. #1586. ʬβ̶ʬ ([2013-08-30-1]))
ʸμѤˤߤ2ܤζϡѤ¥ʤװ˳װ˴ؤΤǤ롥μѼ٤η˴Ϳװϡ¤ŪʸŪˤʤΤ¤Ūʸ쳰ŪˤʤΤ2ʬ롥ԤϸηϤؤٹ礤˴ؤꡤԤ㤨2ѼԤνȯäξܿμҲʸŪĶʤɤޤʡ#1779. ܿ٤ȼͽ¬ɸ ([2014-03-11-1]) ⻲)Weinreich (66--67fn)ϡʸؼԤƶ˿ʤ顤ʸμѤˤƱͤ˹¤Ū¤ŪװǧȤƤ롥

Distinctions parallel to those between stimuli and resistance, structural and non-structural factors, occur implicitly in studies of acculturation, too. Thus, Redfield, Linton, and Herskovits . . . distinguish culture traits "presented" (=stimuli) from those "selected" in acculturation situations, and stress the "significance of understanding the resistance to traits as well as the acceptance of them." They also name "congruity of existing culture-patterns" as a reason for a selection of traits; this corresponds to structural stimuli in language contact. When Linton observes . . . that "new things are borrowed on the basis of their utility, compatibility with preëxisting culture patterns, and prestige associations," his three factors are equivalent, roughly, to structural stimuli of interference, structural resistance, and nonstructural stimuli, respectively. Kroeber . . . devotes a special discussion to resistance against diffusion. Resistance to cultural borrowing is also the subject of a separate article by Devereux and Loeb . . ., who distinguish between "resistance to the cultural item"---corresponding roughly to structural resistance in language contact---and "resistance to the lender." These authors also discuss resistance ON THE PART OF the "lender," e.g. the attempts of the Dutch to prevent Malayans, by law, from learning the Dutch language. No equivalent lender's resistance seems to operate in language contact, unless the inconspicuousness of a strongly varying, phonemically slight morpheme with complicated grammatical functions be considered as a point of resistance to transfer within the source language . . . .


Τ褦ʸȸˤѤӤϡؤʸؤȤγغŪʸꡤؤθơޤˤʤ

Weinreich, Uriel. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems. New York: Publications of the Linguistic Circle of New York, 1953. The Hague: Mouton, 1968.

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2014-09-23 Tue

#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) [grammaticalisation][unidirectionality][pragmatics][subjectification][invisible_hand][teleology][drift][reanalysis][iconicity][exaptation][terminology][toc]

ε#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1]) ơʸˡ (grammaticalisation) μϰϤιˤĤ­롥Bussmann (196--97) ˤȡʸˡȤ櫓ؿĵˤϼΤ褦ʤΤ롥

(a) Is the change of meaning that is inherent to grammaticalization a process of desemanticization, or is it rather a case (at least in the early stages of grammaticalization) of a semantic and pragmatic concentration?
(b) What productive parts do metaphors and metonyms play in grammaticalization?
(c) What role does pragmatics play in grammaticalization?
(d) Are there any universal principles for the direction of grammaticalization, and, if so, what are they? Suggestions for such 'directed' principles include: (i) increasing schematicization; (ii) increasing generalization; (iii) increasing speaker-related meaning; and (iv) increasing conceptual subjectivity.


ϰϤȹ碌ơʸˡŪʥХåιȵڸ̤礭򴶤뤳ȤǤ롥ޤ (vii) ܼʸˡ˴ϢѸ򽦤ФǤ⡤ʬ츦κ˴ؤޤܤǤ뤳Ȥ狼

1 ʸˡ
1.1
1.2 ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1 Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2 ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1 ̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2 æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3 ز (Layering)
1.3.4 ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5 ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6 ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7 ƿ (Renewal)
1.4 Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5 ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6 饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7 ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8 ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9 ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10 ʸˡȡή (Drift)


ʸˡϡȤƸ̻֤˾ƤƤ뤬ǼȤƶŪǧʸˡ (cognitive grammar) 䵡ǽʸˡ (functional grammar) Ȥꡤ̻֤ȶ֤θΩäƤ롥̥ϤǤ롥

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ

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2013-08-30 Fri

#1586. ʬβ̶ʬ [reanalysis][metanalysis][exaptation][analogy][terminology][do-periphrasis][negative_cycle]

εǡʬ (reanalysis) ʬ (metanalysis) ȤѸȤ櫓̤ѤƤCroft (82--86) ϸԤԤ1ǤȹͤƤ롥ĤޤꡤʬϤϰʬϤξ̳ǰǤȤƤ롥Croft ˤС"form-function reanalysis" ϢŪ (syntagmatic) 4κʬϤŪ (paradigmatic) 1κʬϤض̤롥ʲơȤȤ˼

(1) hyperanalysis: "[A] speaker ananlyzes out a semantic component from a syntactic element, typically a semantic component that overlaps with that of another element. Hyperanalysis accounts for semantic bleaching and eventually the loss of syntactic element" (82) 㤨СűѸˤ°ʤ򽾤ư줬ꡤư٤гʤ夤ȤгʤȤϰ̣Ūʺۤäȹͤ뤬ưԤ򼨤Ǥ¿쾯ʤƱǽͭƤˡѸˤ°ʹ¤Ϥͥгʹ¤˼ä줿Ѳϡ°ʤδްդ졤Ū;Ȥʤꡤ°ʹ¤гʹ¤˵ۼȤ򤿤ɤäƤꡤhyperanalysis 1ȹͤ롥
(2) hypoanalysis: "[A] semantic component is added to a syntactic element, typically one whose distribution has no discriminatory semantic value. Hypoanalysis is the same as exaptation . . . or regrammaticalization . . ." (83) Somerset/Dorset Ǥϡ3ñͳ褹 -s do-periphrasis ȯŸȤ߹蘆뤳ȤˤꡤɸѼˤϸʤζ̤"I sees the doctor tomorrow." 1٤νɽ路"I do see him every day." Ϸ֤νŪʽɽ魯Ǥϡ-s do Ū˼Ѥ줿ǽȤϰۤʤ뵡ǽô蘆褦ˤʤäȹͤ롥
(3) metanalysis: "[A] contextual semantic feature becomes inherent in a syntactic element while an inherent feature is analyzed out; in other words, it is simultaneous hyperanalysis/hypoanalysis. Metanalysis typically takes place when there is a unidirectional correlation of semantic features (one feature frequently occurs with another, but the second often does not occur with the first)." (83) ³ since ˤĤơλŪʰ̣鸶򼨤̣߽Ф줿㤬󤲤롥"negative cycle" ̤Ǥ롥
(4) cryptanalysis: "[A] covertly marked semantic feature is reanalyzed as not grammatically marked, and a grammatical marker is inserted. Cryptanalysis typically occurs when there is an obligatory transparent grammatical marker available for the covertly marked semantic feature. Cryptanalysis accounts for pleonasm (for example, pleonastic and paratactic negation) and reinforcement." (84) 㤨С"I really miss having a phonologist around the house." "I really miss not having a phonologist around the house." not ̵ͭΰ㤤ˤ⤫餺ƱǤ롥not ϡmiss ˰Ť˴ޤޤƤŪ not ˤäƸ߲˾üԤˤ롤cryptanalysis η̤ǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥
(5) intraference: ƱηǤεǽˤäơ֤̤η֤ƶ㡥Croft ˾ܤϤʤäŪ (analogy) ˶ᤤΤȹͤ롥interference ̤θηϤȤƤȤ館ΤФơintraference ƱηϤΤʤǤȤƤȤ館롥

Τ褦ʺʬϤζʬϡǽΩ줫Ѳ褦Ȥݤ1ĤΥǥȤƻͤˤʤ롥

Croft, William. "Evolutionary Models and Functional-Typological Theories of Language Change." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 68--91.

Referrer (Inside): [2014-12-22-1] [2014-08-02-1]

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