My family is a large one. Τ褦ʸˤ one Τ褦ʸ (prop_word) ȸƤФ롥ֻפȤȯۤϡ줬ʤȹʸȤΩ椫ʤɬܹȤȤǡΤ褦 one ҤβĻ̾ؼ졤켫Τΰ̣Ƥ϶äݤȤΤǡǤϡֻפȤϤޤͭǤʤ褦˻פ롥
ѸȤƤ prop ȤϲCrystal Ѹ켭ŵ prop Ƥߤ
prop (adj.) A term used in some GRAMMATICAL descriptions to refer to a meaningless ELEMENT introduced into a structure to ensure its GRAMMATICALITY, e.g. the it in it's a lovely day. Such words are also referred to as EMPTY, because they lack any SEMANTICALLY independent MEANING. SUBSTITUTE WORDS, which refer back to a previously occurring element of structure, are also often called prop words, e.g. one or do in he's found one, he does, etc.
̣Ūʴϡ嵭Τ褦 substitute word ѸˤȸƤ֤Τʬ䤹
̣Τʤ it ʤɤؤ "prop" ȸƤ֤ȤʤС"empty", "expletive", "dummy" ʤɤηƻˤᤷº McArthur Ѹ켭ŵˤС"prop" ιܤ "dummy" ػȤ¥롥4ܤѤʤǤä one ȤƵƤʤˡ
DUMMY [16c: from dumb and -y]. . . . (4) In grammar, an item that has little or no meaning but fills an obligatory position: prop it, which functions as subject with expressions of time (It's late), distance (It's a long way to Tipperary), and weather (It's raining); anticipatory it, which functions as subject (It's a pity that you're not here) or object (I find it hard to understand what's meant) when the subject or object of a clause is moved to a later position in the sentence, and is the subject in cleft sentences (It was Peter who had an accident); existential there, which functions as subject in an existential sentence (There's nobody at the door); the dummy auxiliary do, which is introduced, in the absence of any other auxiliary, to form questions (Do you know them?).
̣Ūˤ϶¤ɬܤȤǡ줬 prop κŪȤäƤ褤one ¾üˡˤĤƤϡʲε⻲ȡ
#1815. ̾ one ˡϥեαƶ ([2014-04-16-1])
#5170. 3;ñ̾Ūˡ ([2023-06-23-1])
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.

ݺƻͺءˤ Voicy heldio ˤʸˡˤޤĤ̤2ˤ錄äƤϤޤҤ2014ǯ˽Ǥ줿ʸˡѸȤʤ顤ѸˤˤʸˡζŪʻˤĤơԤ˲⤷ƤȤʴǤ2ۿʲ˵Ƥޤ
#1290. ʸˡ --- ݺȤ̡2024ǯ1210ۿ
#1293. ư do ʸˡ --- ݺȤ̡2024ǯ1213ۿ
Ѹ˾塤ƽפʸˡ2Ĥλ㡤ȯ do ˡȯŸˤĤǫ˲⤷Ƥޤ˴ؿäϡܥ֥ article do-periphrasis Υդ줿ɤǤФȻפޤ
嵭ۿǤƤޤݺȤʸˡᤰ heldio ̲ϡˤ1ۿƤޤܥ֥#5674. ݺƻͺȤ --- ʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯˤ ([2024-11-08-1]) 뤤ľ heldio #1245. ݺƻͺȤΡʸˡ --- ֱѸ˥饤2024פȤ
ޤȤơݺȤ̤ˤä#1298. ݺȤΥեȡǥ֤2024ǯ1218ۿˤϿƤޤϸζŤʤ٤ǤΤǡҤİС
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ

98ˤ khelfʷѸ˥ե˼Ťdz줿ֱѸ˥饤20241åȤơʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯԤǤݺƻͺضˤȽ heldio ̤¸ޤ
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) Ȥʤ벻ƥĤȤʤäƤޤФǤʤݺθѲ˴Ѥİ뵮ŤʵȤʤäƤޤ̤κݡμϿԽʬäˡʬϿǤʤäȤ˺ΥߥȤƤޤޤΤȤƤϰӤƥĤȤʤäƤޤҤİФȻפޤ#1245. ݺƻͺȤΡʸˡ --- ֱѸ˥饤2024פǤԤ20ʬǤˡ
2ץǤϡѲˤʸˡΰ֤ŤӱŪ do (do-periphrasis) ʸˡΥȥˤĤƤäƤޤ³3ץǤϡλ (perfect) ʸˡƳƤޤʼϿ˼ԤƤޤä do ˤĤޤƤϡݺˤäꤪäȻפäƤޤ
̤ǤҲ𤷤ʸˡѸ䡤ǰƤġʸˡλˤĤƤϡޤǤ hellog heldio ͡˼夲Ƥޤʸˡ˴ؤȤ櫓פʥƥĤʲ˰Ƥޤ
ڡhellog
#1972. Meillet ʸˡ ([2014-09-20-1])
#1974. ʸˡȯŸȳ (1) ([2014-09-22-1])
#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1])
#2144. ȯãȵǽƤȯ ([2015-03-11-1])
#2146. ѸˤѲϡ¤εǽ¤ؤγŬǤ ([2015-03-13-1])
#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1])
#2575. Ѳΰ ([2016-05-15-1])
#2576. æʸˡȸò ([2016-05-16-1])
#3272. ʸˡ2ĤΥᥫ˥ ([2018-04-12-1])
#3273. Lehman ˤʸˡμ١6 ([2018-04-13-1])
#3281. Hopper and Traugott ˤʸˡܼ ([2018-04-21-1])
#3669. ߤΥ롼Τμóݤ ([2019-05-14-1])
#5124. Oxford Bibliographies ˤʸˡγס ([2023-05-08-1])
#5132. ʤ be going to ̤̣Ρ --- ʸˡפȤѤʵ ([2023-05-16-1])
#5411. heldio ǡʸˡפƳ륷Ϥޤ ([2024-02-19-1])
#5420. ݺƻͺˡʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯ --- Ѹʸˡ ([2024-02-28-1])
ڡheldio ƥġ
#988. 夦夦ñȤñ --- Ƹȵǽ
#989. ƸȵǽΤ줾ħӤ
#990. ʸˡȤϲ
#991. while ʸˡ
#992. while ʸˡ³ˡ
#1001. ѸʸˡˤĤΤꤿʤ --- ݺƻͺˡʸˡѸ١ʳҡ2014ǯˡ
#1003. There is an apple on the table. --- Ϥɤ졩
ѸˤλʸˡȤơݺʸˡѸ䤷ޤ
ݺ ƻͺʸˡѸ١ҡ2014ǯ
Ѹ˸ԤǤڹʷܳرءˤȤ뵡ޤ̾ץȡ (name_project) ΰĤȤơ¾ΥץȥСΤ͡ءˤϽʾءˤ⤴Ǥ
Ǽˡ̾פᤰ Voicy heldio/helwa ϤϿꤷޤʲ3ܤۿƤޤĹǤΤǡ֤ΤȤˤǤ⤪İС
(1) heldio #1034. ̾ȱѸˡס4ͤ̾ץȴ #3ۡ59ʬ
(2) helwa ֡ڱѸˤ #113ۡ̾ȱѸˡΥեȡʢβΤͭΥץߥۿǤ60ʬ
(3) heldio #1038. do 뿷Ѹ --- Ya-DO-me ڹ˶ơ20ʬ
θ塤ȤΥ֥ˤơ嵭μϿȴϢƤε2ܽƤޤΤǡҲ𤷤ޤ
3α4
Ѥθβư
2ĤΡѤθβưפϡ嵭 (2) helwa ˡ̾ε礭졤ȯΥȡ˲֤餤ޤӤǤȡˡܸȱѸǤϸλȤ첻Ĵˤۤʤ뤳ȤռƤȽҤ١줬ͯޤѸǸβư褬ۤʤ뤳ȤޤȤȤҤ٤졤θꥹʡ֤οޤߤפȤ˾Ф줿ΤΤӥ֥ǶͭƤǤұѸȯ˳褫ƤС
ʤߤˡˤĤƤäȾܤΤꤿϡkhelf ȯԤΡرѸ˿ʹ67줾3̤ΡֱѸ˥饦 by khelfפˤơ2ˤ錄Υӥ塼ǺܤƤޤ
͡ʡhel (helkatsu) ꤤޤ
Ѹˤˤ֥ȸ첾 (celtic_hypothesis) ˤĤơޤǤĤεǼ夲Ƥ
#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])
#1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1])
#1342. ظƶؤȽ ([2012-12-29-1])
#1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1])
#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1])
#3755. ֥ȸ첾פȲơ ([2019-08-08-1])
#3969. ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶӤ ([2020-03-09-1])
#4528. ꥹμϰ˻Ĥ3Ĥȯ ([2021-09-19-1])
#4595. Ĵʸ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2021-11-25-1])
#5129. ʹԷ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2023-05-13-1])
ǯΡ֥ȸ첾פǤϡʼ˸ðʳΡθबȽ줫ѸذưǽˤĤƸƤʤƤHickey (505) ˤꥱȸαƶ꺻ƤƤߤ褦ƹܤˤĤơܤƤϰ衦Ѽʸ˸륿ߥʤɤϥХХǤ뤳ȡޤܿˤ餺ŪװΤߤ⤷Τ뤳ȤʤɡɤˤդɬפǤ롥
Table 3. Possible transfer features from Celtic (Brythonic) to English
1. Lack of external possessor construction Morphosyntactic 2 Twofold paradigm of to be 3. Progressive verb forms 4. Periphrastic do 5. Northern subject rule 6. Retention of dental fricatives Phonological 7. Unrounding of front vowels
1 ϡѸ My head is sore. Τ褦Τ̤ʤɤ˴ؤƽͭʤɽThe head is sore. Τ褦˴Ѥʤˡؤ
2 ϡűѸʼ˥ȥˤˤ be ư줬첻뤤 s- ǻϤޤȡb- ǻϤޤ2ηʻ¸Ƥؤ
3 ϡ#5129. ʹԷ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2023-05-13-1]) ȡ
4 ϡ#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])#3755. ֥ȸ첾פȲơ ([2019-08-08-1]) ȡ
5 ϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ȡ
6 ϡth = [θ] ȤŪʻҲޤǻĤäƤ¤ؤ
7 ϡűѸ˱߿첻 [y, ø] äȤؤ
Hickey ΰꥹȤˤĤƤϡ#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
ϢơVoicy heldio #715. ȸ첾ɤ
Hickey, Raymond. "Early English and the Celtic Hypothesis." Chapter 38 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. New York: OUP, 2012. 497--507.
μͭӥ Mond ˴Ƥ1αѸ˴ؤ뵿ФƲޤ䤤ϡֶĴ do, does, did ϡĤиΤǤ礦פǤ

Ĵ do ȤϡŵŪˤϼΤ褦ˡǤʿʸˤơǤϤʤǤ뤳ȤФȤѤޤ
Why didn't you come to the party last night? --- But I díd còme.
I díd stùdy very hard, but I didn't pass the exam.
I'm sorry we don't have hamburgers, but we dó hàve pizzas.
ǤޤѸ˾夤ĶĴ do иˤ뤳ȤϴñǤϤޤȤΤϸѸȰۤʤѸѸǤϡʿʸˤƶĴˡǤʤ do ˡ (do-periphrasis) Ū褯ѤƤǤdo ˶뤫ݤϽդɤ뤳ȤǤʸ̮Τߤ˰¸ȽǤʤФʤʤˡԤμŪɤ߹ߤͿƤޤǽ⤤ΤǤ
ˡ OED Ǥ do, v. 32d θȤƵƤޤǽ5ʸޤǰѤޤ
d. In affirmative sentences, used to give emphasis, esp. in contrast with what precedes or follows.
The stress is placed upon the auxiliary, as in the perfect and future tenses. There may be inversion of order as well.
In many Middle English and early modern English examples it is impossible to be certain that the use is emphatic.
c1390 (a1376) W. Langland Piers Plowman (Vernon) (1867) A. viii. l. 164 (MED) And so bileeue I lelly..Þat pardoun and penaunce and preyers don sauen Soules þat han sunget.
a1500 (?c1450) Merlin (1899) vi. 101 Loke ye, do not lye; and thow do lye, I shall it know wele.
1581 G. Pettie tr. S. Guazzo Ciuile Conuersat. (1586) i. f. 27v But these same..doe manye times more offend..than those who doe commit them [1738 tr. S. Guazzo Art Conversat. 52 Than those who actually commit them].
1600 W. Shakespeare Much Ado about Nothing ii. iii. 188 And so will hee doe, for the man doth feare God, howsoeuer it seemes not in him, by some large iestes hee will make.
a1616 W. Shakespeare Twelfth Night (1623) iii. i. 27 Vio. Thou art a merry fellow, and car'st for nothing. Clo. Not so sir, I do care for something: but..I do not care for you.
OED ˤȽc1390 Piers Plowman λȤʤäƤޤǤ don sauen (= do save) Ĵ do ˡʤΤɤʤΤȽǤˤϡ깭ʸ̮θǤοŤʵɬפǤ礦Ҥ OED ȤɡΤޤƤޤ櫓ˤϤޤǫʸƤᤵΤǤ
612ˤˡYouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ 31ƤޤDo you know do ä ɤ桼Τ do you know?ǤȥΥϰˤޤʾСˡ
ѸˤǤϡdo ˡ (do-periphrasis) ȸƤФƤ칽¤ǡѸȯã夷ʸǤ뤳ȤΤƤޤѸˤƤϡֲַפȤäƤ褤Ū٤ι⤤Ǥdo ˡȯãˤĤƤ椬¿ߤǮ³Ƥޤ
Τ褦ʤ櫓 hellog Ǥ͡˼夲Ƥޤ˴Ϣ뵭ƤޤŪʲ⤫٤ʲޤ͡ʥ٥εäƤޤۤɤޤǤܤȥԥåʤΤƤ館ФȻפޤ
Ρdo ˤޤĤŪ¤Ū⡡
#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])
#491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do ([2010-08-31-1])
#1596. ʬˤβ ([2013-09-09-1])
#1872. Constant Rate Hypothesis ([2014-06-12-1])
Ρȸ줫αƶˤ do ˡȯãȤǯ⡡
#1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1])
#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1])
#3755. ֥ȸ첾פȲơ ([2019-08-08-1])
ΡﵭȤŪɤߤ䤹Τ2Ĥޤ
#3765.رѸ춵٤Ϣ6֤ʤưεʸʸˤ do Τס ([2019-08-18-1])
#4432. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ4֤ʤʸ do Ρס ([2021-06-15-1])
ɤ do ˡΤ褦ʡݤʸˡƤޤäΤϿԤޤ͡
̾춦ƱΤˤ͡夬˽Ǥ롥ѲϤΤʤꡤ夹롥ϻ֤ȤȤ˻٤ƤäΥѥ֤ǰۤʤäƤΤƱʤΤ
ŪˤºŪˤ⡤ȿ2ĤΥѥǧ褦Ǥ롥1ĤϡѲ (generational change)⤦1ĤϡֶƱѲ (communal change) Nevalainen (573) Janda ͤˤƼΤ褦ʿƤ롥
(a) Generational change
frequency
________ G6
________ G5
________ G4
________ G3
________ G2
________ G1 time
(b) Communal change
frequency |
| | G6
| | G5
| | G4
| | G3
| | G2
| G1 time
ѲοδפˤΤϡ̤ƿλ٤ݤĤȤǤ롥Ťλ٤ϤĤޤǤäƤ㤤ޤޤǤꡤλ٤ϤĤޤǤäƤ⤤ޤޡȤȤƱѲοꤷƤΤϡ夬Ʊߥǿλ٤夲ȤȤʤɤޤǾ夬뤫֤ǰۤʤˡ2ĤΩǤ뤳Ȥ䤹
ѲѲѲΥѥƤϤޤꡤѲѲ϶ƱѲƤϤޤ롤ȤŦ뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ºݤˤɬ⤽Τ褦ˤ줤ˤϤʤNevalainen (573--74) ǿƤѲλϤƤߤȡ16ˤ do ˡ (do-periphrasis) ιꡦʿʸǤȯãϡͽۤȤѲäΤΡ17ιʸǤοѲȶƱѲξѥǿʤȤ롥ޤ19οʹԷ (progressive) äѲ1ĤǤϤ뤬षƱѲΥѥ˱äƤȤ
Ūʻ˾Ȥ餹¿ꤽ2ĤΥѥ̤ƤȤͭѤ
Nevalainen, Terttu. "Historical Sociolinguistics and Language Change." Chapter 22 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 558--88.
Janda, R. D. "Beyond 'Pathways' and 'Unidirectionality': On the Discontinuity of Language Transmission and the Counterability of Grammaticalization''. Language Sciences 23.2--3 (2001): 265--340.
NHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in EnglishפΥƥȤˤơֱѸΥܥʵפϢܤƤޤ7ΥƥȤȯޤ4Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤʸ do ΡפǤ

be ư줪ӽưѤʸϡʸΤ˼ȤΡʽưҤä֤ Are you Japanese? Ȥ Can you cook? ȤФ褤ΤǤ¾ΰưѤʸξˤ do ʤ뤤Ŭ does, didˤͩΤȤޤ˸ޤѸؼԤǤСϲʤΤȸʤȤǤ͡
äȤˡŤϰư⡤ȤҤä֤Ȥˤ굿ʸäƤΤǤĤޤ Do you speak English? ǤϤʤ Speak you English? ä櫓Ǥưμˤ餺1ĤΥ롼ǰӤƤΤạ̇̄ǴñäȤˤʤޤȤ16ʹߡѸˡư˴ؤƤ do ѤȤ䤳ˡޤäƤޤʤΤ褦ݤȤΤϢܵǤϤޤ
ܥ֥ǤϢƤޤʲεˤŪˤ do-periphrasis εɤߤ
#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])
#491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do ([2010-08-31-1])
814ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ9ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ6Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤưεʸʸˤ do ΤפǤ do λѤϡѸ礤ʤȤäƤ褤ΤǤŪˤߤƤ⡤ʤΤ褦ɽdo ˡȸƤӤޤˤиΤˤĤƤ͡ʲ⤬ꡤʤǮоݤˤʤäƤޤ

ε#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1]) ǡȸ줫αƶ꺻ѸθġλƤˤĤ͡ŦƤ껿ݤε蘆Ƥ롥
ŪʻƤ1Ĥˡdo ˡ (do-periphrasis) ȯã˥ȸ¤ؤäƤΤǤϤʤȤ롥ѸǤϤι¤ǽƸ줿Ȥ졤Ūˤϥȸ첾Ĵ¤ǤϤʤ褦ˤߤ롥˻꤬礭ΩϤ롥ѸΤιʸȯã13ʹߤΤȤȤ뤬ظ줿륱ȸ줫αƶȤСϿɴǯʾˤäƤ800ǯˤ˵äƤƤ٤äǤϤʤۤĹظαƶθ̤פƤȤΤϡΤǤϤʤפˡȸαƶꤹˤϻ夬ޤˤ줹ƤΤ¤Ϥȿϡdo ˡ˸¤餺Ѹ줫Ѹˤȯãȸ줫αƶ꺻Ƥ¾ι¤ˤƱͤƤϤޤ롥
Ф륱ȸ첾ʸԤϡƤ̤Ǥ롥
The explanation normally given for this feature [= do-periphrasis] appearing so late in English is that it was in sociolinguistic terms a change from below, affecting first the speech of those people of low social status whose speech was least likely to be reflected in literary usage, and only spreading slowly into the sorts of high-prestige varieties reflected in written sources: the conservatism of the written language in the Old English period is often also cited as a factor. (Durkin 89)
Ĥޤꡤɴǯͳϡ줬 "change from below" Ǥꡤդդˤ٥ǤѲ顤ȤȤΤ褦㤤ѼϡűѸνդȤ⤤ѼˤȿǤʤΤǤȡ
¤ϻ褦ʵϡѸ˾̤ˤĤƤʤƤťΥɸ줫μѸ줬űѸʸˤϤޤ긽줺ܳŪʸоѸԤʤФʤʤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ͳϡ嵭Ȥ褽ƱǤ롥ºݤαƶϸűѸˤäθ̤ʸ˸ޤǤˤϤ٤λ֤ɬפäȤcf. #2869. ťΥɸ줫μѤϸűѸǤäƤ⡤ʸڤѸ ([2017-03-05-1])ˡ
ȸ줫ι¤ŪѤȸťΥɸθŪѤȤۤʤ2λƤˤĤơ⤽Ʊ褦˵뤳ȤǤΤȤ꤬롥ޤ־Υåפ⡤ȸ첾Τۤڤ礭
ϥȸ첾ˤϤʤ̵Ȼפƶ꺻ġλƤˤĤƤΩƸƤɬפꡤ֥ȸ첾פνΤ礷ऱˤϿŤǤʤФʤʤȤͤƤ롥
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
20ǯۤɤδ֤ˡ֥ȸ첾 ("the Celtic hypothesis") ˴ؤ븦椬ƤѸϸðʳˤƤ⡤ͤƤʾˡ֥ƥδظǤ륱Ƚ줫鶯ƶƤȤ1δظƶȤäƤ褤cf. #1342. ظƶؤȽ ([2012-12-29-1])ˡŪˤʤäƤŪˤɤΤ褦ʹ¤Ūʸबȸ줫αƶȤߤʤƤΤƤߤ褦ʲDurkin (87--90) ˤڤˤ뤬Durkin Ȥ⥱ȸ첾ФƤϤȲŪ٤Ƥ뤳ȤҤ٤Ƥ
űѸˤ be ư bēon ̤ȿꡤ³Ѥˡ륺 be ư줬¸ߤ롥
-self κƵ̾ȯãcf. #1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1])
be + -ing οʹԷ¤ȯã
do ѤŪ¤ (do-periphrasis) ȯã
ŪͭԹ¤ŪͭԹ¤ؤΰܹ (ex. he as a pimple on the nose he has a pimple on his nose)
"Northern Subject Rule" ȯãcf. #689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])
ط줢뤤ܿ٤
it Ѥʬʸ (cleft sentence) ȯã (ex. It was a bike that he bought (not a car).) ʤեбʬʸ⥱ȸαƶȤȤ (Durkin 87)
/f/ /v/, /θ/ /ð/ βŪΩȯãݻcf. #3386. Ѹ˾μפʻҲѲ ([2018-08-04-1]) 2ܡ
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
عֺ¡ֻŪءʤǤ˽λˤιֺ¤֤ƤꡤѤʵĤƤޤ¸Υ֥غ¿ΤǤäǤΤǤβ˥ץˤƤޤ
[ 1Ѹ Y/N ʸϤɤƺ㤦ΤǤ be ư줬 be ư줬Ƭơʤ do does Ƭˤ ]
[ 2. 嵭 do ϤɤƤΤ褦˻Ȥ褦ˤʤäΤǤdo ϤɤäƤΤǤ ]
2ĤѤʵˤĤƤϡ814ȯͽ罤ۡرѸ춵9ˡХꤳǵƤƤޤΤǡԤϢܤˤĤƤֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡȡˡhellog ȤƤϡ#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])#491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do ([2010-08-31-1])
[ 3. ե٥åȤ Y ϲΥ磻ɤΤǤ ]
Ĥ⤬褦ǤȤꤢ#1830. Y ̾Ρ ([2014-05-01-1]) Ȥ
[ 4. Ե§ưϤɤԵ§ΤޤޤǺȤƤΤǤ ]
[ 5. ɤưˤϵ§ѲưԵ§Ѳư줬ΤǤ ]
2ĤѤʵˤĤƤϡ#3670.رѸ춵٤Ϣ3֤ʤԵ§ưѤΤס ([2019-05-15-1]) εǾҲ𤷤ε䡤رѸ춵٤λﵭˤȤ
[ 6. Ʊ褦ʰ̣ʣñ줬ΤϤɤƤǤrequire need Ȥ ]
ѸäˤϡֳءפޤŵŪ3ع¤ʤޤˤĤƤϡ#2977. Ϣ6֤ʤѸä3ع¤Τ --- ͥΥƥ줫֤ȥס ([2017-06-21-1]) ϤȤơ˥ĥäƤ뵭Ȥrequire ϥե줫μѸ졤need αñȤʤޤ
[ 7. ưֻȤ߹碌ɽɽϤɤƻȤϤΤǤư1ǻȤñ2ʾȤ߹碌ñϤɤ餬˽ФƤΤǤ ]
ֶư (phrasal_verb) ¸ߤˤĤƤμ䤫Ȼפޤ#2351. ե줫ζưμѡ ([2015-10-04-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡѸ˥եζư (loan_translation) ȤȤ⤢ޤ#3606. ֺ¡̲ȱѸס ([2019-03-12-1]) 14. ưؤαƶ Ǥߤ褦ˡʸťΥɸˤαƶˤȤ礭ȹͤޤäĴ٤ɬפꤽǤ
[ 8. 3ʸ4ʸ騤ǽǤɤ2ĤΥѥΤǤ ]
ܥ֥Ǥ夲ȤΤʤ䤤ǤʤȤƤɤ䤤Ǥ͡塤ͤƤȻפޤ
ȤȤǡԽʬʤƤߤޤѤʵ䡤Ƥ꤬Ȥޤ
Ѹ˾3ñ -s 3ʣ -s ˤĤơ3sp 3pp ¿εǤ줾ƤǡޤΩʤ3ñΥȤ꤬롥褯ΤƤΤϡ#1885. AAVE ʸˡŪħȵ ([2014-06-25-1])#1889. AAVE ˤư츽߷ -s (2) ([2014-06-29-1]) Ǽ夲褦 AAVE Ǥ -s æȤݤ뤷ɤǤ East Anglia Υѥˤƿ;Ρˤ餺¤ߥȤȤ㤬롥
Wright (119) ˤ3ñΥ˴ؤˤγάˤСEast Anglia ˤ3ñΥε15ˤΤܤꡤŪʲˤС¾ο;θΥ3ñŪ˳ĥΤȤ뤬ܿαƶǤϤʤȤ⤢롥16ȾޤǤˤϡNorfolk β²41--77%ȤΨ -th ˥ѤƤȤ𤬤ꡤEast Midland Ϥθ3ñΥ濴ϤǤ³Ƥ롥Helsinki Corpus ĴˤСŪˤߤ3ñΥ2%Ȥ㤤Ψʤ East Anglia ˸¤餺ʬۤƤΤ¤ǤꡤŤѸʸˤƤޤ˽вȤϤ롥
Wright κǿʸϡ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire пȤΤ뽾ͤˤѥȤĴ21%Ȥͽ۰ʾι⤤Ψ3ñΥѤƤ뤳ȤͤߤWright ϡEast Anglia ȤŪˤΥ줿ϰǡ餯λ˸ꤷơ3ñΥʬۤƤΤǤϤʤȿ¬ޤΰŪʬۤϡľ do ˡ (do-periphrasis) षľɸŪ -s 礷Ƥäޤ˰ܹԴκˤߤ줿ĤʤŪʬۤȷŤ
Wright εϹäƤ뤬ʤȤѸΤϤ¤ꡤ˱͡ʥѥबƤϾäƤäȤϳΤǤꡤ19Ⱦ West Oxfordshire ˸Ū˾嵭Τ褦ʾäȤƤ⡤äˤϤʤ
Wright, Laura. "Some More on the History of Present-Tense -s, do and Zero: West Oxfordshire, 1837." Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 1.1 (2015): 111--30.
ѸˤǤϡŪѲȤȤ˰ʲΤ褦˰ܤѤäƤȤ褯ΤƤ롥Jespersen ͭ̾ʷϩUkaji (453)
(1) ic ne secge.
(2) I ne seye not.
(3) I say not.
(4) I do not say.
(5) I don't say.
(1) űѸǤϡ ne ư֤(2) ѸǤưθŪ not ä2Ĥ꼭Ƕ߹褦ˤʸΤŵŪä(3) 15--17δ֤ ne 岽üʳưˤäƤ18ޤ¸³(4) ӡ15Ⱦ do-periphrasis ˤ꤬Ϥޤä (cf. #486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])#1596. ʬˤβ ([2013-09-09-1])) (5) 1600ǯˡ don't
(2) ʲʳǤϡ줬ưθ֤ƤȤ롥ȤǤϤ뤬Ѹ줫ѸˤơŪħæ I not say. Τ褦ʹʸUkaji (454) ΰƤĤ褦
I Not holde agaynes luste al vttirly. (circa 1412 Hoccleve The Regement of Princes) [Visser]
I seyd I cowde not tellyn that I not herd, (Paston Letters (705.51--52)
There is no need of any such redress, Or if there were, it not belongs to you. (Sh. 2H4 IV.i.95--96)
I not repent me of my late disguise. (Jonson Volp. II.iv.27)
They ... possessed the island, but not enjoyed it. (1740 Johnson Life Drake; Wks. IV.419) [OED]
衤δ̯θϡűѸαʸȿǤΤǤȤĴǤȤ(1) ʳη³ǤȤ͡ƤUkaji (3) (4) ʳĤʤ "bridge phenomenon" ȤΤ(3) (4) δ֤ˡ(3') Ȥ I not say ߹Ȥǥ
ϡˤ⼫ȤмǤ롥(3') I not say ϡdo ȼʤ (3) I say not ȶ̤Ƥꡤnot ̣ôưʤξ sayˤ֤Ƥ (4) I do not say ȶ̤Ƥ롥(3) (4) Τ礭褦˴뤬(3') ꤹСϤϥࡼ
Ukaji ʸ褯ɤǤߤȡζϤȤͤϡ (3) (3') (4) ʳľŪȯŸȤ̣櫓ǤϤʤ褦Ukaji ϡ(3) (4) ؤΰܹԤϡϤҤȤӤȹͤƤ롥ŪˡϤ褦ʡΥå¤餲褦ʤǡ(3') ȯȤͤäơȯλŪȤƤϡष (3) (4) (3') ꤷƤ롥Τ褦˲᤹뺬ȤơUkaji (456) ϡ(4) ʳãƤʤ have be ʤɤư (3') ⼨ʤȤʤɤƤ롥(3) (4) ؤΰܹԤλСϤȤƤ (3') פȤʤꡤäƤȤˤʤäȡ
Ѹˤˤ붶ϤΤ⤦1ĤȤơUkaji (456--59) "compound numeral" Ƥ롥(1) űѸ줫ѸޤǰŪä twa 7 twentig Τ褦ɽ(2) 16Ƭ˰̲ twenty-three ʤɤɽ˰ܹԤȤϤꤵ (1') twenty and nine 15濴ˤʤ٤ѤƤȤ(1) (2) ؤΰܹԤλȤϤȤƤ (1') פȤʤꡤäƤäȡ
2Ĥ㤫̲Τޤ⤷ʤUkaji (459) Ѳζ̣Ƥʤ顤Τ褦ʸǤ롥
I conclude with the hypothesis that syntactic change tends to be facilitated via a bridge sharing in part the properties of the two chronological constructions involved in the change. The bridge characteristically falls into disuse once the transition from the old to the new construction is completed.
Ukaji, Masatomo. "'I not say': Bridge Phenomenon in Syntactic Change." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 453--62.
ѸˤˤϡѲABBAȤѲˤäƤޤ븽ݤ뤳ȤꡤϤФФݤޥΰˤʤ館ơ֥衼͡ (Duke of York) ȸƤФ줿衼ͤʼٻξ˾夲ơ줫鲼̤лϲѤäƤʤ츫̵̣˸뤽ιưˤⲿͳäϤǡֱѸˤˤΤ褦ѲȤˤϤظˤɤʰ̣Τͤʤ礭ʿ¤Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥פȤΤζǤä
괧ȼ°ʹ¤˴ؤʸνФǡ (179) ʾΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ѸˤΤʤ "Duke of York" ŵϡ#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1]) #491. Stuart ī˿षʿʸˤ뱪Ū do ([2010-08-31-1]) ǤߤʿʸǤ do ˡȯãȿǤ롥16˰٤ȯã17ˤϿषɡ夹˻ʤäۤˤϡ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1]) #1479. his °ʤο ([2013-05-15-1]) 롥
äƤ°ʤȤ a knight of his this hat of mine Τ褦ʹ¤Ǥ롥ѸǤ *a his knight *this my hat Τ褦˴졦ؼȽͭ̾ܤ뤳ȤǤŪ°ʹ¤ѤȤƵǽ롥ι¤εΩˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬a his knight Ȥ饹ȤѸ°̾ his ֤ of ȤȤ˸褦ˤʤäȤ⤬ͭϤǤʵp. 183ˡ̾űѸ줫ѸˤƤ°ʹ¤ȯãǤϡ°̾줬֤뤫 of ִ뤫Τ줫ä°ʤξˤϡξäƤޤäȤȤ
°ʤȯãϡ14ȾФ a man of þair (a man of theirs) ΥפϤޤꡤ̾νͭԤ an officer Of the prefectes ؤä100ǯˤϡؼȼ this stede of myne Υפ괧ȼ the fellys of Thomas Bettsons Υפ줿4ԤΤǸ괧ȼΤΤߤष17˾äƤä
ϡκǸΥפ˴ؤ "Duke of York" θݤDȤǽƤȯȳΩˤäưŪ˲ǽȤʤäΤΡǽŪˤϡְ̣Ū괧 the ɬʤ (192) ԲǽȤʤäΤȤʬϤ롥DȤǽƤȯȳΩϡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ°ʤȤع¤ȯãΤͭŪ˴ؤ븽ݤȹͤ졤°ʤȯã⤽礭ȤߤΤʤª٤ȤĥˤĤʤcf. #1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])ˡ *
괧쥿פοˤĤơϰ̣ŪɬƤ뤬Ϲʸ;ȸƤ褤⤷ʤyour car üŪɽǤȤ虜虜Ū the car of yours ɽɬפϤʤȤʵp. 193ˡ
"Duke of York" ظˤ礭ʿ¤õȤΤϡΤ˱Ѹˤ礭̥Ϥ1ĤǤ롥
塡ֱѸˤΤʤ "Duke of York"ס츦θߡ١ϩˡˡҤĤ˼2013ǯ179--96ǡ
ѲοʹԤ®٤ϩˤĤƤϡŵŪ neogrammarian hypothesis lexical_diffusion ʤɤβ⤬ƤȴϢϤ뤬ۤʤ٤ѲΥ塼˸ƤƤ벾ȤơKroch ˤ "Constant Rate Hypothesis" 롥β Kroch ΤĤʸǸڤƤ뤬1989ǯʸꡤƱʬ2ȴ褷褦
. . . change seems to proceed at the same rate in all contexts. Contexts change together because they are merely surface manifestations of a single underlying change in grammar. Differences in frequency of use of a new form across contexts reflect functional and stylistic factors, which are constant across time and independent of grammar. (Kroch 199)
. . . when one grammatical option replaces another with which it is in competition across a set of linguistic contexts, the rate of replacement, properly measured, is the same in all of them. The contexts generally differ from one another at each period in the degree to which they favor the spreading form, but they do not differ in the rate at which the form spreads. (Kroch 200)
Kroch ϡʸǼȤƱŪ do (do-periphrasis) äܥ֥Ǥⲿ٤夲ƤȤ櫓#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Ellegård θ椬ƶϤ³Ƥ롥ǥդ˼褦ˡŪ do ϰۤʤĶ˥褦ʬۤȤƤܤ٤ϡĶб⡤ͻ̤äѥȤ٤㤤̵뤹ʤСŪ do γϡ٤ƤĶˤ "constant rate" ǿʹԤȤΤǤϤʤ줬Kroch μĥǤ롥
Kroch ϡˤƸŪơĶ˿Ʃٹ礤ϰۤʤäƤΤϡĶȤ˸̤˴Ϳ뵡ǽŪʸŪװ椨ǤꡤθѲΤΤΥ塼ϡƱߥǰΥѥȤƤ롥ʸˡȤߤ Kroch ˤȤäơŪѲȤϴˤ뵬§ѲǤʡ#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) ȡˡѲϢĶΤƱ˿ƩȤΤϼȹͤƤ롥ƱʸǤϡŪ do ȯŸۤhave got have ִݥȥνͭ̾ˤ괧λѤáեˤư2ΰ֤ε§ξüȤäŪѲƱ Constant Rate Hypothesis ΤȤƤ롥
ʤConstant Rate Hypothesis Ȥ̾Τϡ̣롥"constant" ȤϳơĶɽ魯ߤƱѥȤ̣Ǥ "constant" ǤꡤSФƱ夬ľʷ˰ˤȤ̣Ǥ "constant" ǤϤʤäơConstant Rate Hypothesis S̷⤹ΤǤϤʤषKroch ϳѲΥ塼ȤƤSǧƤ褦Ǥ롥
Kroch, Anthony S. "Reflexes of Grammar in Patterns of Language Change." Language Variation and Change 1 (1989): 199--244.
Ellegård, A. The Auxiliary Do. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1953.
ε#1810. ѰۤΥȥԡ ([2014-04-11-1]) κǸǡ٤ϤޤäѲϵ®˿ʹԤȤѲˤФиѥפ˸ڤɬŪΤƤ뤳ȤǤϤʤΤǡƤ¤ϤΥѥѲˤɤ٤褯뤳ȤʤΤϾܤ狼äƤ餺ϻοǯθơޤȤʤäƤ롥
ѲΤʤˤϡʹ®٤ slow-quick-quick-slow ѲóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȸƤФ륿פΤΤ롥óȻθˤȡѲϤ륿ߥϸˤäưۤʤꡤŪѲݤ߹ޤΤ顤Ū٤ޤѲΤޤ͡Ǥ롥Ogura Ogura and Wang λŦǶ̣ΤϡΥߥᤤ٤ˤäơϸѲοʹ®٤ۤʤǽȤȤ˳Ϥ (leaders) ϤäȿʤΤФơ٤ƳϤ (laggers) ϵޥԥåǿʤȤ좤ϰᵯɤ⤯Τ٤Τٹ魯륿פȡ˷ɤƤΤǴ֤˹礦פȤäȤɸ˵ "the later a change begins, the sharper its slope becomes" ϡOgura (78) ΰѤǤ.
伫ȡѸˤʣ -s γ˴ؤ2010ǯʸǡη餫ˤʸ顤Ogura Ogura and Wang ظڤƤʬʤ2սѤ롥
In their series of studies on Lexical Diffusion, Ogura and Wang discussed whether leaders and laggers of a change are any different from one another in terms of the speed of diffusion. In case studies such as the development of periphrastic do and the development of -s in the third person singular present indicative, they proposed that the later the change, the more items change and the faster they change . . . . (12)
. . . the laggers catching up with the leaders in SWM C13b and in SEM C13b concurs with the recent proposition of Lexical Diffusion that "the later a change begins, the sharper its slope becomes." (14)
Ѳ˻ͿƸ줾SȤɽ魯ȡ㤨аʲΤ褦ʿŪSνȤʤ롥

ǺХȥԡäΤ褦ʥդYХȥԡͤȤľСȤᤤʤߤ٤ϡĹٻλȤ٤ʤߤ®ϡäޥåۥȤˤʤ
óȻSȥԡ[2013-09-09-1]εǿ줿#1596. ʬˤβפʤɤϸߤ˲餫δطȸ졤ѲΥԡɤ䥹塼ȤŪҥȤͿƤ
Ogura, Mieko. "The Development of Periphrastic Do in English: A Case of Lexical Diffusion in Syntax." Diachronica 10 (1993): 51--85.
Ogura, Mieko and William S-Y. Wang. "Snowball Effect in Lexical Diffusion: The Development of -s in the Third Person Singular Present Indicative in English." English Historical Linguistics 1994. Papers from the 8th International Conference on English Historical Linguistics. Ed. Derek Britton. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1994. 119--41.
Hotta, Ryuichi. "Leaders and Laggers of Language Change: Nominal Plural Forms in -s in Early Middle English." Journal of the Institute of Cultural Science (The 30th Anniversary Issue II) 68 (2010): 1--17.
ɸϱѸ "polarization hypothesis" ȸƤФ롥ǽΤäΤǤ롥ε#1572. ʤѲSȹͤΤ ([2013-08-16-1]) ӡ#1569. óȻSؤȽ (2) ([2013-08-13-1]) ʤɤǸѲοʹԥѥˤĤƵƤSʬˤβϿ⤤
ʬˤβϡʸˡ䤽˴Ť콬ȤߤߤѲοʹԤ˴ؤ벾Ǥ롥ˤȡʸˡ§ˤ絬§ (major rule) Ⱦ§ (minor rule) ̤Ȥ絬§ϡƤʬιܤˤĤŬѤ뵬§Ǥꡤ㳰ŪʹܡŵŪˤϸùܡˤˤ㳰ǤȤĤƤꡤ̤˽롥§ϡΰĤ줿ܤˤΤŬѤ뵬§Ǥꡤʳ¿ιܤˤŬѤʤξԤκۤΩƸС絬§ˤϸ§ȤŬѤ뤬ŬѤʤ㳰ꡤ§ˤϸ§ȤŬѤʤŬѤ㳰롤ȤȤˤʤ롥ϡ㳰ܤοʤȤǤ롥ʬˤβ⤬ͽۤΤϡε§㳰ܤξʤ絬§§Τ줫Ǥꡤ㳰ܤ¿浬§פϤꤨʤȤȤδ⡤㳰Τޤ¿浬§ʤϤ䵬§ȸƤ٤ʤ⤷ʤˤΨŪǤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥꡤʬˤβ˹Ϥ롥
ʬˤβȸѲȤδطΤˡŪ do ( do-periphrasis ) ˤ깽¤ȯã褦#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1]) ۤεǿ줿űѸѸǤ깽ʸˤưθ not ʤɤ꼭֤ǺѤ꼭֡neg-placementˤѸ do ˤ깽¤ȯãƤdo ؤΰܹԤβˤĤƤ褯ΤƤΤϡknow, doubt, care ʤɾưϤΰܹԤФƺǸޤI know not ʤɤ餳ƤȤǤ롥
ơűѸѸǤ꼭֤絬§äѸǤ do ֤졤ư㳰ȤƤľ§ؤѤädo δߤСȯãϤ16ˤϡư줬Ϳˤʤ§ä17ȾˤϾ㳰絬§ؤѤä꼭֤ο do ȯãդȡʳ®ѲʵաSȤʤ롥

óȻʬˤβϡνн꤬ޤǰۤʤˤ⤫餺SȤǰפȤΤ⤷
碌ơʬˤβδϢʸȤƱĤΡʬˤβȽưdoȯãΰ¦̡פɤĤϡʬˤβαѤȤ̻ŪݤȰ֤ŤƤ롥
إեѸˡ١ҤĤ˼1996ǯ111--12ǡ
ѡʬˤβȽưdoȯãΰ¦̡סThe Northern Review ̳ƻءˡ١121984ǯ47--57ǡ
εǡʬ (reanalysis) ʬ (metanalysis) ȤѸȤ櫓̤ѤƤCroft (82--86) ϸԤԤ1ǤȹͤƤ롥ĤޤꡤʬϤϰʬϤξ̳ǰǤȤƤ롥Croft ˤС"form-function reanalysis" ϢŪ (syntagmatic) 4κʬϤŪ (paradigmatic) 1κʬϤض̤롥ʲơȤȤ˼
(1) hyperanalysis: "[A] speaker ananlyzes out a semantic component from a syntactic element, typically a semantic component that overlaps with that of another element. Hyperanalysis accounts for semantic bleaching and eventually the loss of syntactic element" (82) 㤨СűѸˤ°ʤư줬ꡤư٤гʤ夤ȤгʤȤϰ̣Ūʺۤäȹͤ뤬ưԤǤ¿쾯ʤƱǽͭƤˡѸˤ°ʹ¤Ϥͥгʹ¤˼ä줿Ѳϡ°ʤδްդ졤Ū;Ȥʤꡤ°ʹ¤гʹ¤˵ۼȤɤäƤꡤhyperanalysis 1ȹͤ롥
(2) hypoanalysis: "[A] semantic component is added to a syntactic element, typically one whose distribution has no discriminatory semantic value. Hypoanalysis is the same as exaptation . . . or regrammaticalization . . ." (83) Somerset/Dorset Ǥϡ3ñͳ褹 -s do-periphrasis ȯŸȤ߹蘆뤳ȤˤꡤɸѼˤϸʤζ̤"I sees the doctor tomorrow." 1٤νɽ路"I do see him every day." Ϸ֤νŪʽɽ魯Ǥϡ-s do Ū˼Ѥ줿ǽȤϰۤʤ뵡ǽô蘆褦ˤʤäȹͤ롥
(3) metanalysis: "[A] contextual semantic feature becomes inherent in a syntactic element while an inherent feature is analyzed out; in other words, it is simultaneous hyperanalysis/hypoanalysis. Metanalysis typically takes place when there is a unidirectional correlation of semantic features (one feature frequently occurs with another, but the second often does not occur with the first)." (83) ³ since ˤĤơλŪʰ̣鸶̣߽Ф줿㤬롥"negative cycle" ̤Ǥ롥
(4) cryptanalysis: "[A] covertly marked semantic feature is reanalyzed as not grammatically marked, and a grammatical marker is inserted. Cryptanalysis typically occurs when there is an obligatory transparent grammatical marker available for the covertly marked semantic feature. Cryptanalysis accounts for pleonasm (for example, pleonastic and paratactic negation) and reinforcement." (84) 㤨С"I really miss having a phonologist around the house." "I really miss not having a phonologist around the house." not ̵ͭΰ㤤ˤ⤫餺ƱǤ롥not ϡmiss ˰Ť˴ޤޤƤŪ not ˤäƸ߲˾üԤˤ롤cryptanalysis η̤ǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥
(5) intraference: ƱηǤεǽˤäơ֤̤η֤ƶ㡥Croft ˾ܤϤʤäŪ (analogy) ˶ᤤΤȹͤ롥interference ̤θηϤȤƤȤ館ΤФơintraference ƱηϤΤʤǤȤƤȤ館롥
Τ褦ʺʬϤζʬϡǽΩ줫Ѳ褦Ȥݤ1ĤΥǥȤƻͤˤʤ롥
Croft, William. "Evolutionary Models and Functional-Typological Theories of Language Change." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 68--91.
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