
ǯ٤ī㡼ɶˤơ˾äȤԻĤʱñפꤷơѸˤΥֺ¤ŸƤޤرѸ츻ŵʸҡˤرѸ츻ϥɥ֥åʸҡˤˡŪñ1ļ夲IJ̵Ԥ˹귡겼ꤷĤġʥߥåʱѸˤ̣浪ȤݤǿʤƤޤ
٤βϡǯ٤ΥȤƤϺǸȤʤ12ǤȤƤϡǽñȤ be ưӤޤ90ʬǤϤȤƤԤˤʤʪñǤǽ˽вñ1ĤǤꡤIJǯѸؤǤƤɬ⤦ޤȤʤʤ be ư̥Ϥޤ
ʲbe ưᤰäƤɤΤ֥쥹˽ФƤߤޤ
be ưεϡ
be ưŪ۷Ƥߤ褦
be ưü5
be ưưǤ⤢ưǤ⤢
¸ߤɽ魯 be ư
Ϣ뼭 (copula) ȤƤ be ư
ˡ If I were/was a bird, . . . ᤰͻ
be λȤϡ
be ưϿ;Ρꡦ֡ˡɽ魯ȤǤ
䤨 be ư
ain't ᤰҲŪͻ
ɸѼˤ be ưλȤ
ۤˤפĤޤֺ¤Ǥϡʤ٤¿˿졤ΤΤʤդäƹԤʤʥư90ʬҤäƤޤ礦
ֺ¤ؤλˡϡ⥪饤äΤߤȤʤޤꥢ륿Ǥμ֤Τۤ2֤θƨۿӥ⤢ޤΤԹΤ褤ˡǤäйǤֻ֤ 15:30--17:00 ȤʤäƤޤֺ¤ȿߤξܺ٤īڡꤴǧơҤ긵ˡرѸ츻ŵ٤رѸ츻ϥɥ֥å٤⤴Ѱդֺ¤ܤڤʤޤ
⤷ֺ¤ΤΤ餻ϡ heldio Ǥ#1754. 328īֺ¤ be --- ѸΡ¸ߡפ٤ĶԵ§ưȤͽԤϤޤΤǡ碌Ƥİ
ơ2025ǯ٤ΥϰڤȤʤޤ42026ǯ٤οϤޤޤϤȤϤäƤ⡤ʤȤմˤĤƤϡ2025ǯ٤Υμ˾äȤԻĤʱñפϰѤǤͽǤ1ĤαñܤƥʥߥåʱѸˤưɤäƤޤǯ٤225˸Ҥ괩Ԥ줿ظűѸ졦ѸҿӡθŤѸθʸƥȤȤĤŸͽǤǯٽմˤĤƤϡǤīθΰФƤޤΤǡ餫ܺ٤ǧ
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
߷ ͧ ɹ δˡʡ 쵮 ءʹܶϡˡرѸ츻ϥɥ֥å١ҡ2025ǯ
Բ ϲ ͭظűѸ졦Ѹҿӡ١ҡ2026ǯ
37 heldio ˤ #1742. ۵ --- teach/taught ˴ؤŷŪŦᤰäơۿޤѸ춵˷Ȥ4Ԥˤ̲Ǥ
夲ϡѸ˸ȤˤȤäƤ礭ʾǤȯüϡعDZѸƤΥ饹Ρ̤ˤȯǤ
Ѹؽˤơ -ought Ե§ѲưϳؽԤǺߤμǤthink --- thoughtbuy --- bought, bring --- brought, fight -- fought ʤɡ¿ o ޤֻȤʤޤteach --- taught catch --- caught Τ褦ˡa ޤ -aught ֻˤʤΤ⤢ޤۤȤɤαѸؽԤϡ֤ΤפȤƴݰŵƤȤǤ礦ޤ̤4ԤƱͤǤ
ȤϥΡȤǡμݤζä٤ŦΤǤ teach a ޤޤƤ뤫顤 taught o ǤϤʤ a ˤʤΤǤϤʤȡ
λŦðŪʤΤϡñʤϤ碌䵭ѤμĶơѸֻ˸˻ǽˤޤѸˤδ餳 -aught ƸƤƤߤȡä٤¤⤭Ħˤʤޤtaught caught ʤɤθ¸ưǤʤˤβǵ§Ƥư굯ƤߤȡΡteach ˡ§פƤϤޤ㤬ĤĤΤǤ
ȤСߤϵ§ѲưȤʤäƤ reach ǤĤƤԵ§Ѳ raught Ȥ֤äƤޤ⸶ a ޤߡ -aught Ǥޤlatch ˤ⤫Ĥ laught Ȥ¸ߤޤ
ˡreck ȤưФƤ raught Ȥޤ a ޤޤƤޤe a Ʊ첻ǤϤޤˡ§ơָ a 뤤 e ޤޤưԵ§ -ought ǤϤʤ -aught ȤʤפȤлޤ
ŪˤߤСֻκϡĸ첻 (gradation) 䡤ޥΥ饦 (i-mutation)θ (analogy) ʣ߹ä̤ȹͤޤμ⤿ʤʴѻˤäƤΡˡ§פФȤϡƶä٤ȤǤ
ζ۵̤ǤϡλŦ˿ѸֻȤˤο¤ʹӤƤǽ뤫ޤޤǡͤΤۤ˶ʳ礭ʥͥ륮뤳ȤǤޤ
Ѹ˸ԤȤơĹǯȻפǸᤴƤˡۤɤޤǤ䤫ˡ§ƤȤ˲Фޤʾˡĥեåʻº˵դ졤˲Ǥ餢ޤteach ˡ§פŪդˤĤƤϡ夵ʤĴɬפǤƥʻߤˤʤȻפޤ
ѸؽԤγȶʱѸΡ֤ʤפñʤŵǺѤޤʬʤβΩƤƴѻƤߤƤˤϡȤäˡ§Ƥ뤫⤷ޤ
ʳ̤ƤϡҾ嵭 Voicy ꤪİ

ǯ٤Ϸ1ī㡼ɶDZѸ˹ֺ˾äȤԻĤʱñץ֤Ƥޤν2ʺǯ̻8ˤ1ָ1129ڡˤäƤޤ夲ΤϡѸΤʤǤǤŪư1 take Ǥ
take ϡ̣ˡ顤ѸüԤˤȤäƤŪʸȤʤäƤޤñϸűѸ줫ȤƤ (native word) ǤϤʤ¤ϡ8ȾФ11ˤƥ֥ƥά꽻⤿餷ťΥɸ (old_norse) ͳΡּѸ (loan_word) ʤΤǤ
ťΥɸ줬Ѹˤˤ⤿餷ƶϷפΤ줺伫ȡťΥɸϱѸܿ˾äȤפʸ1ĤȹͤƤޤcf. #4820. ťΥɸϱѸ˾äȤפʸ ([2022-07-08-1])ˡιֺ¤Ǥ take ȤơťΥɸ줬ѸθηϤͿޤ
ʲֺ¤Ƿ겼ƤȻפäƤĤҲ𤷤ޤ
ťΥɸθŪƶ礭ťΥɸ줫μѸϡƥե˵ڤФʤΤΡegg, leg, sky Τ褦˷礫ʤФǤcf. #2625. ťΥɸ줫μѸ ([2016-07-04-1])ˡtake ϤΤʤǤȥåץ饹δܸȤޤ
Ѹ take niman ζ硧ťΥɸͳ take ήűѸǤ niman ּפ̣Ǥ̤θȤѤƤޤ2ζθ塤Ūˤ take ޤʤѸ줬षΤǤ礦
ťΥɸͳ¾Ķư졧take Τۤˤ⡤getgivewant ȤäѸιʤʤʤư줬ťΥɸ˥롼Ĥޤ
֡ die 桧ǤƱˡ֡Ū¦̤ die ťΥɸͳδŪưǤűѸΡֻ̡פɽư steorfan Ѹ starve ʵˤؤỌ̇̄ƤޤäаޤϡܿỌ̇̄ѲιȤʤޤ
she they ˸ťΥɸͳ褫ťΥɸαƶϡ;̾ she they Τ褦ʵǽˤޤǵڤǤȤޤ2ˤĤƤϤۤθ츻⤢ꡤߥƥꥢǤ
ťΥɸѸȸűѸθʬŪʰ㤤Τǡ̤Ǥ礬ޤ
ֲŪˤñˤʤtake ȤñظˤϡˤܿΥʥߥबǤޤѸˤ̣äפ̣襤ޤ礦
ֺ¤ؤλˡϡƱͤ˥饤äΤߤȤʤäƤޤꥢ륿ǤΤäΤۤ2֤θƨۿӥ⤢ޤΤǡԹΤ褤ˡǤֻ֤֤ 15:30--17:00 Ǥֺ¤ȿߤξܺ٤īڡꤴǧ
ʤ1220ڡˤǡѸŪ˼¤˱ñ one 夲ͽǤ
ʰʲ嵭2025/11/25(Tue))
ֺܹ¤ͽˤĤƤ heldio ˤ֡#1640. 1129īֺ¤ take --- ⤿餷ĶܸסȤƤäƤޤҤ⤪İ
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
߷ ͧ ɹ δˡʡ 쵮 ءʹܶϡˡرѸ츻ϥɥ֥å١ҡ2025ǯ
3ۤΤȤˤʤޤ530ʶˤ YouTube ʸ麽սPLUS ͥˤơԤ2ˤ錄ֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפʤѸˤƳȡޤեʥζƣᤵȤȤˡ60ʬۤɤäƤޤȤ櫓ϡäۤ¿˻İƤդǻİ10ĶƤޤ
ʸ麽սPLUSɤ伫Ȥ⡤ͽ۳ΤȤ˶äĤĤ⡤ؤꡤ®2Ƥδ褬Ω夬ޤ2Ƥ8ܤ˼Ͽ塤821ڡˤ7ˤԤ20˸Ԥ줾쥪ޤ
ǤΥͥϡ2ƤԤȤʤޤ֡ڱѸ go βϤʤ went ʤΤ۸űѸ -ed Ե§ư줬ǥեȡäʤ֤ʤפ֤ʤפ you ɽΤHe likesĻñˤϤʤ s դꤷơ27ʬۤɤäޤʲʬåꥹȤǺܤޤ
(1) 00:00 --- ץ˥
(2) 02:25 --- ʤԵ§ưѤΤ
(3) 13:51 --- ʤ you ñǤʣǤ⤢Τ
(4) 20:15 --- ʤñˡ-sפĤΤ
(5) 25:23 --- ͽ
1Ƥ˰³ֱѸ˴ؤѤʵ (sobokunagimon) ѸˤδȤݤΥȡȤʤäƤޤұѸˤ̥ϤƤС
but ϿñΤʤǤ⡤Ȥ櫓¿ʻǤ͡ˡ֤դ¿Ǥ롥رѸ츻ϥɥ֥å but ιܤȡޤƬ˼Τ褦ˤ롥
ܡˤĤǤʤСˡİʳˡĤƤϡˤۤ
رѸ츻ϥɥ֥å٤Ǥϳƹܤ˥åԡͿƤ뤬but դƤΤϡ֤֡פȡ֡İʳˡפפǤ롥
츻ȤƤϸűѸƬ be- utan "out" Ȥ߹碌ȹͤ졤about Ȥط롥űѸ줫餹Ǥ¿ͤʰ̣ˡŸƤꡤȯãνΤǤϤʤΤ褦ʤΤäȿ¬롥
ޤΩ鼨褦ˡʪŪˡ֡ʡĤΡ˳¦ˡפȤ̣졦ֻä줬ֻŪΰ˳ĥ֡İʳˡפȤ̣ǻȤ褦ˤʤäʢեˡޤֻˡˤơ̾Ǥʤ that ³褦ˤʤꡤ֡ĤȤ֡γ¦ǤϡĤǤʤСפȤ̣ɽ褦ˤʤäߺǤפ³ȤƤˡʡ֤סˤϡΡ֡ĤǤʤСפĥȯŸˡȹͤ롥ʤ, but ³ˡϸűѸǤǧ뤬Ѹ줫ȤˡǤ롥űѸǤ ac Ȥ줬Ūʵܤ³ä֤ۤΡפȤˡϡǶޤ ѸʹߤǧƤʤäȤ⤢ꡤnothing but ...ʡİʳβʪǤʤĤ˲ʤˤΤ褦ɽˤξάϤޤäȹͤƤǶϸűѸǤ⤳ˡǧƤ뤳Ȥ顤ɬ⤽Τ褦ȯãǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
ȯãϩˤСѸǺǤ̤ˡǤ³Ρ֤פϡճȸ夫ȯãäȤˤʤ롥ۤñˤ⡤ǤϹԤʤˤƤ롥
߷ ͧ ɹ δˡʡ 쵮 ءʹܶϡˡرѸ츻ϥɥ֥å١ҡ2025ǯ
ε#5879. ΰͤ ([2025-06-01-1]) (tense) ˴Ϣ夲ޤĤơ#3693. ˤȤϲ ([2019-06-07-1]) ǻˤĤƹͤȤ⤢롥
ƻȤϲʤΤ긵ˤ International Encyclopedia of Linguistics TENSE ƤߤߤƤߤ褦 (223--24)
Definition
Tense refers to the grammatical expression of the time of the situation described in the proposition, relative to some other time. This other time may be the moment of speech: for example, the past and future designate time before and after the moment of speech, respectively, while the perfect (or anterior) designates past time which is relevant to the moment of speech. Or it may be some other reference time, as in the past perfect, which signals a time prior to another time in the past---as in I had just stepped into the shower when the phone rang, where the first clause signals a time prior to that of the second. The most commonly occurring tenses are past and future; however, perfect tenses are also common, as are combinations of perfect with past and future. Some languages show degrees of remoteness in the past or future: distinctions are possible between past situations of today vs. yesterday, yesterday vs. preceding days, or recent time vs. remote time. Analogous distinctions are possible in the future but not as common. Tense is expressed by inflections, by particles, or by auxiliaries in construction with the verb; it is rarely expressed by derivational morphology . . . .
ǤϡλˤƸɽΤ (224)
Expression
According to the traditional view, tense is a verbal inflectional category expressing time; however, the possibility of tense being realized also by periphrastic constructions is usually acknowledged. There are several difficulties in applying this view to actual languages. First, the semantics of many inflectional categories contain aspectual and modal as well as temporal elements: e.g., perfective aspect in many languages is restricted to past time reference, and future tenses almost always have modal overtones. Furthermore, if a language has several tense distinctions, they often have rather different modes of expression. An example is the past/non-past and future/non-future oppositions of English; the former is inflectional, and the latter periphrastic . . . .
An alternative is to view "tense" as a cover term for those inflectional categories whose semantics is dominated by temporal notions. In inflectional systems, then, the most common tense oppositions are past/non-past and future/non-future. Less common, but by no means rare, are distinctions pertaining to degrees of remoteness, e.g. recent and remote past. At least four or five such degrees can be distinguished in certain systems, but the main remoteness distinction is generally between 'today' and 'not today'.
Tense in finite verb forms normally expresses the relation between the time referred to in the sentence and the time of the speech act (absolute tense); in non-finite verb forms, and sometimes in finite subordinate clauses, tense is relative, expressing the relation between the time expressed by the verb and that of a higher clause. Categories such as perfects and pluperfects, which signal that a situation is viewed from the perspective of a later point in time, have a debated status; they are usually expressed periphrastically, but can also occur in inflectional systems.
ǽ¦̤Τ뤤Ϸ鸫ΤˤäƤȤƤªѤäƤޤ̸ŪˡŪ˴ϢݤƤȤɬפ
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.
Visser (§2148) ˤȡ'He has been crying' 'He had been crying' ΥפδλʹԷϡѸ Cursor Mundi ˽㤬ǧ롥
13.. Curs, M. 5256 he three dais had fastand bene. | Ibid. 10305, fastand had he lang noght bene. | Ibid. 14240, mari and martha had been wepand þar four dais. | Ibid. 26292, if þi parischen In sin lang has ligand bene. | Ibid. 28176, Oft haue i bene ouer mistrauand. | Ibid. 28941, þin almus agh þou for to bede, And namli til him þat has bene Hauand ..., And falles in-to state o nede plight-less.
θ Chaucer ޤѸΥƥȤ㤬³Ǥᤤ㤬ѸˤĤǧ뤫Ȥäơɬ⸽ѸοdzΩƤ褦1ĤλȤơǤˤѤƤȤȤǤϤʤºݡԤΤʤˤϡγΩ϶ѸʹߤǤ롤ˤäƤϸѸǤȽҤ٤ƤΤ⤢롥Visser ȤϾ嵭ƱˤơΤ褦⤤Ƥ롥
These types, traditionally called the 'perfect progressive' or 'expanded perfect' and the 'pluperfect progressive' or 'expanded pluperfect', are not represented in Old English. They appear for the first time on paper in the 14th century, and it took them about a century to develop into a well-established and not infrequently used idiom. In the subjoined list all the 14th, 15th, 16th and 17the century instances available are mentioned (and it is therefore not a selection like the rest), in order to show the erroneousness of various statements concerning date of earliest appearance and the incidence in earlier English (often called 'rare').. Thus Åkerlund (1911 p. 85) states: "These tenses do not occur in Old English, nor in the earlier part of the subsequent period. Later on, they creep slowly into existence---even as late as Shakespeare there are strikingly scarce; but they are not employed frequently enough." Kisbye (An Historical Outline of Eng. Syntax I 1971 p. 47) observes: "The expanded pluperfect was instance only once [italics added] in Northern ME ...---This compound tense ... being uncommon till the 19th century [italics added]." In Barbara Strang's The History of English (1970 pp. 207--8) it is averred that the periphrastic perfect did not become fully current till the 18th century, and that the periphrastic pluperfect showed its full maturity fro the time of the Restoration. (But see e.g. the quotations from Lord Berners below). As to her statement that a pluperfect progressive arose "a little earlier [than a perfect progressive] in the 14th century", see earliest examples of the perfect progressive is from Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (1386).
Դ֤ˤäªäȤȤϡ٤˺ꡤ¤ͭƤʤäȤȤǡλʹԷνиΤۤߴλʹԷΩäƤȤ¤϶̣
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

ܲꥹȥեСʡɡˡرѸưʬ༭ŵ١ʸҡ2025ǯ (Kenkyusha's Thesaurus of English Phrasal Verbs) ꤷѥѥɤǤޤƱԤˤرѸưʸ㼭ŵ: ֻ졦ʬʸԡ2002ǯˤ˲ɮä줿ܤǤư (phrasal_verb) ΡּŵפǤϤΤǤ˭٤ʸįĤĺǽ餫ɤǤʤ̣ǤɤꤷƤ˶ưؽȤ٤ΤǤ
äȤäƤɤǤ⤤ʤäˤȤäƤϡŵ⿷Ȥǡʸ̤˿θ̣äƤޤŬڤ˥ӥ塼뤿ˤϡٻȤǡμŵѤƤΤۤ褤ΤǤϤʤȻפĤĤ⡤ޤ϶äƤȻפäǤζäܤפĤޤޤ˲վƤߤޤ
ưʬμ缴ưǤϤʤ졦ֻɽ蘆˥ѡƥ (particle) ֤Ƥ롥
ܶᡦ塦ˬסֲ֤סʬΥΩפʤ33Ρ֥ơޡפߤƤ롥ŪΥơޤǤޤȤ夲뤳ȤǤȤȼΤäݥȡ
ưΤȤѥɤ߲䤹Ǽʤɡλ¡ʤ̤꤬ߤ롥
ܼʥơ̡ˡѡƥ-оȺѡƥ̱оȺʤɡŵʣΰѰդƤ롥
˭٤˵ƤʸϡⲻɤʤΤФꡥ
֤ޤ (p. 5) Ƭˡܼŵ϶ư켭ŵǤ뤬ˡʸ§˴ŤƤ롥Τᡤ¤ӻˤƤˡʼŵȤʤäƤפȽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤѸưΤˡƤΤ˥ˡԤޤ줿ŵȤۤʤ͵ΰ
СʡɡꥹȥեرѸưʬ༭ŵ١ҡ2025ǯ
ƱνʼʷءˤȱĤƤ YouTube ֤Τۤإͥϳߤ3ǯʾ夬Фޤޤ¿ˤƤޤʥͥϿԤܲ14ͤǤˡ
ۿ줿ǿ#329. 2ǯФäƤ⤴³Ƥ go/went 25ˤؤΤߤʤޤΥȤĤǤİӤƤޤ18ʬۤɤưǤҤİ
ưϡ3ǯʾˡʥȥǤϡ2ǯФäƤפȤޤĴ٤3ǯʾФäƤޤ˸#25. ⡪go β went ͳȤưˡʤ¿ΥȤƤ뤳ȤΤǤ
#25 ϡ֤ΤۤإͥפۿΤʤǤäˤ褯İƤ1ĤȤʤäƤޤ#25 Υˤϡޤ͡ʤոۡȽƤƤΤǡ #329 ǤϡΤ褦ȿФƻƤȤǤ#329 ƤȰʲ̤Ǥ
#25 Ǽ夲줿Τϡʤ go β *goed ǤϤʤ went ʤΤȤѸ˴ؤѤʵǤϱѸˤǤ佼ˡ (suppletion) ȸƤФ븽ݤɽȤƤޤۤʤ츻ñ줬ñηѲΰʤǤϲˤ䤦ǻȤȤΤǤѸǤϡgo βˡȤȡֹԤʤפ̷̣ư wend β went Ѥ줿ȤΤŪʱѸˤǤ
#25 ΡֿפȤϡ went go βȤ夷塤ʤ¾¿Ե§ư줬и褦ʵ§Ĥޤ *goed Τ褦ʷؤѲʤäΤȤ˾ƤΤǤϡͳҲ (sociolinguistics) ŪʴƤߤޤĤޤꡤԵ§ went λѤΡָŪʶޡפȤƵǽѸüԤѸüԤʤ춦ƱΤοͤȳο̵̤ͤռŪˤ˲̤ƤΤǤϤʤȹͤ櫓Ǥܤ #25 ФȻפޤ#329 Ǥ⤳äƤϤޤ
#25 Υˤϡgoed God ʿˤȯȶʤꡤԷɤ줿ΤǤϤʤפȤݤΰո⤤ĤޤϡֿפΥ֡Ʊ۵ (homonymic_clash) ȤѲװ˴ؤ벾˴ŤΤȻפޤ
ưǤޤϤͿޤͳȤƤϡޤ go θűѸη֤ gān Τ褦 ā'' 첻ΤǤꡤβ˵§ȤƤ⡤God ʸűѸ godˤȤ첻㤤Ǥξϡ첻βⲻ̤Τ˰ۤʤäƤΤǤˤСˤƱ۵Ϥ̤¸ߤƤꡤ餬ͤǤȤΤϡȤƤϳΤˤΤΡޤʸݤǤ go/went η˴ؤơƱ۵ͤ˴ŤѶŪ˻ٻ뺬ϸޤ
⤦1#25 ǤβˤĤơä⤷ޤΤǡƤȤޤˤơwent Τ褦Ե§ʷüԤüԤӽ뤿˰տŪ˺ä櫤ǤȤϡŪ˲ΤǤϤʤȤݤΥȤƤޤ
#25 ǻθäȤϼ̤ǤѲϡŪˤïտޤƵΤǤϤʤȯŪ˿ʤǤΤǤꡤgo β went ˤʤäΤ⡤ޤŪʶη̤Ǥ롥η̤ȤԵ§ʷ夫ҲŪʰ̣礤Ӥӡȳ̤褦ʵǽĤ褦ˤʤäȤȤϽʬˤȹͤޤĤޤꡤ櫤ųݤפΤǤϤʤּˤǤȤΤ褦ʷϤ夫櫤ȤѤ褦ˤʤäפȤȤŬڤǤ礦
ơˤĤƹͤƤС
ۿ줿֤إ饸κǿϡפ֤Ρ֥å1900ɤפǤȥright ϤʤֱפָפɽΤǤ郎ޤơβδƽ̳ᤵƤޤʿ⤪꤬Ȥޤˡ
Ĥαñ줬줿ΤǤܤΤ matter count Ȥñ줬ֽפǤפ̣ưȤѤƤǤưǿŦƤޤäʤޤֽפǤפǤСbe important Τ褦˷ƻѤΤդ路褦˴뤫ǤʤưʤΤȤ䤬ޤ
2Ĥư̡˹ͤޤ礦ޤ matter ʤֽפǤפȤ̣ưˤʤΤǤ礦Ҳ𤵤Ƥ褦 matter ̾ȤƤδŪʰ̣ϡʪפǤϡȤͤޤäƤΡǤϤʤΡդȻפޤä꽼ŶƤ륤ȤΤסּ¼ŪʡסͭյʡסֽפǤפʤɤθȹͤޤ
⤦1ĤΡֽפǤפ̣ư count ϤɤǤ礦ưǾҲ𤵤Ƥޤcount 1ϡֿפǤܸ͡Ǥ֤ΤοʤפȤѶ礬ޤդˡֿ롨פΤϡֽפǤפȤͤޤѸǶ̤ȯۤΤ⤷Ǥ͡
ʤߤ count ϥƥ computāre եˤޤäͳ褷ޤ computāre ϡƬ com- ʶˡˡˤ putāre ʹͤˤꡤŰŪ˹ͤסֹθפȤạ̈礤ФơֿסַפȤ̣ȯŸƤäȹͤޤơΥƥ computāre ľܤ˱Ѹ compute ȤƤѤƤޤĤޤꡤcount compute Ʊ츻2Ÿ (doublet) δطȤʤޤ
ơmatter count ֽפǤפ̣褦ˡǤзƻɽƤ٤ȤǡưȤɽƤ¾ˤ⤢ޤ㤨 cost Ѥˤ resemble ʻƤˤʤɤ⡤ưȤϾ֡˶ᤤ̣礤ӤӤƤꡤľŪˤ be worth be like Τ褦˷ƻѤɽ魯Τդ路ȵ뤫⤷ޤ
դ⤢ޤʻȤƤϷƻǤʤ⡤Ūʰ̣礤ĶơưŪʥ˥奢ӤӤΤޤactive ʳưŪʡˤȤƻϡ֡ɽ路Ƥ褦ˤפޤưäƤưŪʥΤ¤Ǥꡤʤ̣ŪˤϽʬưŪȤȤǤΤǤޤưθʬʬ줫ƻ졤㤨 interesting, surprised ʤɤϡȤưʤ櫓Ǥ顤ʬưŪʴޤߤݻƤΤ̵̤ȤʤΤǤ
Τ褦˸ƤȡưȷƻȤʻʬϳΤ¸ߤΤΡΰ̣ŪʶܤΤ˻Ŧ뤳ȤȤ狼ޤξʻϡ̣ŪˤϤषϢ³ΤǤĤʤäƤȸʤΤդ路褦˻פޤˤĤƤϡ#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ ([2018-12-29-1]) ε⻲ͤˤʤǤ礦
Τإ饸֥å1900ɤǤϡƽ˴ؤ餻Ƥʤ顤matter count ȤäŵŪưˤĤƹͤľ뤳ȤǤٶˤʤޤˤʤäƤʤϡҥåƤߤƤ
פС䤬ơ֤إ饸פ˴ؤ餻Ƥä1Ĥ֥å1900ɤפǤ#5196. ֤إ饸б4 --- رñ쥿åȡ٤ñ츻 ([2023-07-19-1]) Ǥϡvid ʸˤȤƥ캬Τߤͥ1ֶä³ȤѤʲϿΤǤ⤼ҤС
夲 matter count ᤰϡ heldio ۿ#1418. ֤إ饸פΥå1900ɤ --- right ϤʤֱפָפɽΤǤܤޤܵˤʤȻפޤΤǡҤ⤪İ
pos Υ夤ĤεǡʻȤϲƤؼŵ˵äơʻˤĤƤInternational Encyclopedia of Linguistics pp. 250--51 ꡤ8ʤ PARTS OF SPEECH ιȤ˰Ѥ褦
PARTS OF SPEECH. Languages may vary significantly in the number and type of distinct classes, or parts of speech, into which their lexicons are divisible. However, all languages make a distinction between open and closed lexical classes, although there may be relatively few of the latter in languages favoring morphologically complex words. Open classes are those whose membership is in principle unlimited, and may differ from speaker to speaker. Closed classes are those which contain a fixed, usually small number of words, and which are essentially the same for all speakers.
ʻϤˡޤäֳ줿饹 (open class) ȡĤ饹 (closed class) 礭2ʬƤ롥2ʬˡŪǤ뤳Ȥ⤫롥
The open lexical classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Not all these classes are found in all languages; and it is not always clear whether two sets of words, having some shared and some unshared properties, should be identified as belonging to distinct open classes, or to subclasses of a single class. Criteria for determining which open classes are distinguished in a given language are syntactic and/or morphological, but the names used to identify the classes are generally based on semantic criteria.
ֳ줿饹פˤĤƤϤޤ롥ˤ뤬̾졤ư졤ƻ졤줬˰̣Ūʴˤ̤Ȥ
The noun/verb distinction is apparently universal. Although the existence of this distinction in certain languages has been questioned, close scrutiny of the facts has invariably shown clear, if sometimes subtle, grammatical differences between two major classes of words, one of which has typically noun-like semantics (e.g. denoting persons, places, or things), the other typically verb-like semantics (e.g. denoting actions, processes, or states).
Ȥ櫓̾ư2ĤʻˤĤƤϡۤŪ˶̤ȤäƤ褤
Nouns most commonly function as arguments or heads of arguments, but they may also function as predicates, either with or without a copula such as English be. Categories for which nouns are often morphologically or syntactically specified include case, number, gender, and definiteness.
̾ŵŪʵǽͭƤҲ𤵤롥
Verbs most commonly function as predicates, but in some languages may also occur as arguments. Categories for which they are often specified include tense, aspect, mood, voice, and positive/negative polarity.
ˡưŵŪʵǽͭƤˤĤơ
Adjectives are usually identified grammatically as modifiers of nouns, but also commonly occur as predicates. Semantically, they often denote attributes. A characteristic specification is for positive, comparative, or superlative degree. Some languages do not have a distinct class of adjectives, but instead express all typically adjectival meanings with nouns and/or verbs. Other languages have a small, closed class that may be identified as adjectives --- commonly including a few words denoting size, color, age, and value --- while nouns and/or verbs are used to express the remainder of adjectival meanings.
³ƷƻŵŪʵǽ롥ˤäƤϷƻȤΤˤ⤿ʤΤ⤢롥
Adverbs, often a less than homogeneous class, may be identified grammatically as modifiers of constituents other than nouns, e.g. verbs, adjectives, or sentences. Their semantics typically varies with what they modify. As modifiers of verbs they may denote manner (e.g. slowly); of adjectives, degree (extremely); and of sentences, attitude (unfortunately). Many languages have no open class of adverbs, and express adverbial meanings with nouns, verbs, adjectivesr, in some heavily affixing languages, affixes.
줬ŪޤȤޤΤʤʻȤƾҲ𤵤롥̾ʳȤợ¿ͤǤ롥
Some commonly attested closed classes are articles, auxiliaries, clitics, copulas, interjections, negators, particles, politeness markers, prepositions and postpositions, pro-forms, and quantifiers. A survey of these and other closed classes, as well as a detailed account of open classes, is given by Schachter 1985.
ǸˡĤ饹פñ˿롥
Ū˱Ѹ١ʻȤʤäƤ봶Ϥ뤬䤹Ǥ롥ιμɮԤǤꡤǸ˸ڤ⤢ Schachter ˤܳŪʻͤ褦
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.
Schachter, Paul. "Parts-of-Speech Systems." Language Typology and Syntactic Description. Vol. 1. Clause Structure. Ed. Timothy Shopen. p. 3?61. Cambridge and New York: CUP, 1985. 3--61.
Ⱥī heldio ˤơ#1377. פФαʸˡѸ --- ꥹʡγ餪ޤȾˡ#1378. פФαʸˡѸ --- ꥹʡγ餪ޤʸȾˡۿޤϡ224˥ꥹʡ÷ȤƸ#1366. ʤλפФαʸˡѸƤΥեåײǤheldio ꥹʡγˤϡ¿ΥȤƤޤƤ꤬Ȥޤ
ʸˡѸȤäƤԥ饭ޤǤޤŪѸ줫ؤνѸȤ٤Τޤ¿ޤ٥ˤˡȤˤפФΡˤʤ롿䤷ΡѸƤȤݤǡȤޤη̤ɤ߾夲ΤǤ2ĤۿǤ
ΤʤưȤѸ줬٤ڤƤޤѸǤ verbal verbid ȸƤФޤϤäΤȤǤ礦ؿѸؼŵ٤ verbal Ƥߤȡ(1) Ȥơֽưפβ⤬ޤ
(1) ʽưˡ (infinitive)ʬ (participle)ư̾ (gerund) Ρverbid Ȥ⤤ޤ (non-finite form) (infinite form)ư (non-finite verb) Ȥ⤤ʤư줬̾ŪѤ줿Τ̾Ūư (noun verbal) ޤưŪ̾ (verbal noun) ȤƻŪˡΤΤƻŪư (adjective verbal) ޤưŪƻ (verbal adjective) ȤȤ롥I'm thinking of going./I wish to go. ̾Ūư//melting snow ̷ƻŪư͡
ɽ䡤˺٤ʬѸ⤢ꡤ䤳Ǥ͡ˡOED verbid (NOUN) Ƥߤޤ礦
Grammar. Somewhat rare.
A word, such as an infinitive, gerund, or participle, which has some characteristics of a verb but cannot form the head of a predicate on its own. Also: (with reference to certain West African languages) a bound verb with in a serial verb construction.
1914We shall..restrict the name of verb to those forms that have the eminently verbal power of forming sentences, and..apply the name of verbid to participles and infinitives. (O. Jespersen, Modern English Grammar vol. II. 7)
. . . .
OED Ǥν㤫顤줬 Jespersen ¤Ǥ뤳ȤΤޤ#5782. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˷֤ˤʬहȤɤʤ뤫 ([2025-02-24-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 Jespersen ʻȤδϢ⡤̣¤Ǥ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
ΤȤˤʤޤ925ʿˤ Voicy heldio ˤ#1214. khelf Ĺ ŷ it äƲ #Ѹ˥饤2024פۿޤkhelf ΥС濴礤˵夬ޤkhelf helwa ǤϡΤ褦ʱѸ̵ӻǤꡤ⤢ޤ̤˸Ƥߤޤ顤¿˥åʥνĤȤƴǡʡˤ褦ǡФ¤ǤʴǡhelŸƤޤ
ʤ It rains. ʤΤȤᤰäƤϡŪƤ櫓ǤϤޤषȤ̵ΤڤǤޤȤݤδǤ⡤ꥹʡˤä夬äƤޤΤǡҤɤߤ
ܥ֥ǤϡϢʲεǼ夲Ƥޤ
#4208. It rains. ϹټԺߤǡֹ߱פۤɤΰա ([2020-11-03-1])
#4210. ;Τνи3;Τ˻Ϥޤꡤ12;ΤؤŸ ([2020-11-05-1])
#4211. ϡֽ̤פֹټԤꤹפء ([2020-11-06-1])
ޤϿΤʤǤƤޤkhelf ˤرѸ˿ʹ92023ǯ512ȯԡˤ1̲Ǥŷ it äƤʤפȤƼ夲Ƥޤ
ͥˤ30ʬϡǵ³줿ȻפޤޤǡֱѸ˥饤2024פΤʤǤΤȤȤʤޤ
#5385. methinks ˤޤĤ̯ʸĤҲ ([2024-01-24-1]) ȡ#5386. Ѹ˾夭˳ʤ3ñ -s ([2024-01-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤ methoughts Ȥʸˡ˾ʤȤ̯ư֤ޤʤΤ -s դȤäθǤ
ϡmethoughts νѸ EEBO corpus ȴФƤߤޤʥ饤Υƥȥեˡ10ǯߤǤΥҥåȿϡ̤Ǥ
| ALL | 1600s | 1610s | 1620s | 1630s | 1640s | 1650s | 1660s | 1670s | 1680s | 1690s | |
| METHOUGHTS | 184 | 1 | 6 | 6 | 18 | 37 | 75 | 41 |
μͭӥ Mond ˤơ䤤ޤ
be + ʬ()βʬϡưʤǤ, ȤƻʤǤThe door was opened by John. ֤ΥɥϥˤäƳ줿פϰ̣ŪˤưȻפޤJohn is interested in English. ֥ϱѸ˶̣פ, ưȤ꤫ϷƻȻפޤθݤϡŪˤɤǤ礦
䤤Фơβ Mond ƤޤܤϤɤǤФȻפޤȤƤץȥ (prototype) ǹͤΤ褤ȤǤ
ʬưͳǤϤޤǽȤƤϷƻ˴äƤޤ⤽ʬ˸¤餺ʬ⡤ˤư̾ʤɤ¾νư⡤ư̤ʻȤƳѤʸˡܤǤΤǡưȡξäƤΤԻĤʤȤǤϤʤषơ˶ᤤȤΤΤǤ
嵭 Mond βǤϡư줫ƻؤϢ³Τꤷ4ĤФȤݤʸޤκݤ˻Ȥ Quirk et al. §3.74--78) εҤǤϡ¤ϤäȾܤ8ĤۤɤꤵƤޤʲ8ĤʸѤMond ؤβȤȻפޤ(1)--(4) ưݤȾʬ(5)--(8) ƻݤȾʬǤ
(1) This violin was made by my father
(2) This conclusion is hardly justified by the results.
(3) Coal has been replaced by oil.
(4) This difficulty can be avoided in several ways.
(5) We are encouraged to go on with the project.
(6) Leonard was interested in linguistics.
(7) The building is already demolished.
(8) The modern world is getting ['becoming'] more highly industrialized and mechanized.
ȴϢơʲ hellog ⤴Ȥ
#1964. ץȥס ([2014-09-12-1])
#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ ([2018-12-29-1])
#4436. ƻΥץȥס ([2021-06-19-1])
#3307. ʸˡѸȤƤ participle ʬס ([2018-05-17-1])
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ʸˡǤϡư§ư (regular verbs) Ե§ư (irregular verb) Ȥʬ롥Ե§ưΤʤǤȤ櫓Ե§η㤷ư㤨 be, have, can ʤɡˤϡ§ư (anomalous verbs) ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥§ư§ϡŪˤϤ٤ǤΤΡʣǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤŪʴϡ§פȤ롼פɤäƽƤȤˡŪ˺ѤƤ롥
űѸˤ⡤Ūʴ§ư¸ߤwillan (= PDE "to will"), dōn (= PDE "to do"), gān (= PDE "to go") Ǥ롥űѸˤƤ鶦Ūˡ§פȤդƤޤΰۿưζɽHogg (40) Ǥ褦Ť§ŪäΤ
| Pres. | willan | dōn | gān |
| 1 Sing. | wille | dō | gā |
| 2 Sing. | wilt | dēst | gǣst |
| Sing. | wile | dēð | gǣð |
| Plural | willað | dōð | gāð |
| Subj. (Pl.) | wille (willen) | dō(dōn) | gā(gān) |
| Participle | willende | dōnde | --- |
| Past | |||
| Ind. | wolde | dyde | ēode |
| Participle | --- | ġedōn | ġegān |
ε#5442. إ饤ȥϥ¼ŵ7ǡ٤Ͽ֤ĤŤȯס ([2024-03-21-1]) ǡֿפ̣ư blow θѸǤγѤȤȯ˿줿Ȥ櫓 blew ֤ä /bluː/ ȯդ¥ᤰäơ֤ Voicy heldio Ǥ夲ƤΤǡİ褷ƤС
#1023. new ϡ֥˥塼פ̡֥פ --- ѲȸóȻ
#1025. blow - blew ֥֥롼 - blown
#1026. ʤ now know ȯ㤦Ρ
blow ϸűѸˤƤ϶Ѳư7°ưäƱ7°Ӥ٤ưȤ know, grow, throw 롥ơѸ know - knew - known; grow - grew - grown; throw - threw - thrown Τ褦 blow Ȥ褯Ѥ4ưˤĤơűѸǤ4ޤȤƤ4ʤɸűѸ춯Ѳưξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#2217. űѸ춯ѲưΤޤȤ ([2015-05-23-1]) #42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) ȡˡ
| 1 | 2 | ʬ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| "blow" | blāwan | blēow | blēowon | blāwen |
| "know" | cnā_wan | cnēow | cnēowon | cnāwen |
| "grow" | grōwan | grēow | grēowon | grōwen |
| "throw" | þrāwan | þrēow | þrēowon | þrōwen |
ɸϲ褷褦ΤʤǤϤ뤬ػ (history_of_linguistics) ˤƤϸε (origin_of_language) ᤰΤʤǻڤƤ䤤Ǥ롥
Mufwene (22) Ȥơ2ͤԤȤθҲ𤷤ɥĤůؼ Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744--1803) ȥꥫθؼ William Dwight Whitney (1827--94) Ǥ롥
Herder also speculated that language started with the practice of naming. He claimed that predicates, which denote activities and conditions, were the first names; nouns were derived from them . . . . He thus partly anticipated Heine and Kuteva (2007), who argue that grammar emerged gradually, through the grammaticization of nouns and verbs into grammatical markers, including complementizers, which make it possible to form complex sentences. An issue arising from Herder's position is whether nouns and verbs could not have emerged concurrently. . . .
On the other hand, as hypothesized by William Dwight Whitney . . . , the original naming practice need not have entailed the distinction between nouns and verbs and the capacity to predicate. At the same time, naming may have amounted to pointing with (pre-)linguistic signs; predication may have started only after hominins were capable of describing states of affairs compositionally, combining word-size units in this case, rather than holophrastically.
Herder ϸ̾դ (naming) μϤޤäȹͤȤ̾դη̤ȤƤΡ̾פǽ̾ǤϤʤҸưäȤդϰճȯۤǶ̣Herder ϡ̾ϸư줫ΤǤȹͤϸʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤȤʸˡƤȯȤͤ˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
Whitney ϡư̾ζ̤Τʤʳǰɽ (holophrasis) ȯΤǤꡤޤǸˤʤäƤ餽ʸˡƤȯãȹͤ
쵯ʸˡϤΤ褦ˤƴطŤΤȴ补
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
ε#5385. methinks ˤޤĤ̯ʸĤҲ ([2024-01-24-1]) θȾǾޤѸȾФ methoughts ʤ̯ʷ֤뤳Ȥޤľˡ3;ΡñĤޤ3ñ -sפȤ˳ʤθǤ٤ϾܤĴ٤ƤޤOED ˤȡShakespeare ФȤ1718ȾФˤ㤬ʸڤ褦ǤѸ˾夭˳ʤǤꡤͤι⤤֤ȤޤʱѸ˸Ԥ϶ʳޤˡ
OED methinks, v. ΰ۷ˤ γ η֤ȤƷǤƤ5ĤʸѤޤ
a1616 Me thoughts that I had broken from the Tower. (W. Shakespeare, Richard III (1623) i. iv. 9)
1620 The draught of a Landskip on a piece of paper, me thoughts masterly done. (H. Wotton, Letter in Reliquiæ Wottonianæ (1651) 413)
1673 I had..coyned several new English Words, which were onely such French Words as methoughts had a fine Tone wieh them. (F. Kirkman, Unlucky Citizen 181)
1711 Methoughts I was transported into a Country that was filled with Prodigies. (J. Addison, Spectator No. 63. ¶3)
1751 The inward Satisfaction which I felt, had spread in my Eyes I know not what of melting and passionate, which methoughts I had never before observed. (translation of Female Foundling vol. I. 30)
methoughts ٤ܤĴ٤ƤɬפޤĤ㤬ʸڤƤʾ塤ñʤ륨顼ǺѤޤ櫓ˤϤޤη֤طʤˤΤϡְ㤤ʤ3ñη֤٤ι⤤ methinks Ǥ礦methinks (analogy) ˤꡤˤ -s դ줿ȹͤޤդˤСΤ褦䤷üԤϡ߷ methinks -s 3ñ -s ȤǧƤʤäȤޤ¾ưǤ3ñ -s λ㤬Τݤ䤬鼡ؤͯФƤޤ
¤Ϥ methoughts Ȥ̯ʲ¸ߤˤĤƺǽ˶ƤΤϡƱνΥԥԤǤпʷʸʸ칶ˤǤηаޤϡ YouTube ְͥʼδѸظإͥפˤƴñˤäޤ#195. пإԥ줬 --- ԥڤ߿Ԥɴɴ١罤۽ŹˤΤҲ
ϢơȤˤĤơʲ hellog heldio Ǥ⤴Ҳ𤷤ƤޤΤǡҤˬ䤯
hellog #5357. пȤ --- إԥ줬١罤ۡ2023ǯˤᤰäơ ([2023-12-27-1])
heldio #934. إԥ줬١罤ۡ2023ǯ --- ԤΰпȤ̡
ѸˤˤϤ⤷꤬žäƤޤ
Wischer, Ilse. "Grammaticalization versus Lexicalization: 'Methinks' there is some confusion." Pathways of Change: Grammaticalization in English. Ed. Olga Fischer, Anette Rosenbach, and Dieter Stein. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2000. 355--70.
;ư (impersonal_verb) methinks ˤĤƤϡ#4308. ˻Ĥ;ư methinks ([2021-02-11-1])#204. ;ιʸ ([2009-11-17-1]) ʤɤǿƤ;ιʸ (impersonal construction) ǤϿ;μ줬ʤʸˡ夽ʸѤƤ;ưϤ3;ñ¸ߤȤƤ뤫Τ褦ʶȤ롥Ĥޤꡤ¿ˤߤ褦ˡľˡñǤС-s ʸŤ -eth) ȤȤȤˤʤ롥
ȤįƤȡ-s ʤɤλҲʤΤ롥Wischer (362) Helsinki Corpus 齦äѸζ̣ʸĤƤΤǡѤ褦
(10) þe þincheð þat he ne mihte his sinne forlete.
'It seems to you that he might not relinquish his sin.'
(MX/1 Ir Hom Trin 12, 73)
(11) Thy wombe is waxen grete, thynke me.
'Your womb has grown big. You seem to be pregnant.'
(M4 XX Myst York 119)
(12) My lord me thynketh / my lady here hath saide to you trouthe and gyuen yow good counseyl [...]
(M4 Ni Fict Reynard 54)
(13) I se on the firmament, Me thynk, the seven starnes.
(M4 XX Myst Town 25)
ҲȼäƤ̤㤬 (10) (12)ȼäƤʤ㳰ŪʤΤ (11) (13) Ǥ롥(11) ǤμͿ̾ me ֤ƤꡤȸηǡطƤ뤫Ȥ⵿줿(13) Ǥ Me ֤ƤΤǡȤǤʤOED methinks, v. Ҳȼʤ㤬ʤ餺ǧ졤ñʥ顼ǤϤʤ餷
ǤϸǡˤϤɤΤ褦طʤΤ1Ĥˤϡ;ιʸ I think ʤʸˡŪ -s ʤɤϤĤʤˤȤδ֤ǺƱäǽ롥⤦1ĥҥȤȤʤΤϡư줬ưޤγˤ̾˰פƤȲǤ㤬뤳ȤOED ǰѤƤ뼡ʸǤϡmethink'st thou art . . . . Ȥƶ̣㤬ǧ롥
a1616 Meethink'st thou art a generall offence, and euery man shold beate thee. (W. Shakespeare, All's Well that ends Well (1623) ii. iii. 251)
ˡưβ3ñָȤϤʤΤǡưη֤ϻ¾ methought ˸ꤵ줽ºݤˤϸ߷ (analogy) ˴Ť֤Ȥܤ methoughts ⡤OED ˤȤϤ Shakespeare ʤɤ˸Ƥ롥
ɤ methinks ϡưȤƤϤƼŪʤȤ˰֤ŤѤԤΤ褦ȾüʸòȤ٤षԤòȤ٤ʬहΤ
Wischer, Ilse. "Grammaticalization versus Lexicalization: 'Methinks' there is some confusion." Pathways of Change: Grammaticalization in English. Ed. Olga Fischer, Anette Rosenbach, and Dieter Stein. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2000. 355--70.
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