hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     1 2 3 ڡ / page 1 (3)

preterite - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2025-06-02 Mon

#5880. [tense][category][preterite][future][verb][terminology][aspect][mood][inflection][periphrasis]

ε#5879. ΰͤ ([2025-06-01-1]) (tense) ˴Ϣ夲ޤĤơ#3693. ˤȤϲ ([2019-06-07-1]) ǻˤĤƹͤȤ⤢롥
ƻȤϲʤΤ긵ˤ International Encyclopedia of Linguistics TENSE ƤߤߤƤߤ褦 (223--24)

          Definition
   Tense refers to the grammatical expression of the time of the situation described in the proposition, relative to some other time. This other time may be the moment of speech: for example, the past and future designate time before and after the moment of speech, respectively, while the perfect (or anterior) designates past time which is relevant to the moment of speech. Or it may be some other reference time, as in the past perfect, which signals a time prior to another time in the past---as in I had just stepped into the shower when the phone rang, where the first clause signals a time prior to that of the second. The most commonly occurring tenses are past and future; however, perfect tenses are also common, as are combinations of perfect with past and future. Some languages show degrees of remoteness in the past or future: distinctions are possible between past situations of today vs. yesterday, yesterday vs. preceding days, or recent time vs. remote time. Analogous distinctions are possible in the future but not as common. Tense is expressed by inflections, by particles, or by auxiliaries in construction with the verb; it is rarely expressed by derivational morphology . . . .


ǤϡλˤƸɽΤ (224)

          Expression
   According to the traditional view, tense is a verbal inflectional category expressing time; however, the possibility of tense being realized also by periphrastic constructions is usually acknowledged. There are several difficulties in applying this view to actual languages. First, the semantics of many inflectional categories contain aspectual and modal as well as temporal elements: e.g., perfective aspect in many languages is restricted to past time reference, and future tenses almost always have modal overtones. Furthermore, if a language has several tense distinctions, they often have rather different modes of expression. An example is the past/non-past and future/non-future oppositions of English; the former is inflectional, and the latter periphrastic . . . .
   An alternative is to view "tense" as a cover term for those inflectional categories whose semantics is dominated by temporal notions. In inflectional systems, then, the most common tense oppositions are past/non-past and future/non-future. Less common, but by no means rare, are distinctions pertaining to degrees of remoteness, e.g. recent and remote past. At least four or five such degrees can be distinguished in certain systems, but the main remoteness distinction is generally between 'today' and 'not today'.
   Tense in finite verb forms normally expresses the relation between the time referred to in the sentence and the time of the speech act (absolute tense); in non-finite verb forms, and sometimes in finite subordinate clauses, tense is relative, expressing the relation between the time expressed by the verb and that of a higher clause. Categories such as perfects and pluperfects, which signal that a situation is viewed from the perspective of a later point in time, have a debated status; they are usually expressed periphrastically, but can also occur in inflectional systems.


ǽ¦̤Τ뤤Ϸ鸫ΤˤäƤȤƤªѤäƤޤ̸Ūˡ෿Ū˴ϢݤƤȤɬפ

Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.

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2025-06-01 Sun

#5879. ΰͤ [tense][sequence_of_tenses][backshift][terminology][agreement][aspect][category][preterite][latin]

ܥ֥ǤϡޤǡֻΰספˤĤƹͤ뵡񤬤ʤäʸˡˤ뤳̾ˤĤơ塤ŪʻޤĤġޤޤ˹ͤƤȻפ
ֻ̾ξȱ (sequence_of_tenses)뤤ä˻ˤ餹Ǥϡָžܡ (backshift) ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
ˤѸѸ켭ŵΤĤäƤߤŪʴͻäƤΤϤʤޤ Bussmann βɤǡhellog ˤͻϵȤ

sequence of tenses
Fixed order of tenses in complex sentences. This 'relative' use of tenses is strictly regulated in Latin. If the actions depicted in the main and relative clauses are simultaneous, the tense o the dependent clause depends on the tense in the independent clause: present in the main clauses requires present subjunctive in the dependent Cal's; preterite or past perfect in the main clause requires perfect subjunctive in the dependent clause. This strict ordering also occurs in English, such as in conditional sentences: If I knew the answer I wouldn't ask vs If I had known the answerer I wouldn't have asked.


ֻΰספˤĤƤϺä긡ƤƤ (tense) Ȥʸˡ (category) ΤΤˤĤƤϵƤȤ櫓ε򻲾Ȥ줿

#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])
#2747. Reichenbach λ ([2016-11-03-1])
#3692. Ѹˤϲ2Ĥʤ ([2019-06-06-1])
#3693. ˤȤϲ ([2019-06-07-1])
#3718. Ѹ̤ʤȹͤͳ ([2019-07-02-1])
#4523. --- ޸ο򤯤̤ĤäưΥƥ꡼ ([2021-09-14-1])
#5159. Ѹˤ̤ƻϤɽƤ ([2023-06-12-1])

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2026-01-01-1] [2025-06-02-1]

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2024-10-16 Wed

#5651. Ф븽ߴλΰ̣ŪħϡפǤ [definiteness][perfect][preterite][aspect][tense]

ѸληϤϤʣǡȤ櫓ؼԤˤȤäƾ㳲ȤʤΤߴλ (present perfect) Ǥ롥 (preterite)ȤϤɤۤʤΤޤܼĤߤˤ͡뤬Ѹˤθ Visser ˤСߴλȰۤʤϤΡ (indefiniteness) ˤȤ㳰ʤ櫓ǤϤʤȽҤ٤Ĥġߴλܼ򼡤3ˤޤȤƤ (III, §2004 [p. 2193]) Visser ǰƬˤƤΤϡѸεʸˡȤ⡤̻֤ռ˱ʸˡǤ뤳Ȥդ줿

   The present perfect is generally preferred to the preterite
(a) when in the sentence there is no past-time adjunct and at the same time any definite idea of past-ness of the action is excluded as e.g. in 'I have been in Brasil';
(b) when there is a temporal adjunct in the sentence which does not clearly refer to a definite point of time but rather to a certain space of time, such as 'long ago', 'in my youth', 'before this time', 'once', 'often', 'ere now', 'recently', 'formerly', etc.
(c) when there is a temporal adjunct in the sentence referring to a period of time that stretches from a point in the past to the moment of speaking, e.g. 'this month', 'ever since', 'hitherto', 'of late', 'this twelvemonth', 'for many years', 'the whole afternoon', etc.


(a) ˤСߴλϡΤĵäΤʤɤ⡤ߤޤǤ˴λƤ뤳Ȥްդ롥ִλסַ̡סַиפʤɤˡήФƤ롥
(b) ˤСߴλϲ1ǤϤʤϰϤä֤ǰƬˤƤȤַиˡ˴ط롥
(c) (b) üǤȹͤ鸽ߤޤǤδ֤ǰƬ֤졤ַ³פˡ߽ФƤ롥
ִλסַ̡סַиסַ³פʤɤѸ¤٤ȡˤɬӤΤʤФ븽ߴλħϡסȤ櫓֤˴ؤĤޤּΤ1ǰƬˤƤʤȤ˵ΤǤϤʤ

Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-11-07-1]

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2024-09-17 Tue

#5622. methoughts Ƥ [3ps][impersonal_verb][verb][inflection][preterite][analogy][methinks][eebo][corpus][emode][comment_clause]

#5385. methinks ˤޤĤ̯ʸ򤤤ĤҲ ([2024-01-24-1]) ȡ#5386. Ѹ˾夭˳ʤ3ñ -s ([2024-01-25-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸˤ methoughts Ȥʸˡ˾ʤȤ̯ư֤ޤʤΤ -s դȤäθǤ
ϡmethoughts νѸ EEBO corpus ȴФƤߤޤʥ󥳡󥹥饤Υƥȥեˡ10ǯߤǤΥҥåȿϡ̤Ǥ

 ALL1600s1610s1620s1630s1640s1650s1660s1670s1680s1690s
METHOUGHTS184   16618377541


15--16ˤ1⸽ʤäΤɽˤϼޤǤ17ꡤȤ櫓Ⱦʹߤʬۤ򿭤ФƤƤޤEEBO ɤΤϤޤǤǤθ18ʹߤʬۤⵤˤʤȤǤ
󥳡󥹥饤įƤȡmethoughts ϼôȤ⡤Ǥɾ (comment_clause) ȤŪѤƤ㤬¿Ȥޤʤ켫Τϡб븽߷ methinks 䤫ưפͽۤޤˡ
ޤmethoughts ζ᤯Ȥ٤ seem ⤤Ĥǧ졤ɾᤫ餵ȯŸơ٤ãƤȤ鵿ۤɤǤ

1676: methoughts she seem'd though very reserv'd, and uneasie all the time i entertain'd her
1678: methoughts my head seemed as it were diaphanous
1679: nay, they so beautiful, so fair did seem, methoughts i took and eat'em in my dream
1695: yet methoughts you seem chiefly to place this vacancy of the throne upon king iames's abdication

Ѹ˾û̿˽ä̯ʤθܤΥޤ

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2024-03-22 Fri

#5443. blow - blew - blown --- űѸ춯Ѳư7 [oe][verb][conjugation][preterite][morphology][phonetics][paradigm][yod-dropping][sound_change][spelling_pronunciation_gap][voicy][heldio]

ε#5442. إ饤ȥϥ¼ŵ7ǡ٤Ͽ֤ĤŤȯס ([2024-03-21-1]) ǡֿ᤯פ̣ư blow θѸǤγѤȤȯ˿줿Ȥ櫓 blew ֤ä /bluː/ ȯդ¥ᤰäơ֤ Voicy heldio Ǥ夲ƤΤǡİ褷ƤС

#1023. new ϡ֥˥塼פ̡֥פ --- ѲȸóȻ
#1025. blow - blew ֥֥롼 - blown
#1026. ʤ now know ȯ㤦Ρ

blow ϸűѸˤƤ϶Ѳư7°ưäƱ7°Ӥ٤ưȤ know, grow, throw 󤲤롥ơѸ know - knew - known; grow - grew - grown; throw - threw - thrown Τ褦 blow Ȥ褯Ѥ򼨤4ưˤĤơűѸǤ4׷ޤȤƤ4׷ʤɸűѸ춯Ѳưξܺ٤ˤĤƤϡ#2217. űѸ춯Ѳư෿ΤޤȤ ([2015-05-23-1]) #42. űѸˤϲθ촴ढä ([2009-06-09-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ

 12ʬ
"blow"blāwanblēowblēowonblāwen
"know"cnā_wancnēowcnēowoncnāwen
"grow"grōwangrēowgrēowongrōwen
"throw"þrāwanþrēowþrēowonþrōwen


1뤤2θ촴첻ܤȡȤȤθűѸǤ /eːɔw/ ۤɤä줬ǯλФơ/eːɔw/ > /eːʊ/ > /eʊ/ > /ˈɪʊ/ > /ɪˈʊ/ > /juː/ > /uː/ Τ褦ѲƤΤǤ롥
ѸǻѤ򤹤뤵¾ưȤơfly - flew - flown; draw - drew - drawn; slay - slew - slain 롥űѸǤ fly 2ࡤdraw slay 6Ǥꡤblow ȤϽ°ۤʤäϤ餯 blow פȤ (analogy) ˤꡤѤΤˤʤäƤΤưϤ줾ȼˤäƤꡤѲεҤǤϹԤʤΤǤ롥

סزˡ١Ѹ11罤۽Ź1985ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2023-06-12 Mon

#5159. Ѹˤ̤ƻϤɽƤ [sobokunagimon][tense][future][preterite][progressive][perfect][verb][aspect][grammaticalisation]

Ѹˤˤƻƥ꡼бɽϤФѲƤ㤨С̤ΤȤؼΤˤɤΤ褦ɽѤƤˤ˱äƤɤäƤߤȡűѸ줫ѸˤƤϸ߻ѤƤѸ줫鸽ѸˤƤ shall/will ʤɤѤŪɽѤ褦ˤʤä
Görlach (100) ϡƥ꡼ᤰѸ˾ѲγάɽˤޤȤƤ롥ʲ˰Ѥ롥

Tense Expressions in HEL by Goerlach



äȤޤȤƻͤˤ줿

Görlach, Manfred. The Linguistic History of English. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-06-01-1]

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2022-11-03 Thu

#4938. ˡϸŪ𲽺ޤǤ [cognitive_linguistics][pragmatics][preterite][tense][mood][aspect][counterfactual][conditional][semantics][pragmatics][politeness]

ε#4937. ˡȯûˤȿ²ۤɽ魯 ([2022-11-02-1]) ˰³ˡΤ⤦1ĤνפˡҲ𤹤롥Ū𲽺 (pragmatic softener) ȤƤƯTaylor (178) Ѥ롥

   The other use of the past tense that I want to consider is also restricted to a small number of contexts. This is the use of the past tense as a pragmatic softener. By choosing the past tense, a speaker can as it were cushion the effect an utterance might have on the addressee. Thus (6b) is a more tactful way of intruding on a person's privacy than (6a):

(6) a. Excuse me, I want to ask you something.
     b. Excuse me, I wanted to ask you something.

Tact can also be conveyed by the past tense in association with the progressive aspect:

(7) a. Was there anything else you were wanting?
     b. I was wondering if you could help me.

   The softening function of the past tense has been conventionalized in the meanings of the past tense modals in English. (8b) and (9b) are felt to be less direct than the (a) sentences; (10b) expresses greater uncertainty than (10a), especially with tonic stress on might; (11b) merely gives advice, while (11a) has the force of a command.

(8) a. Can you help me?
     b. Could you help me?
(9) a. Will you help me?
     b. Would you help me?
(10) a. John may know.
      b. John might know.
(11) a. You shall speak to him.
      b. You should speak to him.


ǽҤ٤ƤʤΤϡʤʲˡ˲Ū𲽺ޤȤƵǽΤȤȤַɤƱ󤶤פȤ褦ˡҲŪʷɰդʪŪΥȤϢưȹͤ롥Υ᥿եλŪ֤ꡤʤֱ󤵡פɽ魯ʷˤҲŪʷɰդžѤȤΤϡʤŬäȤǤϤʤȻϹͤƤ롥

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2022-11-02 Wed

#4937. ˡȯûˤȿ²ۤɽ魯 [cognitive_linguistics][subjunctive][preterite][tense][mood][counterfactual][conditional][semantics][pragmatics]

ʤưβѤȡȿ² (counterfactual) ȤʤΤѸΡֲˡפˤޤḤ̂ϡŤƤ (tense) ȤƤβ򤷤䤹ߤߤƻŪԤ˳֤äƤݤ򵭽ҤˡʷˤȤȤȤˡ (mood) δϡʷˤѤ뤳Ȥˤäơ¤ЪΥƤݡȿ²ۤ򵭽Ҥ뤳ȤǤ롤Ȥ롥Ū٤εΥʪŪ֤εΥȤƤ櫓
ȤƤβǤϤʤȿ²ۤɽ魯ˤĤơTaylor (177--78) μĥ˼򷹤褦

   The counterfactual use of the past tense is restricted to a small number of environments---if-conditionals (1), expressions of wishes and desires (2), and suppositions and suggestions (3):
   
(1) If I had enough time, . . .
(2) a. I wish I knew the answer.
     b. It would be nice if I knew the answer.
(3) a. Suppose we went to see him.
     b. It's time we went to see him.

The past tense in these sentences denotes counterfactuality at the moment of speaking, and not at some previous point in time. (1) conveys that, at the moment of speaking, the speaker does not have enough time, the sentences in (2) convey that the speaker does not know the answer, while in (3), the proposition encoded in the past tense, if it is to become true at all, will do so after the moment of speaking, that is to say, the past tense refers to a suggested future action. There are also a number of verbs whose past tense forms, under certain circumstances and with the appropriate intonation, can convey the present-time counterfactuality of a state of affairs represented in a past tense subordinate clause . . . :

(4) a. I thought John was married (. . . but he apparently isn't).
     b. I had the impression Mary knew (. . . but it seems she doesn't).

These sentences might occur in a situation in which the speaker has just received information which causes him to doubt the (present-time) factuality of the propositions "John is married", "Mary knows". That it is a present, rather than a past state of affairs, that is at issue is shown by the choice of tense in a tag question. Imagine (5) uttered in a situation in which both speaker and addressee are preparing to go to a concert:

(5) But I thought the concert began at 8, does't it?/?didn't it?

The tag doesn't it is preferential in the present tense. In (5), the speaker is questioning the apparent counterfactuality, at the time of speaking, of the proposition "The concert begins at 8".


ȤƤϡѸˤƲˡȯûˤȿ²ۤ̿ɽ魯Ȳ᤹뤳ȤǤ롥

Taylor, John R. Linguistic Categorization. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2003.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-11-03-1]

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2022-03-28 Mon

#4718. ˡľˡ were ˤĤƤޤȤ [be][preterite][subjunctive][hellog_entry_set][hellog-radio][heldio]

ʼȤ YouTube 9ƤޤI wish I were a bird. were Ϥ were Ȥ̤Ρ--СڰʼδѸظإͥ #9 ǤϢươ hellog heldio Ǥ⡤ƤޤΤǡ뤵⤷ޤʾСˡ
YouTube ʤθȾˤǤϡƱ were Ǥ2ĤϤäȰ㤦Ȥ夲ޤI wish I were a bird. If I were you . . . ȤΡֲˡפ were ȡ̤ we were young Τ褦ʾΡľˡפξ were Ȥΰ㤤ˤĤƤǤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤεåǼ夲ƤޤǥǤʲ2ǰäƤޤ

was were --- 2Ĥͣưheldio: 2021ǯ77
֤ʤˡǤ If I WERE a bird Τ褦 WERE ȤΤǤhellog-radio: 2020ǯ104

褽ϿԤƤȤпԤƤΤǤ YouTube Ƥ˹碌ơ Voicy ȤƤwas were δطˤĤƤޤ礦ꤷäޤ



ˡ were ˤĤƤΤ褦˱ѸŪ򤷤Ƥȡष򺣤θʹ I wish I was a bird. was ⤷ʤäƤޤѸؽԤ99% was Τ֥ۤ쥮顼פǤϤʤȻפ⤷ޤ󤬡Ѹ˸ԤȤƤϡĤ were ǤϤʤ was ˤʤäƤΤȤ˸ޤˡǯʾ򤫤ƿषƤΤǤοβ褤Ǥ were/was ˤڤǤȸ櫓Ǥǯ٥äȤƶʳޤ͡

Referrer (Inside): [2022-06-15-1]

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2021-08-01 Sun

#4479. Ե§ưβľܵ¸Ƥ [frequency][suppletion][verb][inflection][be][preterite]

ŪԵ§򼨤Ϲٸ˽椷Ƥ롥ŵԵ§ưǤ롥§Ū -ed դƲ밵Ū¿ưФơԵ§ưϿʤƤŪ٤ι⤤ưǤ롥Ե§Ե§Ȥ go be β went, was/were ʤɤϡ佼ˡ (suppletion) ˤΤǤꡤŵƤʤǤǤʤϡĶٸǤ뤳ȤطƤ롥դλϰʲεǤ夲Ƥ

֤ʤٸˤԵ§ʤȤ¿ΤǤ ʵ729դֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ˤƲ
#3859. ʤˤԵ§ʸݤΤǤ ([2019-11-20-1])
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])
#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])
#3284. be ưü ([2018-04-24-1])

Ǥϡʤ٤ι⤤ưˤԵ§Ѥ򼨤Τ¿Τ (memory) ֤οŪɽ (mental representation) ʤŪǤ롥Smith (1535) βѤ롥

The relationship between high frequency and irregularity has to do with memory in so far as those verbs that are used frequently have strong mental representations such that the irregular past forms are stored autonomously and thus accessed independently of the present stem. Such items are said to have become "entrenched" in storage . . . . On the other hand, a low frequency form does not necessarily have its past form stored autonomously and does not allow for direct access to that past form. Thus, its use in the past involves access to the present stem and rule application . . . .


٤ι⤤ưβϡˤ˻Ѥ뤿ˡΤʤľܥǤФˤޤäƤΤǤ롥go Ȥ߷­ˤ went ˤɤ夯褦Ǥϡ٤Ωʤgo ͳˡľ went ΰФˤɤ夭٤㤤ưǤС߷­ˤơ -ed դȤ§ŬѤη׻⡤ޤΤȤˤʤΤѤ롥ĤޤꡤФ٤˱ľܥȴܥ2ʬƤΤΨŪǤ롥
Ǥϡ-ed դƲ뵬§ưϾ˷׻ȼܥʤΤȤȡɬ⤽ǤϤʤ褦Smith (1535) ǾҲ𤵤Ƥ뤢븦ˤȡƱǤ kneaded needed ︳ԤȯƤäȤŪ٤㤤Ԥ -ed Τۤ٤ι⤤Ԥθ⡤ʿѤƿߥĹȯ줿Ȥϡneeded ΤۤưפǤ뤳ȡ餯ľܤ˵¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ򼨺롥

Smith, K. Aaron. "New Perspectives, Theories and Methods: Frequency and Language Change." Chapter 97 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1531--46.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-02-1]

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2021-05-22 Sat

#4408. ̤ΤȤʤΤ˸߷ɽ魯 [future][preterite][tense][khelf_hel_intro_2021][sobokunagimon]

ֱѸƳ2021ΰĤȤơꥳƥ֤ʤ̤ΤȤɽʸˡ will be going to ¸ߤΤåפޤѤʵ륳ƥĤȤơؤǫ˽񤫤Ƥޤ⤽ư̤ɽȤϲ߷ȤɤۤʤΤ (tense) ȤϲȤä˴ؿϡҤɤ
Ѹ̤ɽȤ will be going to פ⤫Ӥޤ¤̤ɽ魯Τưθ߷Ѥ뤳Ȥ⤢ޤQuirk et al. (4.94) ˤȡѥ4Ĥޤ
1ĤϡṲ̄ǤäƵ뤳Ȥμ»뤵ʪˤϸ߷Ѥޤƥ The meeting begins at 4:30. ưͽǤ̤ѤޤThe plane leaves for Ankara at eight o'clock tonight. Τ褦ʥƱͤǤ˥ХХۤɳŪ Tomorrow is Sunday. ʤɤ⸽߷Ǥcf. Yesterday was Friday.)
2ĤϡعʸˡǤֻǤ̤ΤȤˤ⸽߷ѤפȤǤHe'll do it if you pay him. I'll let you know as soon as I hear from her. ʤɤˤƽ°ưϸ߷ȤäƤޤʤˤ 'll (= will) Ƥޤˡ
3Ĥϡ2;̾ѤؼʸˤƤϸ߷Ѥޤ㤨СΤ褦ƻʸ󤲤ޤ礦You take the first turning on the left past the police station, then you cross a bridge, and bear right until you see the Public Library.
4ĤϡܤΤʤԤǽФƤս˸ڤ硤In the next chapter we examine in the light of this theory recent economic developments in the Third World. Τ褦˸߷Ѥޤ
̤פΤȤʤΤˡָ߷פɽ魯ȤΤϥϥΤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ޤ͡򤷤Ƥ٤פʤȤϡʪŪǧŪ time ʻ֡ˤȸդηޤȤƤ tense ʻˤϡ̤γǰȤȤǤξԤԥäȰפ뤳Ȥ¿ΤϳΤǤɬפʤȤ⤢ȤȤǤˤƤϡtime tense 򥤥ǶӤĤƤʤΤȤǤ
Ѹ̤ɽ˴ؤȤƤϡŪʴʲε⤴

#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])
#417. ʸˡȤϡ ([2010-06-18-1])
#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1])
#3692. Ѹˤϲ2Ĥʤ ([2019-06-06-1])
#3718. Ѹ̤ʤȹͤͳ ([2019-07-02-1])
#2189. ˤ will Իѡ ([2015-04-25-1])
#3693. ˤȤϲ ([2019-06-07-1])

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-07-15-1] [2021-07-15-1]

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2021-05-17 Mon

#4403. δñѸ in English٤Ϣ3֤ʤ go β went ˤʤΡ [notice][sobokunagimon][rensai][verb][suppletion][conjugation][preterite][hellog_entry_set]

οǯ٤˸ƻϤޤäNHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in EnglishפΥƥȤˡѸΥܥʵ˴ؤϢܵƤƤޤɼؤǤ˰פߤƼɮɬפꡤˤȤäƤʤʤβǤƤϱѸˤĶǤؿΤƥȤˤȤäƤߤƤ6ΥƥȤȯޤ3Ȥʤ뺣ϡɬΡ֤ʤ go β went ˤʤΡפǤ

δñѸ in English2021ǯ6



ʤ go β *goed ǤϤʤ went ȤޤäۤʤˤʤäƤޤΤǤ礦üŪС츻ΰۤʤ wend βǤ went Ȥ⤢ go βʤ˳ǤǤϢܵǤѸ줳ФƤޤ󤬡Ūˤ佼ˡ (suppletion) ȸƤФ븽ݤǤɤθˤѻ븽ݤǡȤ櫓Ķٸ¿ߤȤ̤ħޤ佼ˡϰ츫Ի׵Ĥ˻פޤ¤ϸˤŬäƤΤǤϢܵǤϡդפ⤷ޤ
佼ˡ̡Ȥ櫓 go/went 佼ˡˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ͡ʷǰäƤޤΤǡʲ˥󥯤ĥäƤޤ쵤ɤߤεåɤ

#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])
#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])
#4094. ʤ go β went ˤʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-07-12-1])
#3859. ʤˤԵ§ʸݤΤǤ ([2019-11-20-1])
#764. ѸưѤ3Ĥʬˡ ([2011-05-31-1])
#765. 佼ˡϸͤμŪŪñŪʴǰɽ ([2011-06-01-1])
#3254. ٤⤿餹̤̾¸̡ ([2018-03-25-1])
#694. ٸԵ§ʣ ([2011-03-22-1])
#67. ˤ佼ˡ ([2009-07-04-1])
#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])
#2090. 佼ˡ餱ο;̾ηϡ ([2015-01-16-1])
#1580. 佼ˡθ³Ȳǽ ([2013-08-24-1])

Referrer (Inside): [2022-12-02-1] [2022-05-23-1]

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2020-10-04 Sun

#4178. ʤˡǤ If I WERE a bird Τ褦 WERE ȤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][be][verb][subjunctive][preterite][conjugation][inflection]

褯󤻤ѤʵǤ̾θľˡˤǤ I was a bird. ʻĻäˤǤ󸽼ŪʲȤơ֤⤷䤬Ļäġפɽˤ̯ʲѤ If I WERE a bird . . . Ȥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤǶθǤ If I WAS a bird . . . Τ褦ʡ̾Ρ׸ǧ褦ˤʤäƤƤϤ褦ǤŪˤ If I WERE a bird . . . 侩Ƥޤ were ȤϡäʤΤǤ礦ʲβİ



ǤפϡŪˤưγѤ˴ؤľˡ³ˡʡŪˡֲˡפȤΤƤΡˤϡ2ĤΤ˰ۤʤΤȤƶ̤ƤȤȤǤŪʷ֤СľˡǤ I was, you were, he was, we were ʤɤȳѤƤޤ³ˡǤ I were, you were, he were, we were ʤɤȳѡʤष̵ѡˤƤΤǤʥåȤƱ褦ʷ֤Ȥ󤷤ƤȤСΤˤΤ褦˸ΤǤ⤽ľˡ³ˡηϰۤʤäƤȤפǤ
be ưϡ¾ư٤˳ʤ˹٤ǤȤͳǡΡְۤʤפ򸽺ߤޤݻƤȤȤˤޤ󡥵դˤС⤷ be ưʳưǤ⤽Τ褦ʡְۤʤפݻƤΤǤСIf I won a lottery . . . ʤ⤷СġˤʤɤȤɽˤơ won ⸽ԤȤϰۤʤ֤äƤǽ⤤ΤǤ
be ưϤüưȤơ̤˸ŷݻƤȤ櫓Ǥ If I WAS a bird . . . Ȥʤ褿Ƥޤä顤ʬ䤹ϤʤޤǸĤ꤬ǤӤƤΤ褦ǡäȼ䤷ʤȤ뤫⤷ޤ󡥳ϤɤͤǤ礦
Ϣ##2601,3812,3990,3991εåˤޤȤޤΤǡɤ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-01-01-1] [2022-06-15-1]

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2019-10-17 Thu

#3825. quoth 첻 (2) [vowel][verb][preterite][old_norse][phonetics][sound_change][analogy][inflection][spelling_pronunciation]

[2019-10-07-1]εǼ夲ˤĤơĴ٤ƤߤѸ줫Ѹˤơưʲˤ첻ʻˤˤ͡ʤΤǧ줿褦ä <a> <o> ֤줿ΤˤĤơûäΤĹäΤȤ꤬ʸɸŪ quoth /kwoʊθ/ ĹפǤˡ
ˤĤ Dobson (II 339) äƤߤ1򻲾ȡ

It is commonly assumed, as by Sweet, New English Grammar, §1473, that ME quod and quoth are both weak-stressed forms with rounding of ME ă; but they should be distinguished. Quod, which occurs as early as Ancrene Wisse and its group, undoubtedly has ME ŏ < ME ă rounded under weak stress (though its final d is more simply explained from the OE plural stem than, with Sweet, as a special weak-stressed development of OE þ. Quoth, on the other hand, is not a blend-form with a ModE spelling-pronunciation, as Sweet thinks; the various ModE forms (see §421 below) suggest strongly that the vowel descends from ME long_o_with_polish_hook.png, which is to be explained from ON á in the p.t.pl. kváðum. Significantly the ME quoþ form first appears in the plural quoðen in the East Anglian Genesis and Exodus (c. 1250), and next in Cursor Mundi.


ΰѤʤ˲᤹ȡ̤Ȥʤ롥Ѹ衤ñ˴ؤûĹξ¸Ƥ줬ͳ褹ȤϡԤˤĤƤϸűѸ1û첻 (cf. cwæþ) ǤꡤԤˤĤƤϸťΥɸ kváðum Ǥ롥Ҳʻˤ th d ȤˤĤƤ⡤Dobson ͡ʰ۷֤κ硦ƱϡŪʷ³ԤϸűѸ1ͳ褷Ԥ2ͳ褹ˤȤƲᤷȤΩΤ褦

Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 1st ed. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1957.

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2019-10-07 Mon

#3815. quoth [vowel][verb][preterite][verners_law][phonetics][sound_change][analogy][inflection][old_norse]

#2130. "I wonder," said John, "whether I can borrow your bicycle." ([2015-02-25-1])#2158. "I wonder," said John, "whether I can borrow your bicycle." (2) ([2015-03-25-1]) Ǿ줿quoth /kwoʊθ/ ϡ?ȸäפ̣ʸǤ롥1;ñ3;ñľˡΤߤǡʤɤʳη֤¸ߤʤ̯ưǤ롥űѸѸǤϤŪĹ٤ưǤꡤűѸ쥦ȥǤ϶Ѳ5ưȤơ4׷ cweðan -- cwæþ -- cwǣdon -- cweden äʡ#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ȥ cweðan θ촴첻ȤȡθβѲˤ queath ʤɤȤʤϤǤꡤºݤˤη֤16ޤѤƤθѤȤʤäʤ bequeath ʰǾˤ򻲾ȡˡäơߤ quoth θ촴첻 cweðan μβѲη̤ȤϹͤʤ
OED quoth, v. queath, v. 򻲾ȤƤߤȡo 첻ϡNorthumbrian ʤ󥦥ȥˤ߿첻򼨤Ʊΰ۷ͳ褹ȤΤȤطʤˤʣʲѲѤƯƤ褦OED ϡquoth, v. βǼ3Ҳ𤷤Ƥ롥

(i) levelling of the rounded vowel resulting from combinative back mutation in Northumbrian Old English (see discussion at queath v.); (ii) rounding of Middle English short a (of the 1st and 3rd singular past indicative) after w; (iii) borrowing of the vowel (represented by Middle English long open ō) of the early Scandinavian plural past indicative forms (compare Old Icelandic kváðum (1st plural past indicative)); both short and long realizations are recorded by 17th-cent. orthoepists (see E. J. Dobson Eng. Pronunc. 1500--1700 (ed. 2, 1968) II. §§339, 421).


Ѹˤ۷ˤĤƤ MED quēthen v. ⻲ȡڥ󥰤Ȥ hwat ʤ̯ʤΡMED "reverse spelling" ȤƤˤ⸫Ĥꡤ̣Ԥʤ

Referrer (Inside): [2019-10-17-1] [2019-10-08-1]

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2019-10-04 Fri

#3812. was were δط [be][verb][preterite][subjunctive][inflection][verners_law][rhotacism][subjunctive][sobokunagimon]

Ѹˤ be ư줬ŪˤüưǤ뤳ȤˤĤơŪʴ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Dz⤷üŪˤС4Ĥΰۤʤ캬ʤ󤻽ӤȤȤ
be ưζ޷ΤʤǤܤȡw- ǻϤޤ֤Ƥ롥ľˡˤƤϿ;Ρˤä was were ̤졤³ˡʸߤβˡˤˤƤѤ were Ȥʤ롥űѸǤϡΤߤʤ餺߷ wes, wesað wesanʬ wesende ʤɤѤ줿ϸ˿षƤޤä̿βФȤƤϡ#3275. ա wassail ([2018-04-15-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
ơwas were 2Ĥζ޷ϡűѸ줫鸽Ѹ˻ޤǡ;ΡˡˤäƻȤʬʤƤȤˤʤ뤬ʤ s r ǻҲۤʤäƤΤ¤ϡϱѸˤǤϤ褯ΤƤ Verner's Law (verners_law) rhotacism ΤޤΤǤ롥/s/ ϡͭ˰Ϥޤ줿ĶǤͭ /z/ Ȥʤꡤľ˶ʤĶǤ /r/ ؤѲΤǤʳפϡ#36. rhotacism ([2009-06-03-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
was, were ǤȤʤ wesan (to live, remain) ȤưϡŪ˶Ѳ5ưȤʬव뤬ϡָפ̣űѸιٸ cweðan Ʊ񤤤򤹤롥Ԥ4׷ cweðan -- cwæþ 1-- cwǣdon 2 -- cweden ʲʬˤȤʤ褦ˡԤ wesan -- wæs 1-- wǣron 2ˤȤʤʲʬϷ»Hogg and Fulk 246)
ݥȤϡűѸľˡޤˤƤϿ;Ρˤä wæs, wǣre, wǣron Ȥʬ졤s r ¸Ƥ³ˡޤˤƤϿ;ΤǤꡤñʤ wæreʣʤ wæren Ȥ褦 r ʤäǤ롥ľˡ³ˡ̯ʺۤߤˤޤǶƤꡤʤ *If I WAS a bird ǤϤʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤȤȤˤʤʡ#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
΢ߤСۤܤ٤ƤưǤϷŪʶ̤Ƥޤäľˡ³ˡޤˡָˡ׶̤ƤΤϡbe ưˤΤ߻ĤƤ was were λҲΰ㤤椨ʤΤǤ롥űѸ Verner's Law rhotacism ȤäȤѲΤΤʤ뵻Ȥ櫓
ʤ嵭狼Ȥꡤbe ưϤĤƤ12ζ̤ĤͣưǤ롥䡤sing βȤơեޥˤ sang ȸʤ饤եޥˤ sung ȸѸüԤΤäƤ뤬Ϥ̣Ǥ12ʸűѸȤ̤ΤǤϤ뤬˶̤ƤȤʤʤʡ#2084. drink--drank--drunk win--won--won ([2015-01-10-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ

Hogg, Richard M. and R. D. Fulk. A Grammar of Old English. Vol. 2. Morphology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2011.

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2019-08-19 Mon

#3766. ʤ send -- sent -- sent ʤΤ [verb][conjugation][inflection][consonant][tense][preterite][participle][sobokunagimon][degemination]

ɸ bend -- bent -- bent, lend -- lent -- lent, rend -- rent -- rent, wend -- went -- went ʤɤȤȤ˸ -nd -- -nt -- -nt Ȥʤ륿פԵ§ưʤʬˤ̵ -t ΤϡŪˤɬ餫ˤƤʤfeel -- felt -- felt, keep -- kept -- kept ʤɡʬȤ -t 򼨤¾ư줫 (analogy) ˤΤ⤫뤳Ȥ⤢뤬ۤϤ櫓Ǥʤ
Ūˤϡsend βʬ sent ȤʤͳϤʤűѸˤơsendan βŵŪ sende Ǥ sent(en) ˤȯŸʤƱͤˡʬ (ge)send(ed) ǤꡤϤ sent ˤϤʤʤΤäơ -t ϲη̤Ȥߤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ겿ʤηֲˤäƤ⤿餵줿ȤȤˤʤ롥
º -t 򼨤ʬΤϡ13ˤʤäƤΤȤǤ롥űѸǤ3ñ sendeþ (contraction) 򵯤 sent Ȥʤ륱ˤˤäϤޤ3ñǤꡤǤʬǤʤJespersen (33--34) ϰʲΤ褦ˡѤ줿3ñη֤ʬˤžѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ˾öŪͿƤ롥줷ȸ虜ʤ褦˻פ롥ΤȤȤۤʤ

In the send--sent group OE suppressed the d of the stem before the ending: sendan, sende, gesend(ed). I have often thought that the ME innovation sent(e) may originally have stood for sendd with a long, emphatic d to distinguish it from the prs form. This explanation, however, does not account for felt, meant, left, etc.
   There is a remarkably full treatment of Origin and Extension of the Voiceless Preterit and the Past Participle Inflections of the English Irregular Weak Verb Conjugation by Albert H. Marckwardt in Essays and Studies in English and Comparative Literature by Members of the English Department of the Univ. of Michigan (Ann Arbor 1935). He traces the beginning of these t-forms back to the eleventh century and then follows their chronological and geographical spreading from century to century up to the year 1400, thus just the period where the subject-matter of my own work begins. There is accordingly no occasion here to deal with details in Marckwardt's exposition, but only to mention that according to him the first germ of these 't'-forms lay in stems in -nd, -ld and -rd. The third person sg of the present of such a verb as OE sendan was often shortened into sent from sendeþ. On the analogy of such very frequently occurring syncopated presents the t was transferred to the prt and ptc. It must be admitted that this assumption is more convincing than the analogy adduced by previous scholars, but it is rather difficult to explain why the t-forms spread, e.g., to such verbs as leave : left. From the point of view of Modern English Grammar, however, we must be content to leave this question open: we must take forms as we find them in the period with which we are concerned.

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

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2019-06-07 Fri

#3693. ˤȤϲ [tense][category][preterite][future][verb][conjugation][historic_present][sobokunagimon]

ε#3692. Ѹˤϲ2Ĥʤ ([2019-06-06-1]) ơϸˤ (tense) Ȥʸˡ (grammatical category) ˤĤƹͤƤߤ롥
ؿѸؼŵ٤ˤСtense ȤϡưˤŪط򼨤ʸˡƤ򤤤ŪˤϡδطüԤäƤ濴Ȥΰ򸽺ߤȤơ̤ʬפȤ롥
ˤͤݤ1դƤΤϡεǤҤ٤褦ˡ¤ˤֻפȸƤȤƤΡֻפȤϡɬ⤭줤б櫓ǤϤʤȤȤŪˤϡֲפѤƤʤ顤̣ŪˤϡָߡפؤƤ What was your name? ʤɤ㤬뤷εդδطΩŪ (historic_present) ʤˡΤƤ롥Τ褦ʥϥˤߤȻȤбطϡ礦ɸűѸ stān (= stone) ŪˤǤǤʤȤ٤ʸˡ̾ȤȤˤʤäƤ롤ʸˡ (grammatical gender) θݤ˻Ƥ롥ȸƤϡɬб櫓ǤϤʤΤǤ롥ޤɽ塤Ƥ֤ζܡȤиߤȲߤ̤ȤζܤɬϤäȶ̤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤˤդפ롥
ʬˡˤ͡ʤΤ뤬Ѹλ˴ؤƤСŪʴΩ (preterite tense) ȸ߻present tense) ʤ뤤(non-preterite tense) 2Ȥߤ븫򤬸Ť餢롥¾ΥޥʤΤưηѲˤäɸǤΤϡȤ sing ʸ߷뤤ˤФ sang ʲˤʤ츫ȡ̤פǤ뤫Τ褦ˤߤ will/shall sing ưηѲˤΤǤϤʤ顤̤ǧʤȤΩ
̣ŪʴΩĤΤǤСsing, sang Ф will/shall sing ȼλؤƤΤ顤1ĤȤǧ٤Ȥͤ⤢롥ĤޤꡤѸλϡΩˤä2Ȥ3Ȥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ѸλˤĤʤΤϡưΤȤϡФн˻ɸ櫓ǤϤʤ (aspect) ˡ (mood) Ȥä¾ʸˡƤεǽ碌ɸ뤳Ȥơεǽߤ߹äƤꡤ򤭤줤ʬ뤳ȤǤʤȤ𤬤롥
ѸλϡʸˡʤɤŪʬϤƤƤʤ̤ȤäƤ褤ҤȤĽפŪ׸Ȥơ#2747. Reichenbach λ ([2016-11-03-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

⿮ ʸͺ ƽؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1987ǯ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.

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2019-06-06 Thu

#3692. Ѹˤϲ2Ĥʤ [tense][category][preterite][future][verb]conjugation]

ѸˤμȤʤɤǡűѸưλ (tense) ˤϡ (preterite tense)ȸߡʤ뤤˻ (non-preterite tense) 2षʤȽҤ٤ȡɬȤäƤ褤ۤɡ֤Ǥϡ̤ΤȤϤɤäɽ路Τפȼ䤬ʤ롥ѸǤ⡤Ūʴ餤Ѥ餺ȸ߻2Ĥʤˤ⤫餺Ǥ롥äȤСܸˤʥˤ󥿷ˤ2Ĥʤ櫓ǡűѸȤ⸽ѸȤۤʤȤʤѸޤ᤿ޥɤνܸȤϤǤϤ褯ƤΤǤ롥
ŪˤߤСѸŪ˲ (preterite tense) ȸ߻present tense) ʤ뤤 (non-preterite tense) 2λäƤʤäΤϻ¤Ǥ롥ѸǤ̤ΤȤϼȤƸ߷ɽ路ƤΤǤꡤ߻ȶ̤̤̤ȤΤ¸ߤʤäϥޥ˶̤ħǤꡤŪطʤϡ#182. ޥɤħ ([2009-10-26-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) Dz⤷̤Ǥ롥
嵭ϡַŪˤߤСפȤâ񤭤βǤ롥#2208. Ѹư̤ζޤʤΤϤʤ ([2015-05-14-1])#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡűѸ衤will shall ʤɤνưѤŪʱŪˤ̤פƤΤϻ¤ǤꡤγΩλˤĤƤϵΤΡˤΤʳ̤פѸλƤ˲ää뤳ȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤ
Ѹλ2ĤʤΤ3ĤʤΤȤʸˡȤΤǤĹ餯³ƤꡤŪϽФƤʤäȽפϡΡֻפȸˤֻפȤ̤򤷤ƤʤФʤʤȤȤˤäƤϡξԤפƤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤷ɬ⤽ǤʤȤ⤢롥ʤǧˤˤƤϸߡ̤3Ԥ̤뤫Ȥäơʸˡ (grammatical category) ˤƤƱ褦3Ԥ̤Ȥϸ¤ʤΤǤ롥űѸ⸽Ѹܸ⡤3Ĥλ̤ƤΤФǤ2Ĥλ˶̤ƤˤʤΤǤ롥
⤽⡤ˤȤϲʤΤεǹͤ

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2019-05-28 Tue

#3683. ư lie ¾ư lay Ʊ (2) [verb][prescriptive_grammar][conjugation][preterite][participle][lowth]

ε ([2019-05-27-1]) ˰³ư lie ¾ư lay ˤĤơɸѸˤơξԤκƱ֡ŪȤäƤۤ뤵褦ˤʤäΤϡʸˡȤ18θ塤19ʹߤΤȤ18ˤΤ褦ʼ򼬤ʸˡȤɽ꤬ Robert Lowth (1710--87) Ǥ롥
Lowth (56) ϡ#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡľܤˤ2ĤưκƱˤĤƸڤƤcf. #2583. Robert Lowth, Short Introduction to English Grammar ([2016-05-23-1])ˡΤ褦 Pope Ρָѡ򼨤Ĥġ餫ɼԤմ򤷤Ƥ롥

   This Neuter Verb is frequently confounded with the Verb Active to lay, [that is, to put or place;] which is Regular, and in the Past Time and Participle layed or laid.
         "For him, thro' hostile camps I bent my way,
         For him, thus prostrate at thy feet I lay;
         Large gifts proportion'd to thy wrath I bear." Pope, Iliad xxiv. 622.
Here lay is evidently used for the present time, instead of lie.


Lowth ξưκѤ˥ФȤϱѸ˾褯ΤƤ뤬ճȻŦƤʤȤ롥ΰѤʬ̤ꡤξưμ¾ζ̤ȻλȤʬˤĤƤմƤ뤬layed laid δ֤ηֻ֡ɤˤĤƤä뤷ƤͻҤϤʤȤ
Ϣ Lowth ϼư lie Τ˽о줵Ƥսǡ"Lie,lay,lien, or lain" ȳѤ򼨤Ƥ롥ʬɤ줬Ф꤫lien ȤɸŪˤϺ˴֤Τۤष˵󤲤ƤΤäLowth ɤդ˲𤷤ƤͻҤϤޤäʤʸˡܻؤȤͣפǤȤʤСlie Lowth εϤˤ⼫Ƶ˴٤äƤ褦ˤߤ롥
ȽǤˡʸˡ Lowth ܻؤȤϡͣפǤϤʤäȤȤ館٤18εʸˡȤϡФи褦ˤۤɥä櫓ǤϤʤʴƤ򼨤ƤΤǤ롥ʸˡȤɤΤ褦ɾƤ뤤ѤƤȤΤۤäȽפʤΤ⤷ʤ
ºݡǯ18εʸˡȤˤĤƺɾεƤƤ롥#3035. Lowth ϤޤǤиƤʤä ([2017-08-18-1])#2815. 18εϼκɾˤĤ (1) ([2017-01-10-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮꡼13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-04-1]

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