ε#5879. ΰͤ ([2025-06-01-1]) (tense) ˴Ϣ夲ޤĤơ#3693. ˤȤϲ ([2019-06-07-1]) ǻˤĤƹͤȤ⤢롥
ƻȤϲʤΤ긵ˤ International Encyclopedia of Linguistics TENSE ƤߤߤƤߤ褦 (223--24)
Definition
Tense refers to the grammatical expression of the time of the situation described in the proposition, relative to some other time. This other time may be the moment of speech: for example, the past and future designate time before and after the moment of speech, respectively, while the perfect (or anterior) designates past time which is relevant to the moment of speech. Or it may be some other reference time, as in the past perfect, which signals a time prior to another time in the past---as in I had just stepped into the shower when the phone rang, where the first clause signals a time prior to that of the second. The most commonly occurring tenses are past and future; however, perfect tenses are also common, as are combinations of perfect with past and future. Some languages show degrees of remoteness in the past or future: distinctions are possible between past situations of today vs. yesterday, yesterday vs. preceding days, or recent time vs. remote time. Analogous distinctions are possible in the future but not as common. Tense is expressed by inflections, by particles, or by auxiliaries in construction with the verb; it is rarely expressed by derivational morphology . . . .
ǤϡλˤƸɽΤ (224)
Expression
According to the traditional view, tense is a verbal inflectional category expressing time; however, the possibility of tense being realized also by periphrastic constructions is usually acknowledged. There are several difficulties in applying this view to actual languages. First, the semantics of many inflectional categories contain aspectual and modal as well as temporal elements: e.g., perfective aspect in many languages is restricted to past time reference, and future tenses almost always have modal overtones. Furthermore, if a language has several tense distinctions, they often have rather different modes of expression. An example is the past/non-past and future/non-future oppositions of English; the former is inflectional, and the latter periphrastic . . . .
An alternative is to view "tense" as a cover term for those inflectional categories whose semantics is dominated by temporal notions. In inflectional systems, then, the most common tense oppositions are past/non-past and future/non-future. Less common, but by no means rare, are distinctions pertaining to degrees of remoteness, e.g. recent and remote past. At least four or five such degrees can be distinguished in certain systems, but the main remoteness distinction is generally between 'today' and 'not today'.
Tense in finite verb forms normally expresses the relation between the time referred to in the sentence and the time of the speech act (absolute tense); in non-finite verb forms, and sometimes in finite subordinate clauses, tense is relative, expressing the relation between the time expressed by the verb and that of a higher clause. Categories such as perfects and pluperfects, which signal that a situation is viewed from the perspective of a later point in time, have a debated status; they are usually expressed periphrastically, but can also occur in inflectional systems.
ǽ¦̤Τ뤤Ϸ鸫ΤˤäƤȤƤªѤäƤޤ̸ŪˡŪ˴ϢݤƤȤɬפ
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.
ε#5657. Ū have got ȯã (1) ([2024-10-22-1]) ˰³ǤŪȤʤäαŪɽˤĤơ
Rissanen (220) ѸƤʸˤơƱɽȯˤĤƸڤƤ롥
The perfect have got, which is almost a rule, instead of the present tense have, in colloquial present-day British English, is attested from the end of the sixteenth century. The periphrastic form here is possibly due to a tendency to increase the weight of the verbal group, particularly in sentence-final position. The association of have with the auxiliaries may have supported the development of the two-verb structure.
(173) Some have got twenty four pieces of ivory cut in the shape of dice, . . . and with these they have played at vacant hours with a childe ([HC] Hoole 7)
(174) Bon. What will your Worship please to have for Supper?
Aim. What have you got?
Bon. Sir, we have a delicate piece of Beef in the Pot . . .
Aim. Have you got any fish or Wildfowl? ([HC] Farquhar I.i)
νиطʤȤƹͤ2Ƥ롥1ĤϡʣưȤ뤳ȤDZΧŪʡֽŤߡפϤ褯ʤȤȤȤ櫓ʸˤưʲʬˤ got ȸǤϹΧˤʤȤȤϤɤޤǼ¾ڤΤˤʤȤǤ롥
⤦1Ĥϡhave ưȤƿ褦ˤʤäƤˡ got Τ褦̤ư줬³2ʣưȤƵǽ뤳ȤϡŪ˼ʤȤȤƶǤ롥have + ʬפߴλɽ魯ȤΤϡǤѸ̤ΤȤäȤ櫓 have got αȯãƤϤʤѶŪ褦ƶǤϤʤ
17ʰʹߡˤθˤʸ̮ܤĴƤɬפ롥
Rissanen, Matti. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 3. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 187--331.

μͭӥ Mond ˴ƤֱŪ have gotפ˴ؤѤʵˡޤꤪɤߤϤäȾܤĴ٤ʤФʤʤǡϤȤꤢβäΤǤ˹ͤϤƤߤȻפޤ
ǽΰϡĤǤ OED ǤŪ have got ϡOED get (v.) IV ιˡλüˡȤƵҤޤ
IV. Specialized uses of the perfect.
In this use, the perfect and past perfect of get (have got, has got, had got) function as a present and past tense verb, which, owing to its formation, does not enter into further compound forms (perfect and past perfect, progressive, passive, or periphrastic expressions with to do), or have an imperative or infinitive.
In colloquial, regional, and nonstandard use, omission of auxiliary have is frequent in the uses at this branch (e.g. I got some, you got to): see examples in etymology section. An inflected form gots is also sometimes found in similar use (e.g. I gots some, he gots to), especially in African American usage: see further examples in etymology section.
IV.i. In senses equivalent to those of the present and past tenses of have.
Often, especially in early use, difficult to distinguish from the dynamic use 'have obtained or acquired'.
IV.i.33.a. transitive. To hold as property, be in possession of, own; to possess as a part, attribute, or characteristic; = have v. I.i
[1600 What a beard hast thou got; thou hast got more haire on thy chinne, then Dobbin my philhorse hase on his taile.
W. Shakespeare, Merchant of Venice]
1611 The care of conseruing and increasing the goods they haue got, and the feare of loosing that which they enioy.
J. Maxwell, translation of Treasure of Tranquillity xvii. 144
a1616 Fie, th'art a churle, ye'haue got a humour there Does not become a man.
W. Shakespeare, Timon of Athens (1623) i.ii.25
c1635 My lady has got a cast of her eye.
H. Glapthorne, Lady Mother (1959) ii.i.22
1670 They have got..such a peculiar Method of Text-dividing.
J. Eachard, Grounds Contempt of Clergy 113
. . . .
have got ưŪʰ̣ɽ魯ΤξŪʰ̣ɽ魯Τä˽ˤĤƤȽ̤ˤȽҤ٤ƤϤޤ17٤ƤäȤ EEBO corpus Ĵ٤¤ְ㤤ʤǤʤɤΤ褦ʷаޤǤɽ졤ŪˤʤäƤäΤꤷƤɬפޤ
ī Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פۿ#1022. ȡȥ --- khelf ĹڤθơޡǤˤ tautology Ȥϲ"A is A" Τ褦ʰ츫̵̣ʷʤ¸ߤʤФ̣ͭȤʤΤˤĤƤϡkhelfʷѸ˥ե˲ĹڵȤȤ˺äȸƤƤͽǤϤƬФȤݤǤۿǤҤİС
ȡȥˤĤƤϡhellog Ǥϡ#4851. tautology ([2022-08-08-1]) ȤƤǤƳƤޤϱѸ켭ѸΥȡȥλĤƤߤޤ
a beginner who has just started
free gift
He lives alone by himself.
hear with one's ears
helpful assistance
necessary essentials
new innovation
real truth
She is dumb and can not speak.
speak all at once together
the modern university of today
The money should be adequate enough.
They spoke in turn, one after the other.
This candidate will win or not win.
very excellent
widow woman
̣ѡʤɤδ͡ʬǤǤΤˤäƤ periphrasis ʱˡˡpleonasm ʾˡˡredundancy ʾĹˡrepetition ʷ֤ˤʤɤȸƤѤۤŬڤʻ⤢ꤽǤޤͷ (word_play) ȤطƤǤ
ˤäƥȡȥμϰۤʤΤ̸ˤȡȥεȯãϡȡȥθŪǽϡ椬Ƥ֡ꤷΤơޤǤ
ε#4629. Shakespeare 2ӵ顦Ǿ ([2021-12-29-1]) ǡѸεʸˡǤϵƤʤ2ӵ顦Ǿ餬 Shakespeare ˤäƻȤƤ
Ȥϰۤʤ륿פǤ more, most ֤뱪ѤȤ Shakespeare Ǥ -er, -est դѤƤ䡤εդλѻ롥ˤϡǤӵǾˤʤʤŪפʰ̣ķƻ졦줬Shakespeare ǤϤθ¤ǤϤʤäȤ⤢롥 Shakespeare ˤ400ǯλ뤳ȤͤСΤ褦ʰ̣ŪѲäȤƤä٤ȤǤϤʤ
Shakespeare ȸθˡǰۤʤΤ Crystal and Crystal (88--90) 褦
[ ѸǤϱˡShakespeare Ǥ϶ˡ ]
| Modern comparative | Shakespearian comparative | Example |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | ----------- |
| more honest | honester | Cor IV.v.50 |
| more horrid | horrider | Cym IV.ii.331 |
| more loath | loather | 2H6 III.ii.355 |
| more often | oftener | MM IV.ii.48 |
| more quickly | quicklier | AW I.i.122 |
| more perfect | perfecter | Cor II.i.76 |
| more wayward | waywarder | AY IV.i.150 |
| Modern superlative | Shakespearian superlative | Example |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | --------------- |
| most ancient | ancient'st | WT Iv.i10 |
| most certain | certain'st | TNK V.iv.21 |
| most civil | civilest | 2H6 IV.vii.56 |
| most condemned | contemned'st | KL II.ii.141 |
| most covert | covert'st | R3 III.v.33 |
| most daring | daring'st | H8 II.iv.215 |
| most deformed | deformed'st | Sonn 113.10 |
| most easily | easil'est | Cym IV.ii.206 |
| most exact | exactest | Tim II.ii.161 |
| most extreme | extremest | KL V.iii.134 |
| most faithful | faithfull'st | TN V.i.112 |
| most foul-mouthed | foul mouthed'st | 2H4 II.iv.70 |
| most honest | honestest | AW III.v.73 |
| most loathsome | loathsomest | TC II.i.28 |
| most lying | lyingest | 2H6 II.i.124 |
| most maidenly | maidenliest | KL I.ii.131 |
| most pained | pained'st | Per IV.vi.161 |
| most perfect | perfectest | Mac I.v.2 |
| most ragged | ragged'st | 2H4 I.i.151 |
| most rascally | rascalliest | 1H4 I.ii.80 |
| most sovereign | sovereignest | 1H4 I.iii.56 |
| most unhopeful | unhopefullest | MA II.i.349 |
| most welcome | welcomest | 1H6 II.ii.56 |
| most wholesome | wholesom'st | MM IV.ii.70 |
| Modern comparative | Shakespearian comparative | Example |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | --------------- |
| greater | more great | 1H4 IV.i77 |
| longer | more long | Cor V.ii.63 |
| nearer | more near | AW I.iii.102 |
| Modern word | Shakespearian comparison | Example |
| ---------------------- | ----------------------------- | --------------- |
| chief | chiefest | 1H6 I.i.177 |
| due | duer | 2H4 III.ii.296 |
| just | justest | AC II.i.2 |
| less | lesser | R2 II.i.95 |
| like | liker | KJ II.i.126 |
| little | littlest [cf. smallest] | Ham III.ii.181 |
| rather | ratherest | LL IV.ii.18 |
| very | veriest | 1H4 II.ii.23 |
| worse | worser [cf. less bad] | Ham III.iv.158 |
NHK饸ֺ¡δñѸ in Englishפ9ΥƥȤȯȤʤޤϢܤƤֱѸΥܥʵפ6Ȥʤޤϡ֤ʤƻӵˤ -er more ΡפǤ

Ѥʵ֤ȤäƤ褤Ǥ͡ûƻʤ -erĹƻʤ more Ȥ褦˳ФƤ¿ȻפޤäûĹȤΤǤ§Ȥ1Ǥ -er3Ǥ more Ǥ褤Ȥơ2ϤɤʤΤʹȤʤʤǤ͡Ʊ2Ǥ early, happy -er Ǥafraid, famous more ޤϢܵǤϡդʣʻޤơʤ٤פŪƤߤޤɤɤ
֤ȤȤǡܥ֥Ǥ͡ʷǼ夲ƤޤϢܵŪƤޤޤޤɤ
#4234. ʤӵˤ -er ĤΤ more ĤΤȤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-29-1])
#3617. -er/-est more/most --- ӵ顦Ǿκ ([2019-03-23-1])
#4442. 2ηƻӵ -er more ([2021-06-25-1])
#3032. ӤȶӤζάˡ ([2017-08-15-1])
#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1])
#403. ή˵դäƤӵˡ ([2010-06-04-1])
#2347. Ӥȯãˤե졤ƥαƶˤĤơ ([2015-09-30-1])
#3349. ѸˤƻӤζ vs ηװ ([2018-06-28-1])
#3619. Lowth Ф2ӵȲǾ ([2019-03-25-1])
#3618. Johnson ˤӵ顦Ǿκε§ ([2019-03-24-1])
#3615. Ѹ2ӵ顦ǾԸˤʤ ([2019-03-21-1])
#456. Ӥ -er, -est ϶ޤݤ ([2010-07-27-1])
ƻ졦 (comparison) ϡܥ֥Ǥ͡˰äƤѸǤΤ˷ΤĤƤʤӵ餬 -er ʶӡˤ more ʶӡˤȤŪطʤˤĤƤϡ#2346. more, most ѤӤȯã ([2015-09-29-1])#2347. Ӥȯãˤե졤ƥαƶˤĤơ ([2015-09-30-1])#3032. ӤȶӤζάˡ ([2017-08-15-1])#3617. -er/-est more/most --- ӵ顦Ǿκ ([2019-03-23-1])#3703.رѸ춵٤Ϣ4֤ʤӵκ -er more 2बΤס ([2019-06-17-1])#4234. ʤӵˤ -er ĤΤ more ĤΤȤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-11-29-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
ûˤ -er ĤĹˤ more ֤ȤΤ§Ǥ롥û⤢Ĺ⤢2ˤĤƤϡɤ줬㤷Ƥ줤꼰ǤʤºݡʸˡäƤߤȡñ줴ȤˤɤӵηΤ̤ʤΤˤĤƵҤ̯˰ۤʤΤǤ롥ϡҤȤޤ LGSWE 7.7.2 Ȥơ2ηƻˤĤƹͤƤߤ
2ηƻ줬ӵηѤ뤫ϡβŪ礭¸뤳ȤΤƤ롥-y ǽΤˤĤƤϡ-er ̤Τ褦ȡ
angry, bloody, busy, crazy, dirty, easy, empty, funny, gloomy, happy, healthy, heavy, hungry, lengthy, lucky, nasty, pretty, ready, sexy, silly, tidy, tiny
-y ǽƻȤȤǤС餫ƬĤ3ˤʤäƤ⡤ӵ -er Ȥ뷹 (ex. unhappier) Ѹˤδϡ250ǯۤˤϾۤʤäƤ餷Ȥܤͤ (cf. #3618. Johnson ˤӵ顦Ǿκε§ ([2019-03-24-1]))
-ly ǽƻɤ줬㤷褦ǡ㤨 early ӵ earlier ̤likely ˤĤƤ more likely Τ̤ۤǤ롥ۤɤȤƤϡ
costly, deadly, friendly, lively, lonely, lovely, lowly, ugly
ʤɤ롥ƱɤΤȤơʲΤ褦˼岻ǽ2ηƻƤ
mellow, narrow, shallow, yellow; bitter, clever, slender, tender; able, cruel, feeble, gentle, humble, little, noble, simple, subtle; sever, sincere; secure, obscure
ξηɤƤȤȤϡ¾ؤȾ괹ʤǤȤȡĤޤѲκǤ뤳Ȥʳξڤ櫓ǤϤʤʤȤ˼롥ξζ硦ʻ¸Ϥ줳1000ǯۤ³Ƥ櫓ޤ˷ʤ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
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