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semantics - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2025-12-04 Thu

#6065. Take an umbrella with you. with you ˸ִطǽ [notice][sobokunagimon][collocation][polysemy][semantics][mond][helkatsu][aspect][preposition][reflexive_pronoun][personal_pronoun][aspect]

ε#6062. Take an umbrella with you. with you ϤʤɬפʤΤ --- mond ȿ ([2025-12-01-1]) ȡΩ mond Ǥβơ with you ˤĤơ˹ͻ򿼤Ƥߤ롥
βǤϡֻ with you ¿ take θꤹôäƤȲ⤷ֻ¸ߤˤꡤ take ñʤּפǤϤʤֻäƤפ̣뤳Ȥꤹ롥ʸ̮ˤäƤƱͤϲ̤ΤľܸŪ˲̤ΤǤСϤ˾ޤȤե졼ΰ̣ϡǤΰ̣ñ­ǷޤȤ⡤ߤζ (collocation) 켫Τˤäޤ롤ȹͤ롥ϡ¤ŪˤǧθŪˤǧƤª
ơwith you ϡҤΰ̣굡ǽ˿ԤȿȤƲƹͤƤߤȡ¾ˤ⤢ꤽǤ롥1ĹͤΤϡִֶطǽפȤǤ̾դ٤ǽTake an umbrella with me. 㡤ʤֻܿ;̾ʺƵŪˡפȼ¾ʸͤƤߤ褦ʸ Quirk et al. 򻲾Ȥ hellog #2322. I have no money with me. me ([2015-09-05-1]) ƷǤ롥

(1) He looked about him.
(2) She pushed the cart in front of her.
(3) She liked having her grandchildren around her.
(4) They carried some food with them.
(5) Have you any money on you?
(6) We have the whole day before us.
(7) She had her fiancé beside her.

ĤǤϡưΰ̣ꤹ뵡ǽȯưƤȲǤ뤬¿ǺΩĤΤϡŪλؼоݳơŪʶִطĴƤ뤳Ȥ(6) ˤĤƤϡαѤǻִطˤƱʸѤƤȲ򤻤롥(1) ξǤСִط above him Ǥ behind him Ǥʤ about him ʤΤȤ˶ᤤĴε̣롥
ϢƤιʸħŪϡֻζֻ줽ΤΤ;̾ˤʤȤĤޤꡤɽФƤʤ¾ֻȤ椬ռƤ롤ȹͤΤǤϤʤΤȤϡ"Pat felt a sinking sensation inside (her)." Τ褦˿;̾줬ɽФ餷ʤ뤳Ȥ⵿롥
Take an umbrella with you. with you ȡΰ̣굡ǽβˤСּפǤʤּäơ˷ӤƤפȤعʤޤȤΤݥȤäϹ̣ưΥڥȤ˴ؤ뺹߽ۤФȤǤ󿷤ƤִطҵǽȤ̵طǤϤʤषʪŪưΥڥȤϡִط̩ܤʴطˤϤǡξǽΩ̡εǽȤϡϢ³Τª褤Τ⤷ʤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-12-15-1]

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2025-12-01 Mon

#6062. Take an umbrella with you. with you ϤʤɬפʤΤ --- mond ȿ [notice][sobokunagimon][collocation][polysemy][semantics][mond][helkatsu][aspect]

˰³Ƥꡥ轵ζˡ䤬μͭץåȥե mond ƤXʵ Twitter˾Ƕä٤ȿƤǤޤդXΥץå327mond ǤΡ֤͡פ800ǤֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפؤδؿι⤵Ƽ´Ƥޤ
ȤʤäƤΤϡ󤻤줿Τ褦ʼǤ

˱Ѹ򶵤Ȥ椦䤵ޤTake an umbrella with you. with you äƲɬפʤǤ׳ΤˡTake an umbrella. Ǥ̤Τǡwith NP ̤ˤʤ󤸤ʤȻפäƤޤޤ


¤˱ԤǤΤ Take an umbrella. Ǥʸֻ̮äƤʤפΰ̣ȤʤΤǡŪˤ̤Ǥ礦 take ˤϡֻäƤפȤΤ˺ܤäƤ櫓Ǥ顥Ǥϡʤ虜虜 with you Ȥʰ츫ȾĹʡֻźΤʱѸȤΤǤ礦
βγ˿ϡ¿βáפˤޤư take ϱѸǤؤ¿Ǥꡤܵϡ֡ʼˡ˼ (= grab/grasp/seize) ۤɤǤʸ̮ʤ硤ϰ Take an umbrella. ñˡֻ˼ʤפȤᤵΤǤ with you ź뤳ȤǡַȹԡפȤڥŪʰ̣뤳Ȥˤʤꡤֻ̣äƤפ˸ꤵΤǤ I have money. ֤޽⤬פ I have money on me. ֤޽⤬פΰ㤤ˤ̤롤Ѹζ̣ᥫ˥Ǥ
β򡤥եեåAIˤȤƤޤȤƤߤޤŪȡwith you ΰ̣굡ǽ褯ʬȻפޤ


mond_re_take_an_umbrella_with_you_for_infographic_small.png



mond ԤǤϡθŪᥫ˥ˤĤơPass me the salt. ܸư~ƤפȤӤ򤨤ʤ顤ܤ⤷Ƥޤ
with you ˤĤƤϡ̣굡ǽȤڤ⤷ޤۤ˥ڥȡִطҵǽȤǤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤޤϤޤ̤εˤҲ𤷤Ȼפޤ
Ѥʵ䤬˱ѸܼͤƤ뤫ҰʲΥ󥯤 mond ǤΥꥸʥɤǡѸΡ֤ʤפ򿼷ꤷƤС

Take an umbrella with you. with you äƲɬפʤǤ

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2025-08-07 Thu

#5946. ܸˤ³Ȥϡ (2) --- ʬ [japanese][conjunction][terminology][pos][semantics]

ε ([2025-08-06-1]) Ǥϡܸˤ³ (conjunction) ˤĤŪŪʴ鸫Ʊܸʸˡ缭ŵ (387) ˰͵򤷤ợŪʴͤƤߤ褦

̣夫鸫³εǽĤޤɽƤɤΤ褦ʤΤȤƼơԤɽˤɤΤ褦˴طŤʤ³뤫ˤĤƤϡ⤬ФƤ뤬Τ褦̤ΤǤ
ޤȤεȤƸ郎ΩȴطŤ־³פȡȵδطʤñ˲äƸ³³פȤ̤롥־³פϡŪɬȤƤε롤Ĥޤλμ̮ά˱褦褦Ǥ뤳Ȥ򼨤ֽ³סʽܡˤȡŪɬȤƤε̷⤷ơĤޤ꼫̮άΤ褦˵դäƸ郎Ω뤳Ȥɽֵ³סʵܡˤȡΩȤȤʤäƸΩ뤳Ȥɽ³פȤʬ롥ơΤ줾ϡλ֤ΩȤƼ뤳Ȥɽֳפȡλ֤ΩȤƸ³ֲפȤʬ롥³פˤϡİʾλ򡤶Ū¤٤ƽҤ٤Ū³פȻŪˤʤ٤Ҥ٤߲áסİʾλ椫Ĥ򤹤뤳Ȥ򼨤סԤ̤ΤȤФǽҤ٤ƱסԤͳʤɤҤ٤ֲסԤȤϻѤƽҤ٤뤳Ȥ򼨤žפ롥ޤȤƼʸȤȡΤ褦Ǥ롥
A;³
(1)³ʽܡ
ʥ˳顤ǡäơ椨
ʥ˲ʤ顤СȤ
(2)³ʵܡ
ʥ˳ɤ⡤ˡɡɤ⡤Ȥ
ʥ˲ȤƤ
(3)³
ʥ˳ǡ
ʥ˲Ȥ

(1)³ʽܡˡäơ椨
(2)³ʵܡˡȤǤ⡤Τˤ⤫餺
(3)³ȡ
(4)󡡵ڤӡ¤Ӥˡޤ
(5)߲áơĤǡ줫顤
(6)򡡤Ȥ⡤뤤ϡ⤷ϡ
(7)Ʊ󡡤Ĥޤꡤʤ㤨Сפˡפ
(8)⡡ʤʤ顤ȤΤϡâäȤ
(9)žơȤǡǤ


ʾܸ³ΰ̣Ūʬˤʤ뤬򤽤ΤޤޱѸ³˱ѤȤɤΤ褦ˤʤŪʬˤĤʤΤ뤤ϻ𤬰ۤʤΤۤʤ褦ˤפ뤬ͤˤϤʤ

桦 ѡԡˡܸʸˡ缭ŵ١񱡡2001ǯ

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2025-07-25 Fri

#5933. ³ but Ρֵܡ [adversative][conjunction][semantics][pragmatics][presupposition][negative][negation][oximoron][but]

ܸΡ֤ꡤѸ butܤ³ ((adversative) conjunction) ȸƤФ뤬⤽ܤȤϲϱѸ but Ѥɽܤ뤬㤨 A but B ȤȤA B δطܤǤȤϡ̣Τ
Ǥñ˹ͤСA B ̣ŪȿդξˡδطϵܤȤ뤫⤷ʤ̣Ū˸̩ȿդξˤϡbut ΩȤȤ߹蘆줿ɽϡܤȤ̷⡤뤤Ƶˡ (oxymoron) ȤʤäƤޤShe is rich but poor. Τ褦
äơ¿ξ硤but ˤܤɽϡ̣Ū˸̩ȿդȤŪʥȤ٤ʤΤ⤷ʤA 򤹤뤿ɬפ (presupposition) B ǤѤʤȤ A Ԥ뤳Ȥ B ΩʤȤŪʴ顤ܴطȤߤʤΤǤϤʤ
դĤĤȹͤƤԿʤʤΤǡQuirk et al. §13.32ˤäƤߤ

The use of but 13.32
But expresses a contrast which could usually be alternatively expressed by and followed by yet. The contrast may be in the unexpectedness of what is said in the second conjoin in view of the content of the first conjoin:

   John is poor, but he is happy. ['. . . and yet he is happy']

This sentence implies that his happiness is unexpected in view of his poverty. The unexpectedness depends on our presuppositions and our experience of the world. It would be reasonable to say:

   John is rich, but he is happy.

if we considered wealth a source of misery.
   The contrast expressed by but may also be a repudiation in positive terms of what has been said or implied by negation in the first conjoin (cf 13.42):

   Jane did not waste her time before the exam, but studied hard every evening. [1]

In such cases the force of but can be emphasized by the conjunct rather or on the contrary (cf 8.137):

   I am not objecting to his morals, but rather to his manners. [2]

With this meaning, but normally does not link two clauses, but two smaller constituents; for example, the conjoins are two predicates in [1] and two prepositional phrases in [2]. The conjoins cannot be regarded as formed simply by ellipsis from two full clauses, since the not in the first clause conjoin is repudiated in the second. Thus the expansion of [2] into two full clauses must be as follows:

   I am not objecting to his morals, but (rather) I am objecting to his manners.


ɤߡnot A but B ɽˤƤʤ but Ѥ뤫ʬäƤA ŪǡB ϹŪǤȤȿиǤ뤳Ȥܤ³ but ɽ路Ƥ롤ȤȤʤΤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2025-07-22 Tue

#5930. 726ڡˡīֺ¤βƴ1but --- Ĥ¿³פ֤ޤ [asacul][notice][conjunction][preposition][adverb][polysemy][semantics][pragmatics][syntax][negative][negation][hee][kdee][etymology][hel_education][helkatsu][link]


asacul_20250726.png



ǯī㡼󥿡ɶˤơѸˤΥ꡼ֺ¤˰٤٤dz֤Ƥޤǯ٤Υ꡼Υȥ˾äȤԻ׵ĤʱñǤ1˭ˤȴߤñ夲رѸ츻ŵʸҡˤ俷رѸ츻ϥɥ֥åʸҡˤʤɤʸ򻲾Ȥʤ顤Ѹˤ̥Ϥޤ
726ڡˤβϡƴνȤʤޤǽ but ܤͽǤBUTbut ιֺ¤90ʬĤΤǤ礦ޤäۤޤbut ˤޤĤϡ90ʬǤϸ꤭ʤۤ˭Ǥ󤲻Ϥȥ꤬ʤۤɤǤ

but εȯã
but ¿͡ˡ³졤°³졤ֻ졤졤̾졤ư
"only" ̣ but ˡȯãᤰ
but θ
but
but ˤޤĤθѡʤ˴ؤ
but ħŤȤϲ
but ¾³Ȥ

but ֤פȤȤä礦ʤɡΤʤǤޤ󡥤ΤޤʵˡҰ˹ͤƤߤޤ󤫡
ַϡɶǤ̼֤˲ä饤֤ǽǤޤ2ָθƨۿ⤴ѤǤޤԹΤ褤ˡǻäйǤֺ¤ξܺ١ߤīΥڡɤͤΥȥ꡼򿴤ꤪԤƤޤ

ʰʲ嵭2025/07/23(Wed)
ֺܹ¤ͽˤĤƤ heldio ˤ#1515. 726īֺ --- but ˤĤƹͤƤߤޤ󤫡ȤƤäƤޤҤ⤪İ



߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
߷ ͧ ɹ δˡʡ 쵮 ءʹܶϡˡرѸ츻ϥɥ֥å١ҡ2025ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-07-26-1] [2025-07-24-1]

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2025-06-15 Sun

#5893. Ūղû줽켫Τΰ̣ŪǤϤʤŪʤȤ¿ [semantics][restrictive_adjunct][adjective]

ε#5892. Ūղû (restrictive adjunct) Ūղû (non-restrictive adjunct) ([2025-06-14-1]) ǡJespersen ˤ򸫤Ūղû (restrictive adjunct) ⤷ľˡ³Ƥ롥ŵŪŪղûȤʤƻϡ켫Τΰ̣ȤƤŪüŪȤ⡤षŪǤȤݤ츫̷⤷Ƥ褦ˤפ뤬褯̤ͤäƤ롥

Now it may be remembered that these identical examples were given above as illustrations of the thesis that substantives are more special than adjectives, and it may be asked: is not there a contradiction between what was said there and what has just been asserted here? But on closer inspection it will be seen that it is really most natural that a less special term is used in order further to specialize what is already to some extent special: the method of attaining a high degree of specialization is analogous if one ladder will not do, you first take the tallest ladder you have and tie the second tallest to the top of it, and if that is not enough, you tie on the next in length, etc. In the same way, if widow is not special enough, you add poor, which is less special than widow, and yet, if it is added, enables you to reach farther in specialization; if that does not suffice, you add the subjunct very, which in itself is much more general than poor. Widow is special, poor widow more special, and very poor widow still more special, but very is less special than poor, and that again than widow.


̾ղûΰ̣üȡ̤ȤƤ̾λؼоݤϰϤζȿΤ褦ʴطˤʤäƤȤŦˤȤʤạ̈ŪǡǤ롥ҤȤˡ

Jespersen, O. The Philosophy of Grammar. London: Allen and Unwin, 1924.

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2025-06-14 Sat

#5892. Ūղû (restrictive adjunct) Ūղû (non-restrictive adjunct) [adjective][restrictive_adjunct][relative_pronoun][semantics][youtube][yurugengogakuradio][voicy][heldio][notice][terminology]

֤إ饸κǿӤΩ򤱤뤿ˡʸˡؤ١ǴطˡˡȤƤ롥ơ heldio Ǥ#1474. إ饸Ρ֥륷ʸˡפǴطˡˡˤʤäƤޤꤷƤä
ط˸¤餺ñʷƻޤᡤ̾򽤾ղû (adjunct) ˤϡǽŪ礭ʬ2Ĥμब롥Ūղû (restrictive adjunct) Ūղû (non-restrictive adjunct) Jespersen (108) ꡤޤԤˤĤƤɤǤߤ褦

It will be our task now to inquire into the function of adjuncts: for what purpose or purposes are adjuncts added to primary words?
   Various classes of adjuncts may here be distinguished.
   The most important of these undoubtedly is the one composed of what may be called restrictive or qualifying adjuncts: their function is to restrict the primary, to limit the number of objects to which it may be applied; in other words, to specialize or define it. Thus red in a red rose restricts the applicability of the word rose to one particular sub-class of the whole class of roses, it specializes and defines the rose of which I am speaking by excluding white and yellow roses; and so in most other instances: Napoleon the third | a new book | Icelandic peasants | a poor widow, etc.


³ơԤˤĤ (111--12)

Next we come to non-restrictive adjuncts as in my dear little Ann! As the adjuncts here are used not to tell which among several Anns I am speaking of (or to), but simply to characterize her, they may be termed ornamental ("epitheta ornantia") or from another point of view parenthetical adjuncts. Their use is generally of an emotional or even sentimental, though not always complimentary, character, while restrictive adjuncts are purely intellectual. They are very often added to proper names: Rare Ben Johnson | Beautiful Evelyn Hope is dead (Browning) | poor, hearty, honest, little Miss La Creevy (Dickens) | dear, dirty Dublin | le bon Diew. In this extremely sagacious little man, this alone defines, the other adjuncts merely describe parenthetically, but in he is an extremely sagacious man the adjunct is restrictive.


ղûεǽȤ2ब̤ȤϤäƤ⡤줬Ū˶̤Ƥ뤫ȤСɬ⤽ǤϤʤȤդɬפǤ롥

Jespersen, O. The Philosophy of Grammar. London: Allen and Unwin, 1924.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-09-27-1] [2025-06-15-1]

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2025-03-02 Sun

#5788. ׹ͤȸ --- ̣Ӹůؤ [thought_and_reality][semantics][philosophy_of_language][terminology]

Saeed ΰ̣γ "Thought and reality" ꤹ᤬롥ϰ̣ (semantics) ȸů (philosophy_of_language) Ȥ٤Ѹθʸ (p. 45) Ѥʤ顤̤ΤĤѸǧƤ

We can ask: must we as aspiring semanticists adopt for ourselves a position on traditional questions of ontology, the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of being and the structure of reality, and epistemology, the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge? For example, do we believe that reality exists independently of the workings of human minds? If not, we are adherents of idealism. If we do believe in an independent reality, can we perceive the world as it really is? One response is to say yes. We might assert that knowledge of reality is attainable and comes from correctly conceptualizing and categorizing the world. We could call this position objectivism. On the other hand we might believe that we can never perceive the world as it really is: that reality is only graspable through the conceptual filters derived from our biological and cultural evolution. We could explain the fact that we successfully interact with reality (run away from lions, shrink from fire, etc.) because of a notion of ecological viability. Crudely: that those with very inefficient conceptual systems (not afraid of lions or fire) died out and weren't our ancestors. We could call this position mental constructivism: we can't get to a God's eye view of reality because of the way we are made.


̣ҤƤϸؤؤȤơ׹ͤȸ¤δطˤĤƸůؾΩ줬ʣ뤳ȤΤäƤ

Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.Ụ̄γǤ

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2025-02-15 Sat

#5773. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˵ǽˤʬλ [pos][terminology][linguistics][category][semantics][function_of_language][functionalism][syntax]

ε#5772. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˰̣ˤʬϲǽ ([2025-02-14-1]) ǡ1Ĥδ̩ŬѤʻˤĤƹͤϤ᤿³ؿѸؼŵ٤ parts of speech ι˰͵򤷤ʤ顤ϵǽΤߤ˴Ťʻʬ׹ͼ¸Ƥߤ褦

(3) ǽˤʻʬ. Fries (1952, ch. 6) ʻ̩˵ǽˤʬह٤ǤȼĥȼʻʬƤΰ֡εǽϤˤơƱΰ֤ˤĤθˤޤȤ᤿The concert was good (always). / The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly). / The team went there. 3ɽŪʸ (test frame) ȯȤơʸˡ¤ѤˡʸΤɤθΰ֤ˤ뤫ˤäơ4 (CLASS WORD) --- ۤƸ (CONTENT WORD) Ʊ --- ꤷʻȤ
(class 1 word): concert, clerk, tax, team ΰ֤ˤ
(class 2 word): was, remembered, went ΰ֤ˤ
軰 (class 3 word): good ΰ֤ˤ
(class 4 word): always, suddenly, there ΰ֤ˤ
ʳϵǽ (FUNCTION WORD) Ȥ A O ޤ15η (group) ʬդ٤ϡThe poorest are always with us. poorest ϡη֤ɤǤȤΰ֤Ȥ뤷ޤI know the poorest man. poorest ϡ軰ȤΤǤ롥ˡa boy friend a good friend boy good Ʊ軰Τ餫Ǥ롥ä a cannon ball cannon ̾Ǥ뤫ƻǤ뤫εƤʤ̤󤳤ξ cannon 軰Ȥʤ롥͡ʬˤСĤθ줬ĤʻʤʤΤʤĤΤȤˤʤꡤĶˤɤʸ줬뤫ȡ̾Ȥ̾ȤǤʤ1줺ĸ줦뤹٤ƤθʤФʤʤΤ褦ʬˡθ̩˲ͤϤ뤬ʸˡηΤȤƤ;̣Τʤ뤫⤷ʤ


ޤɤʬȻפֵǽפȤϡŪǽפΤȤǤ롥ΤˤϤŪ˰ӤƤ롥Ѥˤ϶Ť餤ؿѸؼŵ٤εҤˤϡʻʬϼˤꡤȤ뤳ȤǧǤ롥ϽפȻפ

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-03-04-1] [2025-02-24-1]

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2025-02-14 Fri

#5772. ʻȤϲ --- ̣Τߤˤ̩ʬϲǽ [pos][terminology][linguistics][category][semantics]

ɸˤĤơ#5763. ʻȤϲ --- ΡָפȸƤǤϥᤫ ([2025-02-05-1])#5765. ʻȤϲ --- Bloomfield θ ([2025-02-07-1])#5771. ʻȤϲ --- ʬ ([2025-02-13-1]) ǵƤ
ʻ (parts of speech, or pos) ȤΤߤȷ᤿ʾ塤˴ŤʬहΤ٥ȤʤΤȤ꤬ʻߤɬפʤȤΤ1ĤΩǤϸ򲿤ʬΤ褤ΤȤ̤䤤ˡεǤϡŪʻʬब̣ǽ֤3Ĥδʣ˵äƤ뤳ȤǧΥСåפȤʤΤǤС줫1Ĥ˴Ť̩ܻؤ٤Ȥʤ롥
Ǥϡ̣ (semantics) ˴Ť̩ʬ򤹤Ȥɤʤ뤫ؿѸؼŵ٤ parts of speech ιǤϡλߤϤޤԤʤƤ롥ʲ˰Ѥ褦 (p. 837)

̣ǽ֤3δΤɤѤƤ褤櫓Ǥ뤬ĤȤ硤ޤΤʬǤ뤫ɤޤˡʬǤˤƤ⡤ʬबʸˡҤͭɤͤʤФʤʤ㤨С̣ʬषƤߤȡʻ֤ζΤ˶̤뤳ȤǤꡤˤ⤷ʬषȤƤ⡤ʬबʸˡҤˤ;ͭפˤϤʤʤǤ㤨Сarrive arrival Ʊʻ줿ȤȡˡˤĤƵҤ褦ȤСʬϡȤᤫؤžȤƤ̵̣ˤʤΤ褦˰̣ʻʬ̵פ顤˵ǽ֤ˤʬबͤ롥


̣ˤʬϡޤǤʤ̣ȤƤϤ˰յΤʻڤȤƤͭפǤϤʤ褦ȤȡʻȤΤϡ⤽̣ؤ;ϤʤȤȤˤʤΤ

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ

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2024-10-26 Sat

#5661. Ȥϲ [negation][polarity][negative][terminology][syntax][double_negative][logic][assertion][semantics]

ε#5670. ʤѸˤñʣζ̤Ρ --- Mond ǤμȲ ([2024-10-24-1]) ǡ (negation) Ǹ˽ФޤˤȤϲϤ礭Ǥؤůؤ뤳ȤǤޤǤϸؤδ˹ʤޤ
ؤѸ켭ŵ뤳ȤϤޤ礦ޤ Crystal (323--24) Ѥޤ

negation (n.) A process or construction in GRAMMATICAL and SEMANTIC analysis which typically expresses the contradiction of some or all of a sentence's meaning. In English grammar, it is expressed by the presence of the negative particle (neg, NEG) not or n't (the CONTRACTED negative); in LEXIS, there are several possible means, e.g. PREFIXES such as un-, non-, or words such as deny. Some LANGUAGES use more than one PARTICLE in a single CLAUSE to express negation (as in French ne . . . pas). The use of more than one negative form in the same clause (as in double negatives) is a characteristic of some English DIALECTS, e.g. I'm not unhappy (which is a STYLISTICALLY MARKED mode of assertion) and I've not done nothing (which is not acceptable in STANDARD English). . . .
   A topic of particular interest has been the range of sentence STRUCTURE affected by the position of a negative particle, e.g. I think John isn't coming v. I don't think John is coming: such variations in the SCOPE of negation affect the logical structure as well as the semantic analysis of the sentence. The opposite 'pole' to negative is POSITIVE (or AFFIRMATIVE), and the system of contrasts made by a language in this area is often referred to as POLARITY. Negative polarity items are those words or phrases which can appear only in a negative environment in a sentence, e.g. any in I haven't got any books. (cf. *I've got any books).


Bussmann (323) ѤޤؤˤФƸؤ򡤼Τ褦˲⤷Ƥޤ

In contrast with logical negation, natural language negation functions not only as sentence negation, but also primarily as clausal or constituent negation: she did not pay (= negation of predication), No one paid anything (= negation of the subject NP), he paid nothing (= negation of the object NP). Here the scope (= semantic coverage) of negation is frequently polysemic or dependent on the placement of negation, on the sentence stress . . . as well as on the linguistic and/or extralinguistic context. Natural language negation may be realized in various ways: (a) lexically with adverbs and adverbial expressions (not, never, by no means), indefinite pronouns (nobody, nothing, none), coordinating conjunctions (neither . . . nor), sentence equivalents (no), or prepositions (without, besides); (b) morphologically with prefixes (in + exact, un + interested) or suffix (help + less); (c) intonationally with contrastive accent (in Jacob is not flying to New York tomorrow the negation can refer to Jacob, flying, New York, or tomorrow depending which elements are stressed); (d) idiomatically by expressions like For all I care, . . . . Formally, three types of negation are differentiated: (a) internal (= strong) negation, the basic type of natural language negation (e.g. The King of France is not bald); (b) external (= weak) negation, which corresponds to logical negation (e.g. It's not the case/it's not true that p); (c) contrastive (= local) negation, which can also be considered a pragmatic variant of strong negation to the degree that stress and the corresponding modifying clause are relevant to the scope of the negation (e.g. The King of France is not bald, but rather wears glasses. The linguistic description of negation has proven to be a difficult problem in all grammatical models owing to the complex interrelationship of syntactic, prosodic, semantic, and pragmatic aspects.


2Ĥβ˴Ťơؤˤ˴ؤվȼΤ褦ˤʤǤ礦

1. μϰ
ʸ (sentence negation)
(clausal negation)
(constituent negation)
2. μ¸ͼ
Ū (lexically): 졤̾졤³졤ֻʤ
Ū (morphologically): Ƭ
Ū (intonationally): оȥ
Ū (idiomatically): ɽ
3. ηŪʬ
Ūʶ (internal/strong negation)
Ūʼ夤 (external/weak negation)
оŪʶɽŪ (contrastive/local negation)
4. κѰ (scope)
꼭ΰ֤ˤƶ
ʸˤƶ
ŪŪʸ̮ˤƶ
5. 2 (double negative)
ɸѸǤλ
ʸŪͭɸʹɽȤƤλ
6. (polarity)
(positive/affirmative) vs. (negative)

7. ˴ؤŪΧỤ̄ŪŪ¦̤ʣߴط
8. Ūΰ㤤

ΰϡʣ¿򼨤ƤޤƤꡤȴʤʤǤ

Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-10-20 Sun

#5655. 2°ɽ a friend of mine ʬˡƱˡ [double_genitive][genitive][syntax][semantics][apposition]

Ϣ a friend of mine Υפ2° (double_genitive) ɽܤƤ롥

#5647. a friend of mine --- 2°ʡ ([2024-10-12-1])
#5653. 2°ɽ a friend of mine 2Ĥΰ̣Ūħ ([2024-10-18-1])
#5654. a friend of mine vs. one of my friends ([2024-10-19-1])

of mine ̤Ƥ뵡ǽˤĤơʬˡ (partitive) ȸƱˡ (appositive) ȸäԤǤ "a friend of my friends" ȡԤǤ "a friend, who is mine" ȥѥե졼Ǥ롥Ԥβ򤤤֤פ⤢뤫⤷ʤε ([2024-10-19-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 "this hand of mine" Τ褦ɽˤԹ礬褤
ػ˾塤2ĤβᤰäƵʤƤ㤨 Jespersen §194 [pp. 173--74]) ϡʬˡȤĤĤ⡤ƱˡˤڤƤ롥ΤȤƻڤΰʲ˰Ѥ褦

194. Speaking of the genitive, we ought also to mention the curious use in phrases like 'a friend of my brother's'. This began in the fourteenth century with such instances as 'an officere of the prefectes' (Chaucer G 368), where officers might be supplied (= one of the prefect's officers) and 'if that any neighebor of mine (= any of my neighbours) Wol nat in chirche to my wyf enclyne' (ib. B 3091). In the course of a few centuries, the construction became more and more frequent, so that it has now long been one of the fixtures of the English language. A partitive sense is still conceivable in such phrases as 'an olde religious unckle of mine' (Sh.. As III, 3, 362) = one of my uncles, though it will be seen that it is impossible to analyse it as being equal to 'one of my old religious uncles'. But it is not at all certain that of here from the first was partitive; it is rather to be classed with the appositional use in the three of us = 'the three who are we'; the City of Rome = 'the City which is Rome'. The construction is used chiefly to avoid the juxtaposition of two pronouns, 'this hat of mine, that ring of yours' being preferred to 'this my hat, that your ring', or of a pronoun and a genitive, as in 'any ring of Jane's', where 'any Jane's ring' or 'Jane's any ring' would be impossible; compare also 'I make it a rule of mine', 'this is no fault of Frank's', etc. In all such cases the construction was found so convenient that it is no wonder that it should soon be used extensively where no partitive sense is logically possible, as in 'nor shall [we] ever see That face of hers againe' (Shakespeare, Lear I, 1, 267), 'that flattering tongue of yours' (As IV, 1, 195), 'If I had such a tyre, this face of mine Were full as lovely as is this of hers' (Gent. IV, 4, 190), 'this uneasy heart of ours' (Wordsworth), 'that poor old mother of his', etc. When we now say 'he has a house of his own', no one could think of this as meaning 'he has one of his own houses'.


2°ʤϡʬˡ򵯸Ȥʤ⡤ˤ椫ƱˡȯãƤ褦ˤߤ롥ԤȯãηϲäΤ夯路Ĵ٤Ƥ

Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982 [1905].

Referrer (Inside): [2024-10-21-1]

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2024-10-19 Sat

#5654. a friend of mine vs. one of my friends [double_genitive][genitive][syntax][determiner][definiteness][number][semantics][pragmatics]

ε#5653. 2°ɽ a friend of mine 2Ĥΰ̣Ūħ ([2024-10-18-1]) ˰³double_genitive 뤤 post-genitive ΰ̣롥 a friend of mine ȤɽȤ one of my friends Ȥΰ̣Ūʺۤ뤫ɤܤ롥
Quirk et al. (17.46) ˤСξɽ̾Ʊʸ̮ˤäƤϰۤʤް (entailment) ӤӤȤ

The two constructions a friend of his father's and one of his father's friends are usually identical in meaning. One difference, however, is that the former construction may be used whether his father had one or more friends, whereas the latter necessarily entails more than one friend. Thus:

Mrs Brown's daughter[8]
Mrs Brown's daughter Mary[9]
Mary, (the) daughter of Mrs Brown[10]
Mary, a daughter of Mrs Brown's[11]


[8] implies 'sole daughter', whereas [9] and [10] carry no such implication; [11] entails 'not sole daughter'.
   Since there is only one composition called the War Requiem by Britten, we have [12] but not [13] or [14]:

The War Requiem of/by Britten (is a splendid work.)[12]
*The War Requiem of Britten's[13]
*One of Britten's War Requiems[14]


̯ʰ㤤褦Ƕ̣ȤǺǸ˽Ҥ٤ƤӺεǿ줿ħˤȿ㤬롥㤨 "that wife of mine", "this war Requiem of Britten's", "this hand of mine", "the/that daughter of Mrs Brown's", "that son of yours" ʤɤ
Quirk et al. ϡ򼡤Τ褦롥"this hand of mine" ϡǤ "this one of my (two) hands" ΰ̣ǤϤʤ "this part of my body that I call 'hand'" ΰ̣Ǥ롥ޤԤʸ̮ǰ "a daughter of Mrs Brown's" ƤС򻲾Ȥݤ "the/that daughter of Mrs Brown's (that I mentioned)" ۤɤΰ̣ǻȤ뤳Ȥ롥ˡŪŪʰ̣礤 "that son of yours" ʤɤȤ⤢롥Ĥޤꡤ㳰Ū˷줬դ륱Ǥϡ餫Ρʰ̣ŪǤʤ˸ŪʴްդäƤȤȤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1] [2024-10-20-1]

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2024-10-18 Fri

#5653. 2°ɽ a friend of mine 2Ĥΰ̣Ūħ [double_genitive][genitive][syntax][definiteness][semantics]

#5647. a friend of mine --- 2°ʡ ([2024-10-12-1]) ³double_genitive 뤤 post-genitive ȸƤФ롤̯ɽΰ̣ŪħͤƤߤ
Quirk et al. (17.46) ˤа̣Ūħ2Ĥ롥(1) of θ̾礬Ū (definite) Ǥʹ (human) Ǥ뤳ȡ(2) of Ū (indefinite) Ǥ뤳Ȥ

. . . It will be observed that the postmodifier must be definite and human:

an opera of Verdi'sBUT NOT: *an opera of a composer's
an opera of my friend'sBUT NOT: *a funnel of the ships


There are conditions that also affect the head of the whole noun phrase. The head must be essentially indefinite: that is, the head must be seen as one of an unspecified number of items attributed to the postmodifier. Thus [1--3] but not [4]:

A friend of the doctor's has arrived.[1]
A daughter of Mrs Brown's has arrived.[2]
Any daughter of Mrs Brown's is welcome.[3]
*The daughter of Mrs Brown's has arrived.[4]


As a consequence of the condition that the head must be indefinite, the head cannot be a proper noun . . . . Thus while we have [5], we cannot have [6] and [7]:

Mrs Brown's Mary[5]
*Mary of Mrs Brown[6]
*Mary of Mrs Brown's[7]


ʤۤ a friend of mine Υפ2°ɽγǤꡦ (definiteness) δʬϤȡ嵭2Ĥħ뤳ȤϤ狼äͤƤߤСɽǤ one of my friends ˤĤƤƤϤޤ̣ŪħǤ롥2ɽ̣Ū˰ۤʤʤȤС¸ƤյϲʤΤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-10-20-1] [2024-10-19-1]

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2024-09-28 Sat

#5633. ƻʸȤ to 줬³7ĤΥ --- Quirk et al. [adjective][complementation][infinitive][syntax][construction][semantics][helmate][helwa]

Quirk et al. (1226--27; §16.75) ˡ"Adjective complementation by a to-infinitive clause" ꤹब롥

We distinguish seven kinds of construction in which an adjective is followed by a to-infinitive clause. They are exemplified in the following sentences, which are superficially alike:

  (i) Bob is splendid to wait.
 (ii) Bob is slow to react.
(iii) Bob is sorry to hear it.
 (iv) Bob is hesitant to agree with you.
  (v) Bob is hard to convince.
 (vi) The food is ready to eat.
(vii) It is important to be accurate.

In Types (i--iv) the subject of the main clause (Bob) is also the subject of the infinitive clause. We can therefore always have a direct object in the infinitive clause if its verb is transitive. For example, if we replace intransitive wait by transitive build in (i), we can have: Bob is splendid to build this house.
   For Types (v--vii), on the other hand, the subject of the infinitive is unspecified, although the context often makes clear which subject is intended. In these types it is possible to insert a subject preceded by for; eg in Type (vi): The food is ready (for the children) to eat.


ιʸɽŪˤϡַƻ + to פƱͤ줾˸ͭỤ̄Ūħ롥ĴǤϤ뤬餯Ūȯãηϩߤ礭ۤʤΤ¿
ܲ helwa ꥹʡʤ Discord αѸ˥ߥ˥ƥˤ֥̥ޤ롪ʸˡץͥˤơHe is sure to win the game. Τ褦ʹʸȤʤäƤ롥Ρsure + to פιʸϡQuirk et al. ˤ (iv) פ°Ȥɬ⤿䤹ʤ

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

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2024-09-01 Sun

#5606. 8θȾMond 3Ѥʵ˲ޤ [mond][sobokunagimon][hel_education][notice][link][helkatsu][superlative][prefix][semantics][antonymy][gender]

mond_20240828.png



9Ϥޤޤ814ε#5588. Mond 5Ѥʵ˲ޤ ([2024-08-14-1]) θ塤8Ⱦμͭӥ Mond ˤ3Ѥʵ (sobokunagimon) 夲ޤǶΤΤ̤äƥ󥯤ĥޤ

(1) ǾѤɽǡamong Ǿפone of ǾפޤȤŬڤɽɤ٤Ǥ礦
(2) disprove dis- ϤɤΤ褦ʰ̣Ǥ礦
(3) 衼åѤθˤ̾̾ʤɤޤ̾뤳ȤϡؾɤΤ褦ʥåȤΤǤ礦

ⶽ̣Ǥޤ (1) ˤĤơܸǤϡֺǤʡפϸ§Ȥ1Ĥʤ򤵤뤿ᡤѸΡֺǤʤΤ1ġפȤɽ̣ʤ褯ƤĴˤǤɤͤФ褤ΤȤ䤤Ǥ⤫ĤȤΤǤΤǡ̤äƤߤޤ
(2) Ƭ dis- ¿ǤǽŪˤϡȿСפפȤäƤ͡Ǥ͡ȤʤΤǤԤ¡ʤռ졤⥿ޤ⤷Ȼפޤ
(3) ˤĤƤϡʸˡ (grammatical gender) ˴ؤǡMond Ǥ⤹Ǥ˲٤夲ƤȥԥåǤμϡָŪʵǽϲפȤƧ߹ΤäΤDzƻͤƤߤޤ
ּפΥϤϤ٤ʤΤʤȡ´ޤԤ٤ΡֱѸ˴ؤѤʵפԤƤޤ

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2024-08-23 Fri

#5597. ȤФΰ̣ [semantics][terminology][cognitive_linguistics]


 ĤߡؤȤФγؽΥѥɥå١˼2024ǯ



ĤߡˡؤȤФγؽΥѥɥå١˼2024ǯˤꡤ̣ǤФнв (extension) (intension) ȤѸƳ

֤ȤФΰ̣פˤ2Ĥνפ¦̤롥ֳ (extension) ȡ (intension) Ǥ롥ȤФϡʪݡưط°ʤɤֻؼ (refer) ΤǤ뤬ؼо (referent) νޤֳפȤֳפ϶Ρ֥ƥ꡼פƱǤ롥ֶΡפȤ񤭤ĤΤϡΡ֥ƥ꡼פȤϹ̣ǤϻνȤƿͤߤʤΤʤ鲿Ǥ褯ɬ⤳ȤФؤؼʪνǤʤƤ褤äʸҲŪ˰̣ΤǤʤƤ褤Ǥ롥
פϡֳפ񤷤ñ˸äƤޤСפϻؼоݤȤʤΤɤΤ褦°ؼоݤˤʤʤʪȤɤˤưۤʤ뤫μǡˤäƿͤϡ㤬ΤȤФλؼоݤȤʤ뤫ɤꤹ롥ŵỤ̄Ǥϡϳꤹ뤿ɬפˤƤĽʬʺǾοΰ̣ (semantic features) νȹͤƤ (Katz & Fodor, 1963)ǤϡפȤϡƥ꡼ˤɤΤ褦°ꡤ줬ߤˤɤΤ褦ʴطˤΤƥ꡼ˤȤäƤɤ٤ν뤫ʤɤˤĤƤμǤꡤ¤줿Ūɽݤȹͤ롥
ޤɮԤϡפȤɬŪ˵ҤǤ롤֤Фס­ܤפʤɤ°˸¤ʤȻפäƤ롥ȤСγŪʥ᡼뤤ϺǶ褯ǧοؤǤ֥᡼ޡ (Lakoff, 1987; Langacker, 1987) Τ褦ʤΤΰǤ⤢ȻפȤС֡פȤȤФǤ뤫Ū°ǵҤΤϤۤȤԲǽǤ롥ͤϡ֡פγŪˤɤǤ뤫ˡ֡פμդο֥󥸡פ֥ԥ󥯡פɤΤ褦ʿǤ뤫Υ᡼äƤꡤŪ᡼˾Ȥ餷ơλ㤬֡פǤ뤫ʤ뤳ȤǤ롥ξ硤γŪ᡼ΩɤʡפǤȻפ롥פ϶Ρֳǰ (concept) ΤȹͤɤֳǰפȤȤФ֥ƥ꡼פƱ¿Ūǡˤϡμ̡פؤѤ⤢롥ʺ桤21--23ǡ


ˤ⤢̤ꡤʿСֳפϡ֥ƥ꡼פȡפϡֳǰפȤȤ館Ƥ褤Ѹ켫Τ¿ǤΤ̣ǤϤȤ櫓ֳǰפȤϲȤƤˤĤƤϡʲε򻲾Ȥ줿

#1957. Ụ̄ǧΰ̣ˤ복ǰ ([2014-09-05-1])
#2808. Jackendoff γǰ̣ ([2017-01-03-1])
#1931. ǰỤ̄ ([2014-08-10-1])

ĤߡؤȤФγؽΥѥɥå١˼2024ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-07-18 Thu

#5561. ǥȤϲ [idiom][terminology][collocation][semantics][syntax]



Voicy heldio #1139. ǥȥǥಽ --- ¼Ȥ with ϽؤϤޤԤƬˤޤ⤽ǥ (idiom) ȤϲʤΤǤ礦
嵭ۿǤ⻲Ȥ (33--34) ˤȡǥϼ̤Ǥ

ǥȤƤϡ̣塤δ˾Ȥ餷碌ơΤ褦ħ碌Τȸ롧
(i) ̣ŪƩ뤤 (non-compositionality)ǥΰ̣Ϥʬ¤ФƤʤ褯ΤƤȤơ
kick the bucket = die

(ii) ѷʤʤChafe (1968) θ 'transformational deficiency' Ǥ롥Υǥϡֻ̡פȤ̣ǤϼưԲĤǤ롧
*The bucket was kicked by Sam.
(iii) ǥʬθŪѤϤǤʤʤָŪ̵פǤ롥
have a crush on *have a smash on
Numberg et al. (1994) ϥǥỤ̄ʬʬۤƤʤǥ㡧saw logs = snoreˤ 'idiomatic phrase'ƥǥỤ̄ʬʬۤƤ륤ǥ㡧spill the beans = divulge the information) 'idiomatic combination' ȸƤӡʬƤ롥


ɽǥफɤȤΤϡ嵭ξ狼ͽۤ褦˼ưŪˡ뤤ϥƥꥫ˷ޤ褦ʪǤϤޤ󡥥ǥ (idiomaticity) ȤϢ³ΤγǰǰƬ֤ɬפꤽǤ

¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
Chafe, Wallace. "Idiomaticity as an Anomaly in the Chomskyan Paradigm." Foundations of Language 4 (1968): 107--27.
Numberg, Geoffrey, Ivan A. Sag and Thomas Wasow. "Idioms." Language 70 (1994): 481--538.

Referrer (Inside): [2025-01-01-1]

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2024-06-30 Sun

#5543. syntagmatic contamination paradigmatic contamination [language_change][analogy][folk_etymology][contamination][assimilation][numeral][collocation][semantics][antonymy]

Ѳ (language_change) δŪʸưϤ1ĤǤ (analogy) ˴ؤܳŪʸFertig Analogy and Morphological Change ˤĤƤεǼ夲Ƥ
Fertig 򻲾Ȥcontamination ʺˤȸƤФ륿פѤˤĤƹͤƤߤֺפȤμդθݤΤʬ뤫ɤˤĤƤϵꡤ#5419. blending contamination ([2024-02-27-1]) ǤϢ夲ҤȤޤ contamination ̤ǤΤ򤷡Τʤ2ĤΥפȤƳsyntagmatic contamination paradigmatic contamination Ǥ롥ȤȤ Fertig δϢսѤ (64)

   Paul's initial conception of contamination (1886) involved influence attributable exclusively to paradigmatic (semantic) relations between forms, but he later (1920) recognized that lexical contamination often involves items that are not only semantically related but also frequently occur in close proximity in utterances. The importance of these syntagmatic relationships is emphasized in almost all modern accounts of contamination (Campbell 2004: 118--20 being the only exception that I am aware of). The most frequently cited examples involve adjacent numerals, which often influence each other's phonetic make-up: English eleven < Proto-Gmc. *ainlif under the influence of ten; Latin novem 'nine' instead of expected *noven under the influence of decem 'ten'; Greek dialectal hoktō 'eight' under the influence of hepta 'seven' (Osthoff 1878b; Trask 1996: 111--12; Hock and Joseph 2009: 163). Similar effects are attested in a number of languages among days of the week and months of the year, e.g. post-classical Latin Octember < Octōber under the influence of November and December.
   Such contamination attributable to syntagmatic proximity of the affecting and affected items is often characterized as distant assimilation. Some scholars characterize contamination as a kind of assimilation even when it is purely paradigmatically motivated. Anttila calls it 'assimilation . . . toward another word in the semantic field' (1989: 76). Andersen (1980: 16--17) explicitly distinguishes such 'paradigmatic assimilation' from the more familiar 'syntagmatic assimilation'. As an unambiguous example of the latter, he mentions the influence of one word on another within a formulaic expression, such as French au fur et à mesure 'as, in due course' < Old French au feur et mesure (Wackernagel 1926: 49--50). Contamination involving antonyms, such as Late Latin sinexter < sinister 'left' under the influence of dexter 'right' or Vulgar Latin grevis < gravis 'heavy' under the influence of levis 'light', could be both paradigmatically and syntagmatically motivated since antonyms frequently co-occur in close proximity within an utterance, especially in questions: Is that thing heavy or light? Should I turn right or left? Wundt's view of paradigm leveling as a type of assimilation should also be mentioned in this context (Paul 1920: 116n 1).


syntagmatic contamination paradigmatic contamination 2̤ƤȤϡŪˤϽפºŪˤξԤϸߤ˾Ƥꡤʬ̤񤷤ΤǤϤʤȻפ롥paradigmatic ʴطˤ2Ԥ syntagmatic ˤ and ʤɤ³ǷФ뤳Ȥ¿դ syntagmatic ˶䤹2Ԥ paradigmatic ˤ̣Ū˶Ǥ˷ӤĤƤΤ̤
ġλ㤬줫Υפ contamination Ǥ뤳ȤǤΤɤ뤤ϤǤȤƤ⡤ȽǤƤ褤ϲȤ꤬ĤäƤ褦˻פ롥

Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.

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2024-04-06 Sat

#5458. ˤۤʤª [subject][terminology][semantics][syntax][logic][case][generative_grammar]

ε#5457. ᤰ ([2024-04-05-1]) ³̤θѸ켭ŵ (subject) ιܤƤߤ褦Crystal Ѹ켭ŵѤ롥

subject (n.) (S, sub, SUB, Subj, SUBJ) A term used in the analysis of GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS to refer to a major CONSTITUENT of SENTENCE or CLAUSE structure, traditionally associated with the 'doer' of an action, as in The cat bit the dog. The oldest approaches make a twofold distinction in sentence analysis between subject and PREDICATE, and this is still common, though not always in this terminology; other approaches distinguish subject from a series of other elements of STRUCTURE (OBJECT, COMPLEMENT, VERB, ADVERBIAL, in particular. Linguistic analyses have emphasized the complexity involved in this notion, distinguishing, for example, the grammatical subject from the UNDERLYING or logical subject of a sentence, as in The cat was chased by the dog, where The cat is the grammatical and the dog the logical subject. Not all subjects, moreover, can be analyzed as doers of an action, as in such sentences as Dirt attracts flies and The books sold well. The definition of subjects in terms of SURFACE grammatical features (using WORD-ORDER or INFLECTIONAL criteria) is usually relatively straightforward, but the specification of their function is more complex, and has attracted much discussion (e.g. in RELATIONAL GRAMMAR). In GENERATIVE grammar, subject is sometimes defined at the NP immediately DOMINATED by S. While NP is the typical formal realization of subject, other categories can have this function, e.g. clause (S-bar), as in That oil floats on water is a fact, and PP as in Between 6 and 9 will suit me. The term is also encountered in such contexts as RAISING and the SPECIFIED-SUBJECTION CONDITION.


ѡȤ McArthur εҤȽŤʤäƤʬ⤢뤬 Crystal εҤϡäΩĸ˱Ƽªۤʤ뤳Ȥ褯ʬ롥طʸˡǤϼβ̤ǽܤƤꡤʸˡǤϤ⤽ȤѸѤʤ餿ƼȤʸˡ˴ŤˤѸǤꡤƤδˤøŬڤ餳ѤƤΤȤȤʬ롥

Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.

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