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semantics - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2016-07-31 Sun

#2652. ʣ̾ΰ̣Ūʬ [compound][word_formation][morphology][terminology][semantics][hyponymy][metonymy][metaphor][linguistics]

#924. ʣʬ ([2011-11-07-1]) ʣ (compound) ʬ򼨤ʣ̾˸¤ꡤỊ̇δʬहȡ(1) endocentric, (2) exocentric, (3) appositional, (4) dvandva 4ʬ롥Bauer (30--31) ˰͵򤷡ơ⤷褦

(1) endocentric compound nouns: beehive, armchair Τ褦ˡʣ̾줬ʸˡŪʼ (hive, chair) β̸ (hyponym) ȤʤäƤ㡥beehive hive ΰǤꡤarmchair chair ΰǤ롥
(2) exocentric compound nouns: redskin, highbrow Τ褦㡥(1) 褦ʣ̾줬ʸˡŪʼβ̸ˤʤäƤ櫓ǤϤʤredskin skin ΰǤϤʤhighbrow brow ΰǤϤʤषɽƤʤ̣ŪʼʤǤ "person" ۤɡˤβ̸ȤʤäƤΤħǤ롥äơmetaphor metonymy ͿΤ̤Ǥ롥ΥפϡSanskrit ʸˡѸȤäơbahuvrihi compound ȤƤФ롥
(3) appositional compound nouns: maidservant तʣ̾ϡ1Ǥβ̸Ǥ⤢ꡤ2Ǥβ̸Ǥ⤢롥maidservant maid ΰǤꡤservant ΰǤ⤢롥
(4) dvandva: Alsace-Lorraine, Rank-Hovis त줬ʸˡŪʼ׸줬ȽȤ2Ĥ蘆äΤؼΡʣ̾ϡǤβ̸ǤȤ⤤ʤdvandva Ȥ̾Τ Sanskrit ʸˡѸ줫Ƥ뤬ѸǤ 'copulative compound ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥

Bauer, Laurie. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: CUP, 1983.

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2016-07-17 Sun

#2638. Ƭ dis- [affixation][prefix][word_formation][derivation][etymology][semantics][polysemy]

Ƭ dis- ˤĤơμݤμ䤬󤻤줿ưղä줿 disable ƻղä줿 dishonest ʤɤˤߤ褦ˡdis- ȿẓ̌뤳Ȥ¿solve ФƬղä줿 dissolve ˤϤΤ褦ʴްդʤΤϤʤʤΤΤˡΤθϸ츻ҤȤФ켫Τϲ򤹤פäΤǤꡤdis- ղäΰ̣ˤȿžδްդϤʤ
ޤܼΰ̣ˤĤȤ٤Ȥϡ̾ñƱͤ¿ΤΤ¿ (polysemy) ͭƤȤȤơƤ¿1Ĥθ̣Ÿ̤Ǥ롥Ƭ dis- ˤĤƤСΤ˼פʰ̣ϡȿžספۤɤȻפ뤬ǤƥʤӥꥷˤǤƱƬθϡ2ĤءפۤɤǤ롥츻Ūˤϥƥ duo (two) ȴϢθŤ *dvis äꤵ롥Ĥޤꡤ2ĤؤΡʬΥפǤ롥discern, disrupt, dissent, divide ʤɤˤΰ̣򸫤Ƽ뤳ȤǤƬλҲϡΤȤ³ˤüѷꤹ뤳Ȥˡס̡פΰ̣ȯŸdijudicate, dinumerate ʤɤʬΥפåסַǡפΤϼǤꡤˤסȿСפΰ̣ȯŸȤ⡤礭ǤϤʤ disjoin, displease, dissociate, dissuade ʤɤ줿
˹ͤ٤ϡҤƬΰ̣ϡΤΰ̣Ȥδطˤޤ뤳ȤȤȤȤȴΤˡʬΥספʤɤΰ̣ޤޤƤˤϡƬϻ¾夽ΡֶĴפɽ魯ΤȤƵǽ롥dissolve ϤǤꡤϾʤ disannul, disembowel ʤɤ⤢롥Τΰ̣Ĵ¤СƬΰֶ̣ĴפȤʤΤϡdis- ˸¤ʤ
ǸˡƬηֻ֤ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤѸäˤ dis- ϡĶ˱ƻҲä di- ȤʤäƸ뤳Ȥ⤢Сƥ̤Ƭ de- ȹή de- Ǹ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ޤե󥹸ͳΤ des- ȤʤäƤΤ⤢ (cf. #2071. <dispatch> vs <despatch> ([2014-12-28-1])) Ϣơ츻Ūˤ̤Ƭƥ䥮ꥷγؽŪʷϵ򤫤⤹ dys- ʤȤ dis- ֤ˡϡµסɡסְ۾פްդȤ dysfunction, dysphemism ʤɤ󤲤롥
ʲˡWeb3 Ƭ dis- εҤ󤲤Ƥ

1dis- prefix [ME dis-, des-, fr. OF & L; OF des-, dis-, fr. L dis-, lit., apart, to pieces; akin to OE te- apart, to pieces, OHG zi-, ze-, Goth dis- apart, Gk dia through, Alb tsh- apart, L duo two] 1 a : do the opposite of : reverse <a specified action) <disjoin> <disestablish> <disown> <disqualify> b : deprive of (a specified character, quality, or rank) <disable> <disprince> : deprive of (a specified object) <disfrock> c : exclude or expel from <disbar> <discastle> 2 : opposite of : contrary of : absence of <disunion> <disaffection> 3 : not <dishonest> <disloyal> 4 : completely <disannul> 5 [by folk etymology]: DYS- <disfunction> <distrophy>

Referrer (Inside): [2016-10-08-1]

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2016-05-08 Sun

#2568. dead metaphor (1) [metaphor][rhetoric][cognitive_linguistics][terminology][semantics][semantic_change][etymology]

metaphor ȤƻϤޤä˻ȤŤƾȤʤꡤϤ metaphor Ȥƴʤʤä褦ɽϡ"dead metaphor" ʻ᥿եˤȸƤФ롥ִεӡפܡפȤȤΡֵӡפܡפϡοʹ֡ʤ뤤ưʪˤΤ̤ؤΤžѤǤȤФϴǤ롥ŪˤϡŪʸۤΩ̤θȤ򤵤ƤȻפ롥Ѹ the legs of a table the foot of the mountain ƱͤĤƤȤ metaphor ȤƵǽƤΤȤȤ˿ (fading) 뤤æ᥿ե (demetaphorization) ФơвΤȤġp. 127ˡ
Υ᥿եϴˡֻǤפ櫓ǤϤʤդ⤷ʤεӤȿʹ֤εӤȤϥ᡼ȤưפˤĤʤ뤳ȤϤǤ뤫äȡֻǤȤơpupil 롥θθθϡ̡ƸפƷ˱Ǥ뼫ʬҶΤ褦˸ȤžơƷפθΰ̣ŪʤĤʤϸߤǤϸ츻ؼԤǤʤ¤ꡤռˤϤΤܤ餺Ūˤ̤ñȤ򤵤Ƥ롥ȤϡǤˤۤܡֻǤפȤäƤ褤
ֻǤ٤κϤ졤μ dead metaphor ϸƤ롥#2187. ΰ̣᥿եǤ ([2015-04-23-1]) 󤷤褦ˡȤñ̤ǹͤƤ⡤θ츻ҤȤС¿θΰ̣ dead metaphor Ȥ¸ߤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥advert, comprehend ʤɡǤ¿ΥƥͳθϡѸؤμѤʤ줿ǡǤ˶Ū dead metaphor Ǥꡤֻ᥿ե͢ʡסġp. 127ˤȸƤ֤٤ΤǤ롥

ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ
ë سؤӤΥǧθء١ҤĤ˼2006ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-26-1] [2016-05-09-1]

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2016-04-10 Sun

#2540. ФʸỌ̇̄ʸ [punctuation][capitalisation][noun][writing][spelling][semantics][metonymy][onomastics][minim]

ѸˤʸѤˤĤƤϡĤδʲεǰäƤ

#583. ɥĸ켰̾ƬʸѤϱѸˤ⤢ä ([2010-12-01-1])
#1309. ʸȾʸ ([2012-11-26-1])
#1310. ѸʸѤδ ([2012-11-27-1])
#1844. ɥĸ켰̾ƬʸѤϱѸˤ⤢ä (2) ([2014-05-15-1])

ƬʸѤˤĤơĤʸɤѸθƬʸѤˤϡֻФʸפȡְ̣ʸפȤȤФʸȤϡʸƬιƬ֤κǽʸʸˤΤǤꡤñʻʤʸʸñεǽδ֤ľŪʤĤʤ꤬ʡפʸƬȤƬ򼨤ɸȤƤΰ̣⤿ʤ (47) ŪбζĴȤǤ롥
⤦1Ĥΰ̣ʸȤϡỤ̄¤˴ؤΤǤ롥ŵϸͭ̾θƬʸǤꡤĤϤħ̾ǰפɽƤ롥̣ŪˤϡΡǰפɤߤ뤫פǤ롥 (48--49) βƤΤǡطս

ʸ줿̾ϼʤΰ̣¤ΰĤǤǰȯǰ롥̾ΰ̣¤ΰĤǤǰʸȤǶ벽ȹͤ롥ФʸȤϰ㤦Ǥ롥̾ʳʻˤʸ׵᤹ΰ̣ŪڤӿŪ׵᤬礱Ƥ롥
̾Ū͡ʲǽäƤ롥͡ǽ⡤äˡǰפȤǽ򸽼²ҤΩƤơɼԤδ˶ĴƤߤΤʸǤ롥
ФǰȤϤʤ복ǰǤΤǤ
ǰŪä̾Ǥ롥餢դİƤ˿֥᡼ǰǤ롥İбȤ褦äơŪŪ䵬ԤθŪǰǰǤ롥
ǰˤĤŪ롥
ǰ̾˲äʤˤŪʥ᡼Ǥ롥󥰤ȤƤ̾İбȸƤ֤Ȥ롥̾İбΤͤ˶̤ʬǰȸƤ֤櫓Ǥ롥ä̾ϡǰΰ°¤ꡤǡطʤʿǡã뤳Ȥ롥̾Τˤ褯͸դ罰ãΤ椭ȤɤƤΤۤɰطʤãϤ礭ǡä̾⹭ǰΤ Mass Communicated Sign MCS ȸƤ֤Ȥˤ롥
MCS ϰƤã롥Ǥ狼Τ顤Ρ֤٤ơɬ٤䤫dzǰŪΤƤǤϤʤñľŪʥե᡼˰㤤ʤ
ǰ MCS Τ褦˶̤ƱΥ᡼طʤȤ̤äƤ롥ҹ̤δޤߤǰ̿Ǥ롥äǰλĴޤߤϡĿŪŪǤäƤϤʤʤĿͤˤʤʤˤãˤϿǤ꤬ɬפǤ롥ĿͺʤʤФʤǰȤƤŬϰϤ٤⤯ʤ롥äǰϾ˸̺ʤưȸĤζ̤ռŪӽǸĤɽ路ꡤʬΤɽꤹ롥ǰϸĤ򤳤 ذ̲뷹롥
ǰΰ̲ײȡͭвˤ롥ηϿʹֿ˶ƶڤܤǰǤۤɡͤ˱ƶͿ줿᡼ϰܲ졤ĤθͭʪȤʤ롥
ʾޤȤȡǰˤϡ罰ãȡͭȤĤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥


ǰθͭȤ¦̤ϡŵŪˤ̵ͣθͭ̾줬ħĤκƱˤͭ礬롥㤨СBible, Fortune, Heaven, Sea, World तǤ롥ϡѸʸˤơ̵ͣθͭ̾줽ΤΤǤ뤫Τ褦ˤȤ館ƤǤ롥ʸʸ̮ˤƵͭ̾첽ȤäƤ⤤ᡤ̤̾ʤɤ⡤ĤκƱ˴ŤʸΤǤ롥Ʊth River, th Far East, the City ʤɤ̾ First Lady, President ʤɤοͤɽƱͤǤ롥ˤ metonymy ѤƤ롥
ǰ罰ãȤ¦̤θΤϡޥߤήۤҲ񸽾ݤ˴ؤǤ롥Communism, Parliament, the Constitution, Remember Pearl Harbor, Sex without Babies λԤˤȤäƤϡΰʤʸǧ뤳ȡˤǡطʤʸ̮ľŪ򤵤ΤǤ롥
ʤ;ñ̾ I 񤹤봷ϡ#91. ʤ;ñ̾ I ʸǽ񤯤 ([2009-07-27-1]) 餫ˤ褦ˡ̣ʸȤϡषФʸȹͤ٤I ΰ̣ǤϤʤñ˻Ū˺Ω뤿ʸȹͤΤ̤ˤϽ (minim) 1ܤǤϼϤνפƸʬդˤȤȤ뤬1ܤǽ񤫤Ȥ¦̤⡤1ʸǽ񤫤ǤȤ¦̤Τۤפ⤷ʤȤΤϡĤθ褦ˡ15Υޥ̥ץȤ򸫤ȤϤʸʤ괧 a 񤷤Ƥ㤬뤫Ǥ (49)
ʸȴϢơͭ̾첽ˤĤơ#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1])#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ ([2015-05-18-1])#2397. ͭ̾ȿ̾̾ ([2015-11-19-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

١Capitalization ˤĤơסػѸظ61桤1967ǯ47--53ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-04-01-1]

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2016-03-13 Sun

#2512. ưŪȤ뤫ư̾뤫 (2) [gerund][infinitive][verb][semantics][aspect]

ε ([2016-03-12-1]) ˰³ɸˤĤơtry, like, start, forget ʤɤưŪȤư̾뤳ȤǤ뤬뤫ˤäƼ㴳ΰ̣ΰ㤤뤳Ȥȸ롥Quirk et al. (16.40) ˤȡưΤ魯ư "potentiality" ư̾Ϥμºݤ "performance" ްդΤ§Ǥ롥

As a rule, the infinitive gives a sense of mere 'potentiality' for action, as in She hoped to learn French, while the participle gives a sense of the actual 'performance' of the action itself, as in She enjoyed learning French. In the case of try, the double meaning is particularly clear:

     Sheila tried ----+---- ''to bribe'' the jailor.   [1]
                      |
                      +---- ''bribing'' the jailor.    [2]

[1] implies that Sheila attempted an act of bribery, but did not manage it; [2] implies that she actually did bribe the jailor, but without (necessarily) achieving what she wanted. With other verbs, the difference is more subtle, and may be overruled or neutralized by the meaning of the verb of the main clause. For example, the negative meaning of avoid and escape cancels out the sense of 'performance' in He escaped/avoided being branded as a traitor.


ΰ̸§ˤ뺹ϡƤϤޤ褦ʸ̮ˤäƤϺ㤬¤뤳Ȥ⤢Τǡ줫ư̾줫λȤʬ˴ؤŪʴȤϤʤˤȤ롥
Quirk et al. Ϥθ塤ư (dread, hate, like, loathe, love, prefer)ư (start, continue, cease)ư (forget, remember, regret) γơˤĤơɤΤ褦ʰ̣Ūʺ㤬Τ뤤ϤɤΤ褦ʾˤκ㤬¤ΤͻƤ롥ä˶̣Τϡư start ˤĤơʣưؤˤư̾줬򤵤䤹ȤȤ顤He began opening all the cupboards Ǥ to open Ѥ뤳ȤǽǤϤ뤬ư̾Τۤդ路ȤˤŪɽ魯ưȤ꤬ؤäƤ褦ư˴ؤƤ⡤Ϳ뤳ȤΤƤ롥

Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-05-12-1]

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2015-11-28 Sat

#2406. metonymy [metonymy][metaphor][terminology][semantics][semantic_change][rhetoric][cognitive_linguistics]

#2187. ΰ̣᥿եǤ ([2015-04-23-1]) ǥ᥿ե (metaphor) ˤĤƲ⤷Фȥ˥ߡ (metonymy) ˤĤƤϡƽǿʤ⡤⤹뵡񤬤ʤäΤǡLuján (291--92) ʤɤ˵ʤ餳ǾҲ𤷤
ŪʽؤǤϡִȡפȤΤƤǯǧθؤ̣ǤϲʸΤޤޡ֥ȥ˥ߡפȸƤФ뤳Ȥ¿Ѹϡꥷ metōnimía (change of name) ̤롥ʽŪܤС᥿ե2 (similarity) ˴ŤΤФơȥ˥ߡ2 (contiguity) ˴ŤȤ롥᥿եǤϡ2Ϥ줾ۤʤɥᥤ (domain) °Ƥ뤬餫ˤäξԤФ롥ȥ˥ߡǤϡ2ƱΥɥᥤ°ƤꡤDz餫ˤäξԤФ롥̩˶̤ǤΤȤŪʵ⤢ΤΡ̤ϤǤ褤 (cf. #2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ ([2015-05-02-1]))
ȥ˥ߡܼʤˤϡ͡ʼब롥ʬΡä (synecdoche) ȸƤФˡƴơʪʡ֤ȽȤˤʪȷ̤ʤɡ餫ͭŪʴطС٤ƥȥ˥ߡμȤʤ롥äợѰۤѲˤơܶʲǤ롥֤䤫ʨƤפȤȤΡ֤䤫פƴƴ˴ޤޤֿפ̣롥glass ֥饹פȤؤκǤǤʤǤ֥饹פ̣롥ƥ sexta (sixth (hour)) Ϥ֤ɽ路ƤΥڥȯŸ siesta Ϥλ֤ˤȤ̣褦ˤʤäֱĮפ Capitol Hill Ͼ̾줾ּ괱šפȡƹIJפ̣롥µǨ餹פȤ֤ϵ㤯Ȥ԰٤η̤Ǥ뤳Ȥ顤ֵ㤯פ̣褦ˤʤäcount one's beads Ȥˤơ beads ϡֵפ̣βΤ˥ꥪο̤äƤȤ顤beads ֿ̡פΤΤ̣褦ˤʤäϡʪˡ§˴Ť̴طʸˤ˶¸λ˻ޤǡ餫ͭŪʴطΩȤǡϰϤ
Saeed (365--66) ꡤѸ줫ŵṲ̄˵󤲤褦

PART FOR WHOLE (synecdoche): All hands on deck.
WHOLE FOR PART (synecdoche): Brazil won the world cup.
CONTAINER FOR CONTENT: I don't drink more than two bottles.
MATERIAL FOR OBJECT: She needs a glass.
PRODUCER FOR PRODUCT: I'll buy you that Rembrandt.
PLACE FOR INSTITUTION: Downing Street has made no comment.
INSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE: The Senate isn't happy with this bill.
PLACE FOR EVENT: Hiroshima changed our view of war.
CONTROLLED FOR CONTROLLER: All the hospitals are on strike.
CAUSE FOR EFFECT: His native tongue is Hausa.

Luján, Eugenio R. "Semantic Change." Chapter 16 of Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics. Ed. Silvia Luraghi and Vit Bubenik. London: Continuum International, 2010. 286--310.
Saeed, John I. Semantics. 3rd ed. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

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2015-10-28 Wed

#2375. Anglo-French Ȥ (2) [semantics][semantic_change][semantic_borrowing][anglo-norman][french][lexicology][false_friend][methodology][borrowing][law_french]

ε ([2015-10-27-1]) ˰³Ѹ˸ Anglo-French κɾˤĤƤꡥRothwell ϡѸäѸʸθˤơAnglo-French äȽŻ뤷ʤФʤʤ⤹롥ƻȤƤ MED θ³ˤڤ֤ʤɡѸʸؼԤ˰ռפĥ٤֤ⷫ롥ե󥹸äΡּѡ (borrowing) ȤǰˤѳפäƤꡤİͤ롥ĤʸϤѤ

The MED reveals on virtually every page the massive and conventional sense and that in literally thousands of cases forms and meanings were adopted (not 'borrowed') into English from Insular, as opposed to Continental, French. The relationship of Anglo-French with Middle English was one of merger, not of borrowing, as a direct result of the bilingualism of the literate classes in mediaeval England. (174)

The linguistic situation in mediaeval England . . . produced . . . a transfer based on the fact that generations of educated Englishmen passed daily from English into French and back again in the course of their work. Very many of the French terms they used had been developing semantically on English soil since 1066, were absorbed quite naturally with all their semantic values into the native English of those who used them and then continued to evolve in their new environment of Middle English. This is a very long way from the traditional idea of 'linguistic borrowing'. (179--80)

[I]n England . . . the social status of French meant that it was used extensively in preference to English for written records of all kinds from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. As a result, given that English was the native language of the majority of those who wrote this form of French, many hundreds of words would have been in daily use in spoken English for generations without necessarily being committed to parchment or paper, the people who used them being bilingual in varying degrees, but using only one of their two vernaculars --- French --- to set down in writing their decisions, judgements, transactions, etc., for posterity. (185)


εǤ bachelor Ρȿפθ apparel Ρְפθ󤲤⤦1 Anglo-French DzǤȤơRothwell (184) ε󤲤Ƥ rape Ȥ夲褦MED ˤȡֶפΰ̣Ǥ rāpe (n.(2)) ϡѸǤ1425ǯ㤬ФǤ롥ΦΥե󥹸ǤϤθϸʤΤAnglo-French Ǥ rap ȤƤθˤ13ʸڤ롥

[A]s early as c. 1289 rape is defined in the French of the English lawyers as the forcible abduction of a woman; in c. 1292 the law defines it, again in French, as male violence against a woman's body. Therefore, for well over a century before the first attestation of 'rape' in Middle English, the law of England, expressed in French but executed by English justices, had been using these definitions throughout English society. rape is an Anglo-French term not found on the Continent. Admittedly, the Latin rapum is found even earlier than the French, but it was the widespread use of French in the actual pleading and detailed written accounts --- as distinct from the brief formal Latin record --- of cases in the English course of law from the second half of the thirteenth century onwards that has resulted in so very many English legal terms like rape having a French look about them. . . . As far as rape is concerned, there never was, in fact, a 'semantic vacuum' . . . .


Rothwell (184) ϡۤˤ larceny Ϥ¿ˡΧѸ˻褦ʾƤϤޤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ѸθäθˤĤơޤޤ٤Ȥ¿ĤƤ褦

Rothwell, W. "The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-French." Medium Aevum 60 (1991): 173--96.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-04-1] [2015-12-18-1]

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2015-10-27 Tue

#2374. Anglo-French Ȥ (1) [semantics][semantic_change][semantic_borrowing][anglo-norman][french][lexicology][false_friend][methodology]

Ѹǡȿפ1ĤȤƤ bachelor ˴ؤợδ#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1])#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1])#1969. ΰ̣ʬʬϤ ([2014-09-17-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ13˥ե󥹸줫Ѥ줿θϡּ㤤Ρԡפạ̈žơȿפȯŸȤ롥
OED bachelor, n. θ4aˤȡǤνФ Chaucer Merchant's Tale (c1386) Ǥꡤl. 34 "Bacheleris haue often peyne and wo." ȸ롥MED bachelēr (n.) θ1(b)ˤȡʲ̤ꡤ14ˤޤ̤롥"c1325(c1300) Glo.Chron.A (Clg A.11) 701: Mi leue doȝter .. Ich þe wole marie wel .. To þe nobloste bachiler þat þin herte wile to stonde.
嵭ΰ̣Ѳϡбե󥹸ñ bachelier ˤʤäȤ졤ߤǤϱʩδ֤ "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") δطȤʤäƤ롥Τ褦ˡΰ̣ѲŪ˱ѸȼȯãȹͤƤȤRothwell (175) ϡѸȼȯãˡAnglo-French ȤĤʤΥ饯о줵ơԤڤ

Chaucer's use of this common Old French term in the Modern English sense of 'unmarried man' has no parallel in literature on the Continent, but is found in Anglo-French by the first quarter of the thirteenth century in The Song of Dermot and the Earl and again in the Liber Custumarum in the early fourteenth century. It is a pointer to the fact that the development of modern English, at least as far as the lexis and syntax are concerned, cannot be adequately researched without taking into account the whole corpus of Anglo-French.


The Anglo-Norman Dictionary Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡbacheler θ2Ȥ "unmarried man" ꡤ嵭νŵȤȤ˳Τ㤬󤲤Ƥ롥ѸȼȯãǤϤʤޤƤΦΥե󥹸ȯãǤʤ¤ Anglo-French ˤȯãǤꡤ줬Ѹˤܿ줿ˤʤȤʤȤñǤϤ뤬ܤڤ褦ʷǤ롥ְפθıѸ apparel ȡ⤿ʤե󥹸 appareil false friends Ʊͤ Anglo-French ͳȤȤ
Rothwell ʸǤϡAnglo-French ȤפȤˤꡤѸä˴ؤ¿λ¤餫ˤʤꡤ꤬褹뤳Ȥ⤵롥Ѹ˸Ǥ⡤ե󥹸ȤФޤѥɸŪʥե󥹸Ѽפ⤫١Ȥƥե󥹼ѸʤɤΤäAnglo-French ȤѼɾ뤳Ȥˤäơ̤ȤƤѸ˾¿꤬򤫤ǽȡRothwell ⤯Rothwell ΤΥ󥹤ϡ#2349. Ѹ˥ե󥹼Ѹ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])#2350. Prioress Anglo-French ϰ̤Ϥۤ㤯ʤä ([2015-10-03-1]) ǻȤʸǤӤƤꡤȯŪǤ롥

Rothwell, W. "The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-French." Medium Aevum 60 (1991): 173--96.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-12-18-1] [2015-10-28-1]

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2015-07-23 Thu

#2278. ̣ۣ [semantics][polysemy][hyponymy][semantic_change][family_resemblance]

̣ۣ (semantic vagueness) ϡ̣Ѳˤƽפʰ̣ġۣ椵ȤϡȤϤäꤷʤפȤǡŪʸǤŪ˰ƤWittgenstein (1889--1951) äỌ̇̄ˤեǥʥʲ²Ū (family resemblance) Ŧư衤षˤפͭѤǤǤȹͤ褦ˤʤä (cf. #1964. ץȥ ([2014-09-12-1])) ۣȤäƤ⤤Ĥμब롥Waldron (146--48) ˽ä4Ĥʬष褦

(1) ambiguity. ̣2İʾ褬ꡤΤ줬տޤƤ뤫Ǥʤ硥ϡबɬŪˤ¿ (polysemy) η̤Ȥ롥He gave me a ring. ˤ ring ʤɸŪ ambiguity ⤢СFlying planes can be dangerous. Τ褦Ū ambiguity ⤢롥

(2) generality. Ū뤤Ūʸ줬ѤȤºݤˤɤ٤ΰ뤤տޤƤΤʾ礬롥㤨Сsome, often, likely, soon, huge Ȥä硤Ūˤϳơɤۤɤ٤ʤΤޤthing, act, case, fact, way, matter ʤɤŪʸǤϡºݤ˲ؼƤΤȽǤǤʤȤ롥ΰ̣Ǥۣϡ#1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1]) Ǥߤǰ (conceptual hierarchy) 뤤ݴط (hyponymy) ξ岼طȴϢ롥

(3) variation. θ̩üԤδ֤ɤƤ硥㤨Сhonour Ȥϲjustice, wicked, fair, culture, education, conservative, democratic ȤϲǤ뤫ˤĤƤϡĿͤˤäưոۤʤ롥ݸ˹븽ݡ

(4) indeterminacy. ؼоݤζܤϤäꤷʤ硥㤨Сshoulder, neck, lip ʤΤ̤ϰϤϳơɤɤޤǤʤΤmorning, afternoon, evening Τζ̤ϲʤΤؼоݼΤʪŪϰϤΤƤʤ뤤Τɬפä˴ʤǤ롥

(1) ϰ̣Ѳη̤ȤƤ¿˴Ť(2), (3), (4) ¿߽Ф̣ѲμȤʤꤦ뤳Ȥդۣ椵¿̣ѲߴطʣǤ롥

Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

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2015-06-27 Sat

#2252. Waldron ˤ̣Ѳʬ [semantic_change][semantics][folk_etymology]

ε#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ ([2015-06-26-1]) κǸǡUllmann ηŪʬˤ꤬ȽҤ٤Ƚ٤ĤʤǡWaldron Ϥʤ󤺤οޤ B II "Transfers of senses" 2ġPopular etymology Ellipsis 夲ơ餬ʰ̣ѲǤϤʤȽŪ˻ŦƤ롥ˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1])#2175. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ ([2015-04-11-1])#2177. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ (2) ([2015-04-13-1]) ǿƤ뤬 Waldron (138) θդˤͤƤߤ褦

To confine our attention in the first instance to the fourfold division which is the heart of the scheme, we may feel some uneasiness at the inequality of these four categories in consideration of the exact correlation of their descriptions. This is not a question of their relative importance or frequency of occurrence but (again) of the level of analysis at which they emerge. Specifically, it seems possible to describe transfers based on sense-similarity and sense-contiguity as in themselves kinds of semantic change, whereas name-similarity and name-contiguity appear rather changes of form which are potential causes of a variety of types of change of meaning. To say that so-and-so is a case of metonymy or metaphor is far more informative as to the nature of the change of meaning than is the case with popular etymology or ellipsis. The former changes always result, by definition, in a word's acquisition of a complete new sense, while the result in the case of popular etymology is more often a peripheral modification of the word's original sense (as in the change from shamefast to shamefaced) and in the case of ellipsis a kind of telescoping of meaning, so that the remaining part of the expression has the meaning of the whole. In neither case is the result as clear cut and invariable as metonymy and metaphor.


Waldron ϡB II ˴ؤƤΤ褦Ƚäǡ򳰤Ƽΰ̣Ѳʬ󼨤B III "Composite changes" A B I ʤʬˡǤ롥Waldron ϡA "Shift" Stern ήʬǤ adequation substitution ˤ褽ˤȸƤӡB I (a) "Metaphoric Transfer"B I (b) "Metonymic Transfer" ȸƤ޼ȰʲΤ褦ʬȤʤ롥

                         Shift
Change of Meaning                        Metaphoric Transfer
                         Transfer 
                                                 Metonymic Transfer

ǡܥ֥ˤ Stern ([2014-06-13-1]), Ullmann ([2015-06-26-1]), Waldron ˤŵŪʰ̣Ѳʬ3HƤȤˤʤ롥##1873,2251,2252 оȤ줿

Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

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2015-06-26 Fri

#2251. Ullmann ˤ̣Ѳʬ [semantic_change][semantics]

#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) Stern ˤ̣ѲʬߤƱ餤ƶϤΤ̣ѲʬȤơUllmann ΤΤ롥ʬ Ullmann 8 "Change of Meaning" (193--235) ǾҲ𤵤Ƥ뤬 Waldron (136) üŪˤޤȤƤƤΤǡ򼨤

A. Semantic changes due to linguistic conservatism
B. Semantic changes due to linguistic innovation
     I. Transfers of names:
          (a) Through similarity between the senses;
          (b) Through contiguity between the senses.
     II. Transfers of senses:
          (a) Through similarity between the names;
          (b) Through contiguity between the names.
     III. Composite changes.


A "linguistic conservatism" ȤΤϸ򾷤̾դ (see Waldron, pp. 138--39)Stern ΰ̣Ѳ෿ǤȤ adequation substitution ˤ褽롥λؼоݡʤˤŪѲˤĤ졤θΰ̣ѲƤؤ (ex. ship, atom, scholasticism) B "linguistic innovation" ϡ̣ (sense) ̾ (name) Ωˡ (similarity) (contiguity) Ωݤ碌ŪηϤؤȲ̶ʬƤ롥
Ȥ櫓 Ullmann δؿ B I II ˤȤȤǡWaldron (137) Ϥ2ĤʬˤĤơľŪ򤷤䤹褦ˡʲΤ褦ʿޤˤޤȤƤ롥

             (a)                    (b)
          Similarity             Contiguity
------------------------------------------------
I.      between senses:       between senses:
        Metaphor              Metonymy            ---> Name-Transfer
------------------------------------------------
II.     between names:        between names:
        Popular Etymology     Ellipsis            ---> Sense-Transfer
------------------------------------------------

Ullmann ʬϡǤäꤷƤΤǤФ⤢ϤɾˤĤƤϡεǡ

Ullmann, Stephen. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. 1962. Barns & Noble, 1979.
Waldron, R. A. Sense and Sense Development. New York: OUP, 1967.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-28-1] [2015-06-27-1]

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2015-05-20 Wed

#2214. this, that ñȤǿͤؤˤŪͳ [gender][deixis][gender][demonstrative][personal_pronoun][semantics]

ѸǤϡؼ̾Ǥ this, that, these, those ϳơñȤǡͤؼ뤳ȤǤ롥ñˤϤħ롥ñ this, that ñȤǿͤؤˤϡ§ȤƷŪʴްդȤΤܵǤϡThis is John. Τ褦ʿͤҲ𤹤ʸ̮ǤˡϽΤȤˡˡ˴ؿ򼨤 Poussa (401) ϡthat ΤˡνȤ OED 1905ǯʸƤ롥

'Would you like to marry Malcolm?' I asked. 'Fancy being owned by that! Fancy seeing it every day!' (Eleanor Glynn, Vicissitudes of Evangeline: 127).


Poussa ϡΤ褦 thatʤ thisˤˡ򡤱Ѹ˾塤ŪǶˤʤäƸ줿ΤȤҲŪľ򼨤 "comic-dishonourific" ˡȸƤ20ƬǤϤˡϤޤۤȤɵŤƤʤä褦ǡ㤨 Jespersen (406) ϡthis that ⤽ñȤǿͤɽ魯ˡϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

While in the adjunctal function the plural forms these and those correspond exactly to the singulars this and that, the same cannot be said with regard to the same forms used as principals, for here this and that can no longer be used in speaking of persons, while these and those can. The sg of those who is not that who (which is not used), but he who (she who); similarly there is no sg that present corresponding to the pl those present


this, that ñȤǿͤؼ뤳ȤǤʤäȤȡˡȤƿͤؤ褦ˤϤʤäΤΡŪʼҲŪľްդƤ뤳ȤȤϡ̵طǤϤʤthis, that ñȤǿͤؤΤˤϡޤ餫񹳴ΤȻפ롥
˸Ťˤ̤ȡűѸǤѸǤ⡤this, that ϡΤˤǤϤʤΤΡʣ these, those ȤȤñȤǿͤؤȤǤΤǤ (Jespersen 409--10) ǡñȤǿͤؤ this, that ΤĤƤˡʤѸľޤǤ˰öä뤳ȤˤʤäΤȤ̤꤬夬뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Poussa ϡgender ȤճʴФơä3;̾줬ñǤ he, she ˽̤ʣǤ϶̤˶̤ they Ѥ¤ȡؼ̾ʬۤطŤΤǤ롥

Choices in the PE 3rd Person Pronoun System (Poussa)

ο (Poussa 405) ˼褦ˡȤ̤ʤʣǤϡ;̾ they Ϥ󡤻ؼ̾ these, those ñȤǿͤؤȤǤ뤬ñǤ̤Ǥ;̾ he, she Τߤǽǡ̤Ǥʤؼ̾ this, that Ѥ뤳ȤϤǤʤñǤϡthis, that ̤뤳ȤǤʤ椨ˡ֥åȤ櫓ΤȤϡʸˡȤȽ̤ƤűѸʬۿ (Poussa 407) Ӥȡ餫ˤʤ롥

Choices in the OE 3rd Person Pronoun System (Poussa)

űѸǤϡñǻؼ̾줬Ƚ̤ˡñȤǿͤؤȤʤƤ줿ȲǤ롥δ餹ȡޤ [-HUMAN] ΰ̣ƤʤȤȤǤ롥
Poussa ϡḽѸˤĤʤ "HUMAN" Ȥ̣ȯϡűѸ줫ѸˤƤʸˡηϤȴϢΤǤꡤؼηϤοʸϽФȿǤǤȤߤƤ롥Ѹˤ his its ȯŸ䡤ط̾ which who Իȯã⡤Ʊ˰͵򤷤ƤȤ (cf. #198. its ε ([2009-11-11-1])#1418. 17 its μơ ([2013-03-15-1]))
Poussa εȤСűѸ줫βѲˤäʸˡηϤ졤Ѹ˷ŪѲ뤳ȤȤʤä˶Ѹʹߤˡ;Ȥ̣ˤڤǤȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹˤʥɥޤ򴶤ʤ

Poussa, Patricia. "Pragmatics of this and that." History of Englishes: New Methods and Interpretations in Historical Linguistics. Ed. Matti Rissanen, Ossi Ihalainen, Terttu Nevalainen, and Irma Taavitsainen. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. 401--17.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 2. Vol. 1. 2nd ed. Heidelberg: C. Winter's Universitätsbuchhandlung, 1922.

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2015-05-18 Mon

#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ [onomastics][personal_name][sign][semantic_change][semantics][semiotics][arbitrariness][saussure]

ܼͭ̾ŪʵǽϡʪĿͤꤹ뤳Ȥˤ롥ΤȤ˰ϤʤΤˤ John Smith ڰϺϤ󤤤뤫⤷ʤξ줽ξǤϡʪꤹΤ John Smith ڰϺȤ̾ǽʬʤȤۤȤɤǤ롥ͭ̾κǤϡidentification Ǥ롥
ͭ̾ˤϡεǽ̤ŪȴϢοտ路ħĤ롥Ω (100--08) ϡˤƸͭ̾줬˰Ƥˤ򳵴Ѥʤ顤ͭ̾ħȤưʲ4ۤɤ˿Ƥ롥

(1) ͭ̾ϰ̳ǰȤƤΥ˥ե⤿ʪĿͤľŪ˻ؼ롥ʤ˥ե (signifié) ʤ˥ե (signifiant)ʥ˥եǤ롥
(2) ͭ̾ԲǽǤ롥
(3) ͭ̾ϸΤʤˤ볰θƤ롥
(4) ͭ̾ϰ̣εǤ롥

(1) ϡüŪ˸иͭ̾ˤϰ̣ʤȤȤ̾ΤäƤ褦ʾħǽ礤ƤȤȤǤ롥ǡؼоݤΤǤ롥ؼоݤꤹΤͭ̾Ǥ뤫顤ΤʤΤǤ롥̣뤤ϥ˥ե⤿ˡؼоݤľܤ˻ؤȤǤȤΤͭ̾κǤΩäħȤ#1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1]) οޤǤСդľܤǷФ褦ʥ᡼
(2) ʲħ⡤(1) ήФΤǤ롥(2) θͭ̾Բǽϡͭ̾ˤȤỌ̇̄ʥ˥եˤʤǤ롥ȤΤϡ˥եϡʤۤȤɡƱ˥ե󤬸ˤäưۤʤ褦2ĤεɤδϢŤǤ롥äơ˥եʤͭ̾ˤϡȤ̵Ǥ롥̾ Smith ϡ결סڤϡڡפǤ뤫顤̣ȵ뤳ȤǤ̾ȤѤȤ˰̣ϰռ뤳ȤϤʤ¾ؤˤäơ̾̣äȤϤʤ
(3) ϡͭ̾줬ʶʤǤˤ⤫餺塼ξ褦ʺۤηϤȤƤθηϤˤϤޤ֤ŤʤȤҤ٤ΤǤ롥줬ηϤǤȤȤϡäǤС¾θȤμȤựŪʴطˤŪ¸ߤˤʤȤȤǤ롥㤨СˡפȤ̾ϡֽפȤ̾Ȥΰ̣ˤƸηΰ֤ƤΤǤꡤդޤǤ롥ηϤϡȤựˤΩܸȤƤΤȤͭ̾ϰ̣⤿ʤΤǤ뤫顤ȤựΩӤηϤˤȤ߹ޤ줨ʤͭ̾ϡŪʰ̣ͳˡľܤ˳λؼоݤ򼨤Ȥǡˤʤ⳰ȤϢΤǤ롥ͭ̾Ȥϡ塼ŪʸηϤΤʤΤʰ֤Ť⤿ʤȥФȥΤζ֤ˤðۤ¸ߤǤ롥
(4) ϵŪǶ̣ŦǤ롥ͭ̾ϡΤ˥˥եϤ⤿ʤ˥եäƤʾ塤Ū˵κۤݤäƤ롥ȾȤǤƤ֤٤ΤǤꡤʤȤ⵭θǤϤΤ褦ˤߤȡͭ̾ˤϰεȤʤ٤餫Υ˥ե褦ȤϤƯΤʤΤǤϤʤȤ⵿Ƥ롥ͭ̾Υ˥եб륷˥ե̵Ǥ뤫餳η٤餫Υ˥ե鲡󤻤Ƥ롤ȤͤǤ롥ϡ̣ (signifiance) βˤۤʤʤΩ (104--05) ϡͭ̾ΰ̣ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤ʸʸ˵ϲؤƤˡ

˶̣Τϡˤͭ̾Ǥ롥̾θ줬˰̣ˤäƽƤΤˤợ⤿ʤҶʥ˥եӤǤͭ̾ϡζ᥷˥եᤶƲ󤻤ƤΤΤޤޤʾǰˤȤ館졤ǥΥ٥Ǥϵդ¿ƤޤĤޤꡤͭ̾ϥ󥰤Υ٥ǥ˥ե⤿ʤ椨ˡΤΥե󥿥ޤ졤ƱˤߤˤȤʤäƥե󥿥ƤΤǤ롥


#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1])#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ʤɤǡ̾θͭ̾첽ϰ̵̣ﲽȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤȼöͭ̾ˤʤȡ٤ϰ̣Ŷ褦Ȥͭﲽ˸ưȤȤͭﲽ̵ﲽΤαʱΥפ鷺ˤʤ
Ω (100) ϡָͭ̾Ȥʻ򤤤뤫ϡ줾θ⤫Ӥ餻ƤޤФǤȤäƤ褤פȽҤ٤Ƥ롥

Ω 󡦻 ظ١˼ҡ1990ǯ

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2015-05-05 Tue

#2199. Bloomfield ˤȤäƤΰ̣ΰ̣ [semantics][semiotics]

ػŪˤߤСꥫ¤ؤ餫˷ֽŻθؤäˤ̣˴ؤƤϡưδ򤷤ΤΡܳŪ˹ͻ뤳ȤϤʤạ̈ڻ뤷Ƥȸ虜򤨤ʤꥫ¤ؤµ Bloomfield Ȥϡ³粼ۤɡ̣ڻ뤷Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤष褯ͤƤ餳񤷤򤷤Ƥ̣ϻϤʳؤ˻Τ˿ŤäΤǤ롥
Ω (58) Bloomfield 򤽤Τ褦ɾʤ顤֤ޤޤǤΤɤθȤˤޤơҰ̣ӤܼĤФΤۤʤ̤Υ֥롼եɤäפȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤϡʲΤǤ롥

When anything apparently unimportant turns out to be closely connected with more important things, we say that it has, after all, a "meaning"; namely, it "means" these more important things. Accordingly, we say that speech-utterance, trivial and unimportant itself, is important because it has a meaning: the meaning consists of the important things with which the speech-utterance . . . is connected, namely the practical events . . . . (Bloomfield 27)


üԤˤȤäƤפǤʤȤ̤ƤפǤ뤳Ȥɽ魯ѡξԤδط̣ǤȡBloomfield Ϲͤ㤨С[ai] ȤΤĤʤϡ켫ΤʪŪʲȤˤʤΤǤ롥ܸǤϡְסѸǤ I ȤפȤߤʤǤʪ䳵ǰ˷ӤĤƤ롥ηӤĤ [ai] ΰ̣Ǥȹͤ롥
Ω (58--59) ʹƤߤ褦

顤Ұ̣ӤȤΤϡΤ븽ݤ򡤤ʤǤ줽ֽספबߤʤۤʪŪʤŪʻʪ˷ӤĤݤδطΤȤȤȤˤʤ֥פʪפоݤǤ뤫ǰǤ뤫ưǤ뤫ΤȤϤǤǤϤʤʤʤߤˡ֥롼եɼȤϡҰ̣ưӤΩäƤˡʤΤϡΤİƤ벻Ƥ俧ʤɤ­뤳ȤʤԺߤΡ֥פʪפ˴طŤȤΥץǤ롥


Τ褦ˡ̣ȤϲͤγŪʴطƤ롥פǤʤפϡʸˤäƤۤʤΤǤ뤫顤θ¤ˤựʺѡˤȤŪʤΤȤʤ餶򤨤ʤȤȤˤʤ롥Bloomfield ϡ̣ΤäƤ椨ˡ֤Ʊ˰̣뤳ȤκˤⵤŤƤΤ
̣ΰ̣ˤĤƤϡ#1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1])#1863. Stern ˤΰ̣Ť3ǡ ([2014-06-03-1])#1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Ω 󡦻 ظ١˼ҡ1990ǯ
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.

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2015-05-02 Sat

#2196. ޥåȤγˤ metaphor metonymy Ʊ [semiotics][metaphor][metonymy][semantics][rhetoric]

ΩѴdzŤƤޥ埭򱿤13ǯ֤ŸȤ
René Magritte (1898--1967ˤϥ٥륮ι̱ŪȤǡΥȤǥˤ礭ʱƶͿ쥢ꥹε𾢤Ǥ롥դȥ᡼ꡤ뤤ϵˤ³ȤǡޥåȤγϡָŪˡ״վޤ뤳ȤǽǤ롥
ޥåȤ metaphor metonymy ռŪ¿Ѥ¿ѤȤϡΥơޤȤƷǤƤmetaphor metonymy ȤդΤ򳨲˻ߡܤ˸Ĥޤꡤܤ˸ηݽѲȤǤ롥
̣ˤ metaphor (similarity) ˴Ťmetonymy (contiguity) ˴ŤȤ졤2Ĥ֤뤳Ȥ¿֤طǤϤʤȤ⤷Фʹ롥ޥåȤ⡤Τʤ metaphor metonymy ΩȤϡФƱ蘆ͻ礵뤳Ȥˤäơε˻äƤ뤫Τ褦Ǥ롥
㤨СޥåȤγˤϡܤڤΩƤ줿դسԤȤƤΤ⤢롥ڤդδطΤʬδطǤꡤŵŪ metonymy ƱξԤسԤƤȤˤơγ metaphor ȤʤäƤ롥įƤȡmetonymy Ǥ⤢ metaphor Ǥ⤢ȤԻ׵ĤʴФƤΤ⤦1󤲤ȡLe Viol ͿˤȤʤǤϡζΤޤ޽δȤ⸫褦Ƥ롥ΤȴȤϾ岼˸ߤܤƤ metonymy δطʤγˤƤϤȤ⸫뤳ȤǤȤ metaphor Ǥ⤢롥Dubnick (417) ˤСޥåȤϡγΤʤǻŪ metaphor metonymy ɽΤߤʤ餺ƱظǸͷӤ⤷ƤȤ

Le Viol (The Rape, 1934) which substitutes a woman's torso for her face, is predominantly metonymic though relationships of similarity are also important. The breasts are substituted for eyes, the navel for the nose, and perhaps a risqué pun on the word labia is intended. This monstrous image is both funny and grotesque. But even though this image may convey a metaphorical and moral message about the sexual basis of a woman's identity, especially in the eyes of the rapist, the core of the painting is really the vulgar synecdoche which replaces the word "woman" with a slang term for a female's genitals. Thus, this is both a verbal and a visual pun.


Dubnick (418) ϡؼ Roman Jakobson 礤˽Фʤ顤ޥåȤ򼡤Τ褦ɾɾ᤯äƤ롥

Jakobson's linguistic theories about metaphor and metonymy suggest that the phrase "visible poetry" was not an empty metaphor for Magritte, who created figures of speech with paint.


Dubnick, Randa. "Visible Poetry: Metaphor and Metonymy in the Paintings of René Magritte." Contemporary Literature 21.3 (1980): 407--19.

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2015-04-23 Thu

#2187. ΰ̣᥿եǤ [metaphor][synaesthesia][semantic_change][semantics][etymology][rhetoric][unidirectionality][terminology]

դΤ (figure of speech) ΤʤǤ⡤ԤȤΤ (metaphor) Ǥ롥ưʪǤʤΤ˰ػҤΡ֤פȤȤǤʤΤ˿͵μؤơ֥פȤȤʤƤߤ櫓ǤϤʤΤˡִŤȤȤȤѤƤ롥ɽޤ˸ŤƾȤʤäȤˤϡȤκѤۤȤɴʤʤꡤ᥿ե (dead metaphor) ȸƤФ롥ܸˤѸˤ᥿եդƤꡤΰ̣᥿եǤȤޤǸʤۤɤ
metaphor ˤƤϡӤδȤʤ source ӤŬѤ target 2ĤɬפǤ롥ػҤΰǤСsource Ͽʹ֤ưʪεӤǤꡤtarget ϰػҤλ٤ʬǤ롥ʪΤΡȶΤΤǤǡsource target 2Ĥΰۤʤɥᥤ (domain) °Ȥ롥2Ĥϸߤ˴طΤʤΩɥᥤ֤פʤΤβˤäΤ٤ΤΡפȤ塤ǽζ̹ˤꡤξɥᥤ֤˶ͤ롥Τ褦ˡmetaphor ˤɬ餫 (similarity) 롥
#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) 򤿤󶡤Ƥ줿 Williams ϡmetaphor ˭٤ͿƤƤ (184--85) ʲθäϡ츫Ȥ metaphor ȰռʤΤФθŪȯŸޤǤ롥줾ˤĤơ source Dz target ʤΤ2ĤΥɥᥤϤ줾첿ϤȤʤäƤ붦̹ϲõäƤ餤᥿ե˶ᤤΡ˺ƤȤܤΤˤĤƤϡθȤθ줾첿ˤĤƥҥȤͿƤʤä f. ȤΤϸɽ魯ˤΤǡȤʤθ줿

1. abstract (f. draw away from)
2. advert (f. turn to)
3. affirm (f. make firm)
4. analysis (f. separate into parts)
5. animal (You animal!)
6. bright (a bright idea)
7. bitter (sharp to the taste: He is a bitter person)
8. brow (the brow of a hill)
9. bewitch (a bewitching aroma)
10. bat (You old bat!)
11. bread (I have no bread to spend)
12. blast (We had a blast at the party)
13. blow up (He blew up in anger)
14. cold (She was cold to me)
15. cool (Cool it,man)
16. conceive (f. to catch)
17. conclude (f. to enclose)
18. concrete (f. to grow together)
19. connect (f. to tie together)
20. cut (She cut me dead)
21. crane (the derrick that resembles the bird)
22. compose (f. to put together)
23. comprehend (f. seize)
24. cat (She's a cat)
25. dig (I dig that idea)
26. deep (deep thoughts)
27. dark (I'm in the dark on that)
28. define (f. place limits on)
29. depend (f. hang from)
30. dog (You dog!)
31. dirty (a dirty mind)
32. dough (money)
33. drip (He's a drip)
34. drag (This class is a drag)
35. eye (the eye of a hurricane)
36. exist (f. stand out)
37. explain (f. make flat)
38. enthrall (f. to make a slave of)
39. foot (foot of a mountain)
40. fuzzy (I'm fuzzy headed)
41. finger (a finger of land)
42. fascinate (f. enchant by witchcraft)
43. flat (a flat note)
44. get (I don't get it)
45. grasp (I grasped the concept)
46. guts (He has a lot of guts)
47. groove (I'm in the groove)
48. gas (It was a gasser)
49. grab (How does the idea grab you?)
50. high (He got high on dope)
51. hang (He's always hung up)
52. heavy (I had a heavy time)
53. hot (a hot idea)
54. heart (the heart of the problem)
55. head (head of the line)
56. hands (hands of the clock)
57. home (drive the point home)
58. jazz (f. sexual activity)
59. jive (I don't dig this jive)
60. intelligent (f. bring together)
61. keen (f. intelligent)
62. load (a load off my mind)
63. long (a long lime)
64. loud (a loud color)
65. lip (lip of the glass)
66. lamb (She's a lamb)
67. mouth (mouth of a cave)
68. mouse (You're a mouse)
69. milk (He milked the job dry)
70. pagan (f. civilian, in distinction to Christians, who called themselves soldiers of Christ)
71. pig (You pig)
72. quiet (a quiet color)
73. rip-off (It was a big rip-off)
74. rough (a rough voice)
75. ribs (the ribs of a ship)
76. report (f. to carry back)
77. result (f. to spring back)
78. shallow (shallow ideas)
79. soft (a soft wind)
80. sharp (a sharp dresser)
81. smooth (a smooth operator)
82. solve (f. to break up)
83. spirit (f. breath)
84. snake (You snake!)
85. straight (He's a straight guy)
86. square (He's a square)
87. split (Let's split)
88. turn on (He turns me on)
89. trip (It was a bad (drug) trip)
90. thick (a voice thick with anger)
91. thin (a thin sound)
92. tongue (a tongue of land)
93. translate (f. carry across)
94. warm (a warm color)
95. wrestle (I wrestled with the problem)
96. wild (a wild idea)


ƥͳθ줬¿ޤޤƤ뤬̤¿ǤʤƥѸϡαѸǤϡʸŵƥˤƤ˸ȤѤ⡤ŪȯŸѤ뤳ȤΤۤ¿Τ̤ưʪɽ魯Ȥ source Ȥʤ뤳Ȥ¿ (synaesthesia) λ¿ޤŪʸ¯Ūʶ⾯ʤʤ
Τ褦ȤˤϤħ졤̸Ūˤ⹭ѻ뤳Ȥ顤̣ѲΰŪ뤳ȤǽȤʤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1])#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1])#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) ʤɤε򻲾ȡ

Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.

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2015-04-13 Mon

#2177. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ (2) [semantic_change][semantics][folk_etymology][prediction_of_language_change][onomasiology]

#2175. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ ([2015-04-11-1]) ε­McMahon (184--86) ϡ̣Ѳ򰷤ϤǡϤŪʰ̣Ѳ෿⤷ʤ⡤ФȽ򷫤깭Ƥ롥εȽŤʤƤ¿McMahon εʹƤߤ褦
ޤŪʰ̣Ѳ෿ˤƤϡ̲ (generalization)ü첽 (specialization) (pejoration)ɲ (amelioration) Τۤ᥿ե (metaphor)ȥ˥ߡ (metonymy)ά (ellipsis)ָ̱츻 (folk_etymology) ʤɤΥפФж̤뤬Ǹ2Ĥϸ̩ˤϰ̣ѲμǤϤʤ̣ˤŪ˱ƶڤܤ֤ѲȤ٤ΤǤꡤŪʰ̣ˤ̣ѲˤʤС semasiological Ȥ onomasiological ʴ˴ؤΤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2174. ָ̱츻Ọ̇̄Ѳ ([2015-04-10-1]) ǤȽŪ
ˡʣΰ̣Ѳμब¸뤳ȤǤ롥㤨Сָ̱츻ȤƤФм夲븽Ѹ belfry (bell-tower) Ǥϡ (bell) ˤäƾϰɽ "pars pro toto" Υȥ˥ߡʤ뤤 (synecdoche)ˤѤƤ롥ΰ̣Ѳʬष褦ȤСָ̱츻Ǥ⤢ꡤĥȥ˥ߡǤ⤢ȤȤˤʤꡤȤȤ෿ϳ餵Ф෿ǤϤʤȤϪ褷Ƥ롥ΤȤϤޤ̣Ѳθᥫ˥बˤʣǤ뤳ȡͽ¬ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥ򼨺롥
Ǹˡ󤲤Ƥ෿ˤꤢ̣Ѳμब󤲿Ԥ줿櫓ǤϤʤ礱Ƥ롥äȤ̣ѲμǤ䤷ƤФ褤ȤΤǤʤ⤽෿Ȥ뤳ȤǤΤȤϤ롥
ɤΤȤ෿ιۤ񤷤Τϡ(1) ̣ѲҲʸ򻲾ȤʤеҡǤʤȤ¿(2) Ե§ͽ¬ԲǽǤꡤ(3) Ụ̄ŪפʶŪʤɤˤޤ夤˵褦˻פ롥

McMahon, April M. S. Understanding Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.

Referrer (Inside): [2015-06-27-1]

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2015-04-11 Sat

#2175. Ūʰ̣Ѳ෿ؤȽ [semantic_change][semantics][reanalysis]

#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1])#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ ([2015-01-28-1]) ʤɤǡŪʰ̣Ѳ෿ߤƤȤ櫓ɤγˤФƤ̣Ѳ4ϡ[2010-08-13-1]Ǽ夲̲ (generalization)ü첽 (specialization) (pejoration)ɲ (amelioration) Ǥ롥ŪʬǤϡǽ2ĤؼоݤϰϤγ̾Ȥ denotation μ˴ؤꡤ2ĤŪɾιȤ connotation μ˴ؤäƤ롥2ĤμΤߤǥѥäڤڤ̣ɤƤΤ̣ѲȤФ4郎ɬڤ롥
Τʬ䤹෿ǤϤ뤬4ΤˤƤϤޤʤ̣ѲϿ¿ǧƤꡤФȽˤ餵ƤΤ¤Ǥ롥㤨С̾Ǥ count one's beads ˤ beads (cf. #1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])) ηФ̣Ѳϡ4Τˤ⤢ƤϤޤʤŪ෿ϡޤŪǤʤϳ줬¿ȤȽȤʤޤ̣Ѳü첽Ǥ⤢갭Ǥ⤢ʤɤΤ褦ˡ2ĤζʬƱˤƤϤޤäƤޤ⾯ʤʤϡ෿Τ꤬뤳ȤʪäƤ롥
⤦1ĤȽȤơ̲䰭ʤɤѸϡΰ̣ѲˤAȿBȤỤ̄뤤ϴỤ̄бط̾դŪʥ٥ˤȤɤޤäƤ롤ȤΤ롥ºݤˤϰ̣ѲΤΤưŪʲǤꡤΤꤿΤϤβɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ뤫ǤϤˤĤƾ嵭Υ٥ϲⶵƤʤȡʴϢȤơ#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ ([2015-01-27-1]) 򻲾ȡ
ŦȽԤ1ͤǤ Fortson (650) ϡưŪʲȤʬ (reanalysis) ˤۤʤʤǸ롥ʬϤϸѼԤοŪʲǤꡤ켫ȡ°ʸ˰¸ȤǼҲŪӤӤƤ롥äơѲΰ̣ߤ˴طŤͼϡ4ĤۤɤγǰǤޤȤۤñǤϤʤष¿ͤʤϤǤ롥λ¤򸫤ʤƤޤǡ경Ū෿ΩʤFortson (652) μĥϼ̤Ǥ롥

. . . a fundamental flaw of most categorizations of semantic change is that they rest upon the assumption that an old meaning becomes the new meaning, that there is some real connection between the two. As these and other examples show, however, this assumption is false; a connection between the new and old meanings is illusory. The set of meanings in a speaker's head is created afresh just like all the other components of the grammar. It may legitimately be asked how it is, then, that one can seem so often to find a connection between an old and a new meaning. In the case of metonymic change, the question makes little sense. Metonymic changes are so infinitely diverse precisely because . . . the connections are not linguistic; they are cultural. This has in some sense always been known, but when metonymic extension is defined in terms of an "association" of a word becoming the word's new meaning, we can easily forget that the "association" in question is not linguistic in nature.


Fortson ϡ̣ѲΥᥫ˥ˤΤϺʬϤȤϢ³ŪʲǤǤƤꡤŪ˼ĥƤ̣Ѳˤ̣Ϣ³ꤷƤ롥Fortson ΤθϸѲλҶײΩӤƤꡤ줬ɤޤΤϤ狼ʤŪʰ̣Ѳ෿˲­ʤΤ򴶤ȤФ1Ĥ󶡤ƤƤ롥

Fortson IV, Benjamin W. "An Approach to Semantic Change." Chapter 21 of The Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Ed. Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda. Blackwell, 2003. 648--66.

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2015-01-28 Wed

#2102. Ѹˤˤ̣γȽ̾ [semantic_change][semantics][hyponymy][semantic_field][lexicology]

#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) ǰ̣ΰ̲ (generalization) ü첽 (specialization) ˤĤƿ줿̤θ򤹤С̣γ (widening) Ƚ̾ (narrowing) Ǥ롥Ѹˤΰ̣ο̤㤬ǤȻפäƤȤWilliams ˤȵ󤲤ƤΤǷǺܤ褦
ޤ̾㤫 (Williams 171--73) ä˵󤲤̣ʤοܡˤϡ̾򵯤ʳΤ깭̣Ǥ롥ߤμפʸӤ줿

accident (an event)
accost (come alongside in a boat > to approach anyone)
addict (someone who devotes himself to anything)
admonish (advise)
affection (the act of being affected > any affection of the mind)
argue (make clear)
arrest (stop)
artillery (any large implement of war)
carp (talk)
censure (judge)
condemn (pass sentence)
corn (any grain)
cunning (knowledge, skill)
damn (pass sentence)
deer (any animal)
denizen (a citizen of a country or city)
deserts (whatever one deserves, good or bad)
disease (discomfort)
doom (judge)
ecstasy (beside oneself with any strong emotion: fear, joy, pain)
effigy (any likeness)
erotic (relating to love)
esteem (put a value on, good or bad)
fame (report, rumor)
fiend (the enemy)
filth (dirt)
fortune (chance)
fowl (any bird)
ghost (spirit)
grumble (murmur, make low sounds)
hound (any dog)
immoral (not customary)
leer (look obliquely out of the side of the eye)
liquor (liquid)
lust (desire in general)
manure (v., hold land > to cultivate land)
meat (food)
molest (trouble or annoy)
odor (anything perceptible to the sense of smell)
orgy (secret observances)
peculiar (belonging to or characteristic of an individual)
pill (any medicinal ball)
praise (from (ap)praise: set a value on, good or bad)
predicament (any situation)
proposition (a statement set forth for discussion)
reek (smoke from burning matter > produce any vapor)
retaliate (repay for anything)
sanctimonious (holy, sacred)
scheme (horoscope > diagram > plan)
seduce (persuade someone to desert his duty)
shroud (an article of clothing)
smirk (smile)
smug (trim neat)
starve (die)
stink (any odor)
stool (a chair)
success (any outcome)
suggestive (that which suggests something)
syndicate (a group of civil authorities > any group of businessmen pursuing a common commercial activity)
thank (from the general word for think)
vice (a flaw)


ˡ (Williams 175--77) 󤲤롥

allude (mock)
aroma (the smell of spices)
aunt (father's sister)
barn (a store for barley)
bend (bring a bow into tension with a bow string)
bird (young of the family avis)
box (a small container made of boxwood)
butcher (one who slaughters goats)
carry (transport by cart)
chicken (a young hen or rooster)
deplore (weep for)
detest (condemn, curse)
dirt (excrement)
divest (remove one's clothes)
elope (run away from one's husband)
fact (a thing done)
frantic (madness)
frenzy (wild delirium)
gang (a set of tools laid out for use > a group of workmen/slaves)
go (walk)
harvest (reap ripened grain)
holiday (a holy day)
journey (a day > a day's trip or day's work)
magic (the knowledge and skill of the Magi)
manner (the mode of handling something by hand)
mess (a meal set out for a group of four)
mind (memory > thought, purpose, intention)
mystery (divine revealed knowledge)
oil (olive oil)
ordeal (trial by torture)
pen (a feather for writing)
picture (a painted likeness)
picture (a painting or drawing)
plant (a young slip or cutting)
sail (cross water propelled by the wind)
sail (travel on water)
sanctuary (a holy place)
scent (animal odor for tracking)
silly (deserving of pity > frail > simple, ignorant > feeble minded)
slogan (the battle cry of Scottish clans)
start (move suddenly)
stop (fill or plug up > prevent passage by stopping up > prevent the movement of a person)
surly (sir-ly, that behavior which characterizes a "Sir")
uncle (mother's brother)


˵󤲤¬褦ˡ̣γȽ̾Ӥȡ̾ΤۤŪ¿ΤΤ褦ͳ꤫ǤϤʤȤȤˤΤʬƤ®٤ΤۤҤ礷褦Ȥʹ֤αİ٤⾡äƤ뤫餫⤷ʤǰ (cf. #1962. ǰ ([2014-09-10-1])) δߤС̸ (hyponyms) Фޤ򲼤زؿФƤȤȾмưŪ˿ʤबʾ̸ (hypernyms) ФκȤˤϫϤפ롥⡤ҤʬƤ졤εϾʤWilliams (177) ϡΤ褦ʸҤ٤Ƥ롥

   It is harder to find a pattern for widening than it is for narrowing. It is not entirely certain, but meanings seem to widen somewhat less frequently than they narrow. As a culture becomes more diversified and more complex with more areas of knowledge and activity, those areas require a vocabulary. Because every language has a finite number of words and because speakers are not inclined to coin completely new forms for new concepts, the simplest way to deal with new areas of knowledge is to use the current vocabulary. Borrowing, derivation, compounding, and so on operate here. But perhaps even more frequent is narrowing.
   But on the other hand it can also be difficult to talk about the most ordinary activities of daily life as they diversify. Once it becomes possible to drive (drive originally meaning to force an animal along), or ride (ride originally meaning to go on horseback), or walk (originally meaning to travel about in public), then talking about getting some place without specifying how becomes difficult. The word go, originally meaning to walk, generalized so that an English speaker can now say I am going to town this morning without having to specify how he gets there. Carry generalized from transporting specifically in a conveyance of some sort to transporting by bearing up in general: The wind carried the seed, and so on.


Ǥΰˤϡ̣ȶ̣˿ (shift) äФǤϤʤŤۤθ¸줬¸Ƥ pill sanctuary ʤɤ⾯ʤʤ

Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.

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2015-01-27 Tue

#2101. Williams ΰ̣Ѳ [semantic_change][semantics][causation][unidirectionality][synaesthesia][register]

Williams αѸˤɤǤợѲΰܳŪǤ7Ϥ8Ϥ̣ѲƤƤˡѸ˳ΤʤǤŪ褯ޤȤޤäƤ褦˴ʲĤȤ
Williams (170) ϰ̣Ѳζ̤ "reasons", "mechanism", "consequences" 3ʬƹͤ褦ȤƤ롥ƶˤꡤ̣Ѳʬ˴ؤƤĤƤƬꥢˤʤä褦˻פȤΤϡʬǤϤζ̤ޤŪ˶̤Ƥʤäܥ֥Ǥ̣ѲʤθˤʬˤĤơ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1])#1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1])#1973. Meillet ΰ̣Ѳ3Ĥθ ([2014-09-21-1])#2060. ̣Ѹ콸ˤߤ̣Ѳʬ ([2014-12-17-1]) Ǽ夲ƤޤŪʬȤΤϤʤȤäƤ褤ʬˡϡԤοȤäƤǤϤʤۤɤStern ֤ⷫƤ褦ˡ2Ĥΰ̣ѲưŤƱפäȤƤۤʤ륿פ˵뤹뤳ȤϤ뤷դ˵ΥפƱǤäƤ⡤ͳΥפϰۤʤȤ褦ʰ̣Ѳ⤢롥ޤۤʤʣװ߹äơ1Ĥΰ̣ѲȯȤȤ⤴̤ˤߤ롥⤽̣ѲʬȤäƤ⡤̣ѲΤɤζ̤ܤʬह뤫Ȥͤ⤢ꡤǤϤʤäΤWilliams ä˲ȤҤ٤Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤ"reasons", "mechanism", "consequences" 3̤̤ƤɾǤ롥
ޤWilliams ϰ̣Ѳˡ§ (semantic laws) 1䤤Ƥ (207--10) ˤĤƤϡ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1])#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1])#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1]) εʤɤǿƤWilliams (207) ⡤̣Ѳˡ§ȤϤ鷺ȤⷹȤƻŦǤ뤳ȤȤơŪ̵ʹܤ򤤤Ĥ󤲤Ƥ롥

1. Words for abstractions will generally develop out of words for physical experience: comprehend, grasp, explain, and so on.
2. Words originally indicating neutral condition tend to polarize: doom, frame, predicament, luck, merit.
3. Words originally indicating strong emotional response tend to weaken as they are used to exaggerate: awful, terrific, tremendous.
4. Insulting words tend to come from names of animals or lower classes: rat, dog, villain, cad
5. Metaphors will be drawn from those aspects of experience most relevant to us: eye of a needle, finger of land; or most intense in our experience: turn on, spaced out, freaked out, for example.


Williams (208) ϡ궯Ϥʰ̣Ѳˡ§Ȥơ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ǿ줿Ѹ®ע֤ˡפΰ̣Ѳ夲Ƥ뤬ϡ־ˡ§פǤϤʤֲˤĤƤθꤵ줿̲פǤɾƤ롥⤦ˡ§̾ͤΤȤƤϡBasic Color Terms ˤߤ̸Ūȡ餬󾧤붦 (synaesthesia) 󤲤ƤʸԤˤĤƤϡ#1759. synaesthesia ([2014-02-19-1]) 򻲾ȡˡWilliams ˤСְ̣Ѳˡ§פˤʤΤϡ"universals of change which, because they are so regular and so general, reflect internal influences either peculiar to the particular language or to human language and cognition in general" (208) Ǥ褦
Williams ϡ̣ѲȴϢ slang, argot, cant, jargon ȤäѰΡ㤤׸ˤܤƤꡤ "A Social and Linguistic History" ˤդ路ҲŪʴƶäƤ롥

Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
Williams, Joseph M. "Synaesthetic Adjectives: A Possible Law of Semantic Change." Language 52 (1976): 461--78.

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