θˤƤ⡤ạ̈Ѳ (semantic_change) ϤƤդ줿פθѲǤꡤ˵äƤ롥ΤȤϡ#1955. ̣ѲΰŪ ([2014-09-03-1]) Ǥ̤Ǥ롥űѸñˤ⡤¿ΰ̣ѲäƤȤ
äǤűѸñΰ̣ѲʸŪʸڤǤ뤫ɤǤ롥⤽űѸθ¸Ͼʤᡤñΰ̣ѲűѸ˵äΤɤΤΤ˽ʬʾʤȤ¿ޤ̣ѲΤ˵äȸ뤿ˤϡѲѲθγơνŵȤʤƥȤŪ夷Ƥ뤳ȤθǤʤФʤʤˤϥƥǯǯᤰ꤬ĤޤȤ
Τ褦ʻǸűѸñΰ̣ѲˤϺΤǤ⤢ٸ뤳ȤϤ롥ŵ "semantic change" ι (p. 415) ϢսѤ롥
One area of vocabulary in which semantic change clearly took place during the Old English period is religious terminology. God 'God', heofon 'heaven', and helle 'hell', for example, necessarily adopted new meanings when they were applied to Christian rather than pagan concepts. Semantic change can also take the form of the development of a metaphorical meaning. In Old English this sometimes took place under the influence of Latin. Examples include tunge 'tongue', which was extended to mean 'language', possibly modelled on Latin lingua, and wit(e)ga 'wise man', used for 'prophet', perhaps influenced by Latin propheta. After the establishment of the Danelaw, OE terms also underwent semantic development under the influence of their Old Norse cognates. Modern English bloom 'flower' takes its form from either Old English bloma 'ingot of iron' or Old Norse blom 'flower', but its sense is clearly from Old Norse. In Old English, plog (ModE plough) was used for the measure of land which a yoke of oxen could plough in a day; its use with reference to an agricultural implement developed under the influence of Old Norse plogr. Similarly, Old English eorl 'man, warrior' (ModE earl) developed the sense 'chief, ruler of a shire' under the influence of Old Norse jarl.
ƥΥꥹȶѸαƶˤ̣ѲťΥɸбαƶˤ̣Ѳ夲Ƥ뤬˸ؤǤ̣ (semantic_borrowing) ȤƸڤ뤳Ȥ¿פΤΤǤ롥¾ˤñΰ̣ʬäƤꡤĸܿλʤɤǤСΤ褦ʰ̣ѲεǽˤʤȤȤ˸ؤʸؤˡΥȥԥåȤƤ⤪⤷
Lapidge, Michael, John Blair, Simon Keynes, and Donald Scragg, eds. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999.
ABؤबư뤳Ȥ "linguistic transfer" ʸưˤȸƤǤܿ (contact) ˤˤ˵븽ݤǤꡤŵŪʸ1Ĥμ (borrowing) Ǥ롥ǤϤʤΰ̣ự (semantic_borrowing) ⤢СŪñ̤طư⤢롥ǡηϡˤΰưŪܤΰư⤢뤫⤷ʤ "linguistic transfer" ȤäƤ⡤ʼबΤ
Heine and Kuteva (87) ϡ5θưǧƤ롥
a. form, that is, sounds or combinations of sounds,
b. meanings (including grammatical meanings) or combinations of meanings,
c. form-meaning units,
d. syntactic relations, that is, the order of meaningful elements,
e. any combination of (a) through (d).
ΰưȼ a c ϡʿСּѡ (borrowing) Ǥ롥b d ϲΰưȼʤưǤꡤԸˤʤäơʣ (replication) ȸƤǤ绨ĤˤСѤϤŪʹܤΰưǡʣϤŪʹܤΰưǤ롥ʤߤ e Ϥ٤ƤΤäѤǤ롥θưϡճȤ狼䤹ȻפäƤ롥
Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.
ΰ̣Ѳ˴ؤ Williams ɤǤơʤۤɤȻפäȤ롥ޤǤޤӤĤƤȤʤä2ĤγǰδطˤĤƹͤ줿ΤǤ롥 (metaphor) Ọ̇̄ (semantic_borrowing) ˤȿФǤϤ뤬ˤƶ̤ƤȤ⤷طˤȤȤ
ȤȤΤϡ¸θΰ̣餫ΰ̣Ūˤơ̤ΰ (domain) ˻DZѤǤ롥̣ѤȤΤϡ¸θηܤ¾Ǥθ줬ˡ¾Ǥθΰ̣Ǥ롥
֤ۤʤΤ褦˻פ뤬롥ŪˤС¸εǽ (signifiant) ϤΤޤޤˡ국 (signifié) Ū˳ĥѤȤΤǤ롥̤Ȥơȿ夤ƶ¸뤳Ȥ⤢СɤФȤ⤢뤬褽ηϤꤽȤξˤϤƤݻ¿ (polysemy) ˵뤹̣ѤξˤϤƤϤ˴ơ̤ȤƸִ (semantic replacement) Ȥˤʤ
ưŤˤĤƤСȤϼ˥ꥸʥƥդ̣δϢŤ˰¸Ƥ뤬̣ѤϤޤ¾ǻäȤˤϢŤǤꡤꥸʥƥǤ롥
嵭Υԥ졼뤳Ȥˤʤä Williams (193) ʸϤѤƤ
Semantic Replacement
In our linguistic history, there have been cases in which the reverse of metaphor occurred. Instead of borrowing a foreign word for a new semantic space, late OE speakers transferred certain Danish meanings to English words which phonologically resembled the Danish words and shared some semantic space with them. The native English word dream, meaning to make a joyful noise, for example, was probably close enough to the Scandinavian word draumr, or sleep vision, to take on the Danish meaning, driving out the English meaning. The same may have happened with the words bread (originally meaning fragment); and dwell (OE meaning: to hinder or lead astray).
ȤʤäƤ̣ѤŪȤƤ dream, bread, dwell ˤĤƤϡ#2149. ̣ѡ ([2015-03-16-1]) ȡȤ櫓 bread ˤĤƤϡ#2692. ťΥɸѸ˴ؤ Gersum Project ([2016-09-09-1]) Ȥ줿
Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.
#4183. ֵΥ˥եŶס ([2020-10-09-1]) ǰѤ Meillet ϡνʸˤợѲ (semantic_change) ˴ؤҲؤʸĴƤ롥ñϼҲĤȤѤۤʤΤǤꡤñΰ̣ҲĤȤδؿ˱äѲѰۤ뤳ȤȤʤΤ褦ˤƳƼҲĤʰ̣ΤĤμҲĤᤵȤμҲĤΩ줫ߤСñΥꥸʥΰ̣ˡ̣դää褦ˤߤĤޤꡤǼºݤ˵äƤ뤳Ȥϡ̣ѲΤΤǤϤʤ¾μҲĤΰ̣ (semantic_borrowing) ʤΤȤƶǤ롥
Meillet ϡԸϤƤ̣ѲγΤʸȤΤФȤϤǤʤ1Ĥ˶ᤤΤȤо嵭λ¤ȼƤ롥ΡּҲġפָ줬ѤĶפȤƴˤ᤹Сΰ̣Ѳϡۤʤ̣ۤʤѰ (register) ֤ǰư뤳ȤˤäΤ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡ̣ѲҲŪΩ줫ߤΤˤۤʤʤMeillet (27) ⤷ƤʬѤƤ
Il apparaît ainsi que le principe essentiel du changement de sens est dans l'existence de groupements sociaux à l'intérieur du milieu où une langue est parlée, c'est-à-dire dans un fait de structure sociale. Il serait assurément chimérique de prétendre expliquer dès maintenant toutes les transformations de sense par ce principe: un grand nombre de faits résisteraient et ne se laisseraient interpréter qu'à l'aide de suppositions arbitraires et souvent forcées; l'histoire des mots n'est pas assez faite pour qu'on puisse, sur aucun domaine, tenter d'épuiser tous les cas et démontrer qu'ils se ramènent sans aucun reste au principe invoqué, ce qui serait le seul procédé de preuve théoriquement possible; le plus souvent même ce n'est que par hypothèse qu'on peut tracer la courbe qu'a suivie le sens d'un mot en se transformant. Mais, s'il est vrai qu'un changement de sens ne puisse pas avoir lieu sans être provoqué par une action définie --- et c'est le postulat nécessaire de toute théorie solide en sémantique ---, le principe invoqué ici est le seul principe connu et imaginable dont l'intervention soit assez puissante pour rendre compte de la pluplart des faits observés; et d'autre part l'hypothèse se vérifie là où les circonstances permettent de suivre les faits de près.
Meillet ξ嵭ιͤˤĤƤϡ#1973. Meillet ΰ̣Ѳ3Ĥθ ([2014-09-21-1]) ǤŦޤϢȤơ#2246. Meillet "tout se tient" --- Ҳˤ ([2015-06-21-1])#2161. Ҳ¤Ѳϸ칽¤ľܤȿǤʤ ([2015-03-28-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Meillet, Antoine. "Comment les mots changent de sens." Année sociologique 9 (1906). 1921 ed. Rpt. Dodo P, 2009.
űѸȸťΥɸܿˤĤơܥ֥ǤϤطʤħӤӵƤ1ĤƶȤơθܿ koineisation ǤϤʤȤ롥koine koineisation ϤȤơϢܿɽ魯Ѹ졦ǰγˤϰƤꡤϲä koineisation ȸƤ֤ȤȤϤʤФʤʤʲδϢ뵭ͤޤǤ˵ƤΤΡϤΤ䤳ˤĤƤϿꤷʤǤ
#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])
#3150. ܿϸñˤ뤫ʣˤ뤫 ([2017-12-11-1])
#3178. ȳ̿ԻѼء ([2018-01-08-1])
#3499. "Standard English" "General English" ([2018-11-25-1])
#1391. lingua franca (4) ([2013-02-16-1])
#1690. pidgin ȤδϢ ([2013-12-12-1])
#3207. ɸѸȸɸಽ˴ؤ뤤ĤνѸ ([2018-02-06-1])
Fischer et al. (67--68) koineisation ˤĤƤ Kerswill Ȥά˲⤷ƤȤޤȤƤݥȤ4Ĥ롥
(1) 23Τ˴λΤŵǤꡤȤ1Ǥⴰλ뤳Ȥ
(2) (mixing)ʿ (levelling)ñ㲽 (simplification) 3ʤ
(3) ܿ2ѼŵŪ˷³ʤ pidgin creole Ȱۤʤ
(4) 줫Ѽ郎ŪȤȤʤҿ櫓Ǥʤ
űѸȸťΥɸܿǰƬˡ(2) ˵Ƥ3ĤβˤĤƤ1βǤ뺮 (mixing) ͡ʥ٥Ǥߤ뤬űѸο;̾ΥѥΤʤ they, their, them ʤɤθťΥɸǤƤʤɤŵǤ롥dream Τ褦˷֤ϱѸỤ̄ϸťΥɸŪȤ̣ (semantic_borrowing) λʤɤ롥Ѹäδؤ¿θťΥɸñ줬ǤȤΤ⺮Ȥ롥
2βǤʿ (levelling) ϡʣä۷֤μबꡤ1Ĥη֤˼̤ƤѲؤűѸǤϷ se sēo, þæt ʤɳƼη֤˶ޤѸˤ þe ؿʿƤäǵäƤ뤳Ȥϡkoineisation 1ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
3βǤñ㲽 (simplification) ϡƻޤζ̤줿ꡤưѲ2饹̤ʤɡʸˡƥζ̤ʤʤ褦ʥؤʸˡ (gender) ξü⤳ˤ롥
Τ褦ˤߤƤȡΤ˸űѸȸťΥɸܿˤϡ̣ħĤ롥 koineisation ȸƤ֤٤ɤѸȤȤʤ뤬ŦƤħˤǼǤȤ¿
Ϣơ#3969. ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶӤ ([2020-03-09-1]) ⻲ȡ
Kerswill, P. "Koineization and Accommodation." The Handbook of Language Variation and Change. Ed. J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, and N. Schilling-Estes. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004. 668--702.
Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.
1549ǯ˼äեӥϡ3ͤͭǽܿͿԤΤ褯ʬäƤΤϡ֥פǤ롥ӥϤΥΤĤƤǡμ硤ŵפұڤ뤳ȤǤӥϡ®۶ϤꥹȶˤĤƲΤƤʤܤǤ۶¿ǤäȤʤӥ䥢ϡ۶˺ݤƤˤƥꥹȶγǰѸܿͤ뤫ȤƬǺޤȤˤĤơʿ (46--47) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ˤƤ⡤ӥΤܤĤʤܸ䥢ⶵʹơܿͤ˥ꥹȶΤºݤΤȤϡޥꥢΤȤִѲסŷʥѥ饤ˤΤȤϡֶ˳ڡפƤͤϡפǤäǡΡפΤȤǤ롥ͣδǰܤˤϤʤΤǥϺäƤޤäơפΤΤ붵ե˥㡼ΤϡҤɤפȽƤ뤬ǡʩǤ̵±ˤޤͤ¸ߤĶۼԤȤ֤ŤǤ뤫顤ǽȤƤϤʤ˶ڤ̤äƤȤäƤ褤Ĥޤꥶӥ뤿ܿͤˡҤߤʤפȸƤӤ櫓Ǥ뤫顤ܿãϥꥹȶʩΰɤȻפäʤ줿ȤȤ
θ奶ӥϡˡפǤϤޤȤȤ˵Ťơŷƻפȸ褦ˤʤäŷƻפϡŷϤĤɤꡤ٤Ƥ̤͏ߡפȤ̣äƤΤǡܸĶŪ¸ߤѸȤƤԼǤϤʤ⤦ȤˤʤȡǤϥꥹȶǰʤȤơΤȤϤΤޤޡ֥ǥס֥ޥꥢפΤȤִѲפǤϤʤ̤ˡ֥ޥꥢפȸ褦ˤʤäޤǤθˤꡤĹǯ֡ʰϻǯƬˤޤǤϥǥΤȤŷƻפȸƤ֤ȤǧƤȤƤ롥
ǥȤϡŷƻפΤȤǤȤⶵʹС¿ܿͤϤޤʤäΤǤϤʤ餳ꥹȶ褷Ƥ鷺͡ǯۤɤǻͤοԤ뤳ȤǤΤʩˤơηϤȤ⤫̥٥Ǥϳƽɤζˤ뤳ȤϤޤʤäդνɤޤϱΤʤɤˤäƽ°νɤޤäƤ褦ʤΤäΤؤ뤳Ȥ⤢äΤ顤¯ͤνؤ⤢ꤨäƿΤäꥹȶ˵ͤ뤳ȤϡۤɿʽؤǤԼʤȤǤʤäȻפ롥
Ĥޤꡤ顤ŪʩѸˤäơꥹȶοͤסޥꥢִѲסѥ饤ֶ˳ڡפƤΤϡܸθηϤδ餤д¸Ѹ˿ƳȤȤǤꡤĤޤȤǵäƤ뤳Ȥϰ̣ (semantic_borrowing) Ǥ롥֥ǥס֥ޥꥢס֥ѥ饤פȤܿͤˤȤäƤޤ˰ۼǡ椨˥åǤѸȤƳ⡤ʹƤ¸ܸΤʤˤäȡʤäĤȡ˿ʸʤ뤤ϽŪˤޤۤ۶ʤǤϹԹääȻפ롥
⤷Ȥˡ6ʹߤ˥ͤδ֤˥ꥹȶ褦Ȥ붵դ⡤ǽ顤褦ˡƥ deus ʿˤľܱѸƳΤǤϤʤѸ God ѤơθäȡʤäĤȡ˥ꥹȶŪñ֤ΤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) ȡ#2663. ֥ץѡפȡ֤äĤѡ (1) ([2016-08-11-1]) Ȥ줿
ʿ ܤҳ١ҡӡ2018ǯ.
Ѹ calling ϡʼĥä쥸ǡŷȡפ̣롥ư call ̾ȤơָƤ֤ȡפθǤϽѸ줫ʸڤ뤬ŷפθ16ȾΤȤǤ롥OED ˤȡθ (8c) Ǥνϰʲ̤ꡥ
c. A profession devoted to the service of God; an office or position within the church. Hence in extended use: any profession or way of life which a person feels called or destined to pursue.
. . . .
1544 R. Tracy Supplycacion to Kynge Henry VIII sig. Bviiiv, As the byshop is ignorante in Godes worde, so he admytteth suche as be vnlerned in Gods worde, evyn suche as by noo possybylite can execute the office of their callinge.
ֿˤ뾤פǤ뤫顤ȷӤĤƤɽǤ뤳Ȥͽۤ롥ºݡ㤨 KJV 1 Cor. 7.20 ˡ"Let every man abide in the same calling wherein he was called." ȸ롥
ֿˤ뾤פŷפؤΰ̣ѲϡѸ calling Τߤʤ餺ɥĸ Beruf ˤ⸫롥䡤ΤˤСɥĸọ̇ѲбѸ˵ڤȤ٤Ǥ롥Ĥޤꡤΰ̣ (semantic_translation) beroepǥޡ kaldǥ kallelse ƱͤǤ롥
ɥĸϤȤ륲ޥǤΰ̣Ѳϡ16Υ륿ˤ뽡פȴˤƤϹͤʤץƥƥȤ礭ʼҲưȤȼΰ̣ѲζưԤǤ롥ޥåС̾إץƥƥȻܼ (96--97) ꡤBeruf θˤĤƲ⤷սѤ褦˵ǼƤˡ
ơֿ̡ȡפ̣ͥɥĸΡ֥٥롼աסBerufԤȤΤˡޤƱ̣礤ıѸΡ֥סcallingԤȤΤˤƤˡ뽡Ūʡ餢줿̿ (Aufgabe) ȤǰȤƤꡤġξˤθФۤɡ줬ˤʤäƤ뤳ȤϸȤ̻¤⡤θŪˤĤޤޤʸ̱θˤ錄äɵ椷ƤߤȡޤΤꤦΤϡȥå̤ͥʽ̱²ˤ⡤ޤŵξˤ⡤줬¯Ūʿȡʤϰ̡ϫƯΰȤ̣礤ƻȤäƤBerufԡŷפȤθĴĤ褦ɽФȤǤʤΤˡץƥȤͥʽ̱²ξˤʤ餺줬¸ߤ롤ȤȤΤꤦΤϡξ粿餫̱²ŪȤС֥ޥ̱²פθȤäΤͿƤΤǤϤʤơषθȤ줬ĸߤΰ̣礤ͳ褷Ƥꡤ⸶ʸǤϤʤԤͳ褷ƤȤȤåǤϡޤ֥٥ηáס̵ŵΰͤΰĽʰˤǸȤޤäƱ̣ѤƤ褦˻פ롥θޤʤθϡץƥȽ̱²¯ѸΤʤǸߤΰ̣Ĥ褦ˤʤäƤäˤϤ̱²¯Ūʸɤˤ⤳˨ϤޤäǧʤŪʸǤ⡤Τꤦ뤫ꡤɥĿȤΰͤΤۤˤϤǧ뤳ȤǤʤοȤåˤܤƶϼΤΤȤ
礭ʸŪ郎ʸΰ̣ѲǤ롥
ޥåСˡ ͺˡإץƥƥȻܼ١ȽŹ1989ǯ
ä ICEHL19 (see #2686. ICEHL19 ˻äƵŤسĬήʤɡ ([2016-09-03-1])) γزܤȯɽˡCambridge ؤ Richard Dance Cardiff ؤ Sara M. Pons-Sanz ˤ Gersum Project ηв𤬤äűѸ줫ѸˤŵŪʰ̣ (semantic_borrowing) Ȥ bread ȡν loaf ȤδطˤĤƸˤܤĴ̡Jespersen ξΰ̣ٻڵϤʤȤŪʷƳ줿ʤνˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ#2149. ̣ ([2015-03-16-1])#23. "Good evening, ladies and gentlemen!"ϴְ㤤 ([2009-05-21-1])#340. ťΥɸ줬ѸͿƶ Jespersen ɾ ([2010-04-02-1]) ǿƤˡ
Gersum Project ϡθťΥɸαѸФƶϲɾƤ餤ʤ餯ϥǥޡͤΰʱѸؼ Jespersen ΰŪʱѸ˴Ѥ椨ˡɾɬפȤΩäƤ褦ʴϢơ#1183. ťΥɸαƶɾܻؤơ ([2012-07-23-1]) ȡˡץȤHPˤȡʢؤƤ꤬ȤޤˡץȤ "The Gersum project aims to understand this Scandinavian influence on English vocabulary by examining the origins of up to 1,600 words in a corpus of Middle English poems from the North of England, including renowned works of literature like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, and the Alliterative Morte Arthure." Ȥ礿̤ϡ3Ԥۤ뤳ΥƥȤˤťΥɸͳñΥǡ١Ȥơ뤳Ȥˤʤ褦
ťΥɸμѸȤŪطʤ˴ؤμˤϡƱHP Norse Terms in English: A (basic!) Introduction ͭѡ
ܿȼ (borrowing) ϡá֡졤̣γƤꡤ͡˸椵Ƥ#1988. Ѹ츦 to-do list (2) ([2014-10-06-1]) ǿ줿褦˸ŪѤˤĤƤϤޤ椬ѤƤʤ#1989. ǽŪʴߤѤμ١ ([2014-10-07-1]) 褦ˡɸ (discourse_marker) ٤ɽ魯μѤʤɤϤ뤷ष䤹餢뤫⤷ʤȸ뤬ŪʸϾʤ
ʤǥ1ĤȤơPrince ʸɤYiddish طʤıѸѼ (Yiddish English) ˤơŪʤɤʸƬˤäƤ 礬ɸѸˤεǽȤϰۤʤ뵡ǽѤƤ¤ꡤ Yiddish ˤбΤõǽѤ줿ΤǤϤʤȤ
ɸѸǤϡŪƬ˽Ф Focus-Movement ʸˡŪǤ롥㤨С
(1) Let's assume there's a device which can do it --- a parser let's call it.
Ǥϡlet's call it ʬȤȤƤꡤ¤δ鿷 a parser ʸƬ˰ươƤ롥
Yiddish English Ǥߤбư (Yiddish-Movement) Ǥ⡤褦Ⱦϳǧ뤬ͻҤۤʤäƤ롥㤨СYiddish English 鼡Τ褦ʸƤߤ褦
(2) "Look who's here,' his wife shouted at him the moment he entered the door, the day's dirt still under his fingernails. "Sol's boy." The soldier popped up from his chair and extended his hand. "How do you do, Uncle Louis?" "A Gregory Peck," Epstein's wife said, "a Montgomery Clift your brother has. He's been here only 3 hours, already he has a date."
a Montgomery Clift your brother has ȰưäƤ뤬ɸѸ (1) ξȰۤʤȤ롥ξʸȤˡ٤κϤεǽƯƤȲǤ뤬(1) Ǥʬʹΰռˤ롤ʤ (salient) ǤΤФơ(2) ǤʬǤʤäơɸѸλȤˤȤäơ(2) ϸʸˡȤưȿϤƤʤʤǤʤʸ̮ˤŪ虜虜Ƭ˽ФΤȡüԤΰտޤˤΤǤ롥ɸŪ Focus-Movement Yiddish English ͭ Yiddish-Movement Ǥϡõǽ㴳ۤʤäƤΤǤ롥
Yiddish-Movement õǽħϡʬ salient ǤʤƤ⡤ȤˤȤѤˤ롥Ǥϡ Yiddish-Movement õǽϤɤƤΤȤСޤǤʤ Yiddish ǤȤPrince (515) ۩". . . Yiddish-English bilinguals presumably found English Focus-Movement to be syntactically analogous to Yiddish Focus-Movement and associated with the former the discourse function of the latter."
Τ褦õǽμѤ꼰ȡΤ褦ˤʤ (Prince 517)
Given S1, a syntactic construction in one language, L1, and S2, a syntactic construction in another language, L2, the discourse function DF1 associated with S1 may be borrowed into L2 and associated with S2, just in case S1 and S2 can be construed as syntactically 'analogous' in terms of string order.
졦ŪʼѤȤǤ⤤٤Τñˤ̣ (semantic_borrowing) ȻƤʤʤˤƸԤѻ褦ˡԤ⾯ʤʤΤ⤷ʤ
Prince, E. F. "On Pragmatic Change: The Borrowing of Discourse Functions." Journal of Pragmatics 12 (1988): 505--18.
ε ([2016-08-11-1]) Ƴ֥ץѡפȡ֤äĤѡפΩϡHaugen ѸǤ importation substitution Ω˴롥#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡimportation ȤϼѸη褽Τޤ˼ळȤǤꡤsubstitution ȤϼѸηб뼫ηѤ뤳ȤǤ롥 (borrowing) ȸƤФ뤫ˤϡɬεΰ̣Ƥ롥ǤϡץѤäĤѤۤʤȤʤ
ơ2μˡΩǰƬˡüѤŪ¿ȤѸܸʤɤθȡŪʤȤ륢ɸʤɤθκˤĤƹͤƤߤ褦θθäӤȡʤۤɡ㤨бѸˤϷŪ¾ͳ褹Τ¿ɸˤϤΤ褦ʤΤʤȤϳΤǤ롥ץѤ¿ɤȤ˸¤СѸϼѤ¿ɸϼѤʤȤˤʤ롥äĤѤĴȤɤ⤷ȡɸϰƳ¿ʤäĤ˼ѤƤǽΤǤϤʤäĤѤϡɽ̾塤ѤǤ뤳ȤʬˤȤħ뤿ᡤܤ츻ĴƤߤʤȤϤäꤷȤʤβǽϽʬˤ롥#903. Ѥ¿Ⱦʤ ([2011-10-17-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡ㤨мѤ¿ȸѸȾʤȸ륢ɸκϡ¤ΤȤѤ¿ɤΤΤκǤϤʤ2ĤμѤˡ (importation and substitution) ΨκǤǽ뤳ȤˤʡפꡤξˡˤѤä碌ΤθμѤ̤ȹͤΤǤС̤˸Ƥۤɽ֤Ѥ¿ɤϤʤΤ⤷ʤפȤ뤫⤷ʤҤäȤȡ줬٤μळۤʤ졤ɤΤȤ빽١ʼѹˤʤΤǤϤʤ֤˥١ʼѹˤ٤κޤäʤȤޤǤϸʤ
ˡ2μˡȤ顤¾줫μѤŪ (purism) ˤĤƹͤƤߤѸˤˤܸˤˤ⡤Ԥ¾줫θüѤȽ夬äָŤɤѸסܸ褵פʤɤȶӤʤ顤ˤ褦볰뤳ȤˤΤʤ1٤Ȥʤ֤줿Τ褦ʽԤƤΤϥץѤФƤǤꡤ¤鼫ȤˤƤäĤѤƤܸξȤСΩ줫֥롼ספȸ鷺ˡֺפȸ٤ȤͤȤȡοͤϱѸ working group Ȥ signifiant μڤˤƤΤΡsignifié ˤĤƤ̵Ƚ˼Ƥ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ʊ٤ʤܤ˸륹٤褤Ȥո⤢СƱ٤Ǥ٤ݤäΩʤΩפǤȤո⤢μѤȥ٤ȤϤĤŤƤȻפ
ȸüѤˤĤƤϡ#1408. ([2013-03-05-1]) #1410. Ƚ ([2013-03-07-1])#1545. "lexical cleansing" ([2013-07-20-1])#1630. 졤ʸ졤ץ ([2013-10-13-1])#1999. Chuo Online ε֥ʸΩŪ˻ס ([2014-10-17-1])ˡ#2068. ؤ ([2014-12-25-1])#2069. ؤءˡ ([2014-12-26-1])#2147. ѸΥեѸȽ ([2015-03-14-1])#2479. ѸθüѤФȿưȤƤθϤɤޤܵä ([2016-02-09-1]) ʤɤȡ
Haugen, Einar. "The Analysis of Linguistic Borrowing." Language 26 (1950): 210--31.
ɸϻξ˺äѸä˸ùܡˤμѤˤ礭ʬơ֥ץѡפȡ֤äĤѡפ2बȹͤƤ롥
ñˤ뤿ˡܿ˺ݤƺǤ褯ѻñ٥μѤ˸ꤷƹͤ褦̾¾줫ñڤƤȤȤ˵뤳Ȥϡ¦θñȤ (sign) ¿ѹϤˤ衤褽Τޤ˥ԡ졤ùܤȤ夹뤳ȤǤ롥ȤϡüŪ˸и (signifié) ȸ (signifiant) ΥåȤǤ뤫顤ΥåȤΤޤޥԡƤȤȤˤʤ (ֵפˤĤƤϡ#2213. 塼ε桤˥ե˥ե ([2015-05-19-1]) ) 㤨СѸϥե줫 uncle ֤פȤȸΥåȤڤꤿܸϥݥȥ줫 tabaco ʥХˡֱפΥåȤڤꤿ
ΤˡȸΥåȤǼڤΤǤ̤μѤȹͤ뤬ϼڤꤺ˸ΤڤƤ̣ (semantic_borrowing) (loan_translation) Ȥ⤷Фи롥㤨СűѸ god ϸ֥ޥοפ̣ꥹȶ˿˵ڤӡбƥ deus ΤäƤ֥ꥹȶοפΰ̣ڤ졤˿ʸդädeus Ȥƥε椫ڤꤿΤϡΤߤǤꡤ god Ѥ³櫓Ǥʡ#2149. ̣ ([2015-03-16-1])#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) ȡˡϰ̣ѤȤ롥ޤűѸ줬ƥ trinitas Ǥʤ Þrines "three-ness" ؤȡפƼ줿Ȥ⡤ƥ줫ϸҼڤȤƤϥƥޤǴʤ褦ʶ˼줿ΤǤ롥
̤μѤỌ̇̄ѤѤʤɤΤüʼѤȤδ֤Ƕ̤ƤΤϡʤȤ줫ڤƤȤȤǤ롥ɤ⤷ʤ⤷ʤˤƤ줫ڤƤΤǤ롥#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) Ǥդ̤ꡤϽפǤ롥ˤƤ¾ͤڤƤȤǡ٤Ǥ롥㤦Τϡθȼѡ̾μѡˤǤϼѡʥ١ˤǤ뤳Ȥθȼʤѡʰ̣ѤѡˤǤϼѡʥ١ˤǤ뤳ȤɽŪˤʬʤȤǤ롥顤Ԥ֥ץѡסԤ֤äĤѡפȸƤ֡
Ϥơɤ餬ꥹ٤Ǥ礦ƳϤɤΥפΥ٤ߤǤ礦
ε ([2015-10-27-1]) ˰³Ѹ˸ Anglo-French κɾˤĤƤꡥRothwell ϡѸäѸʸθˤơAnglo-French äȽŻ뤷ʤФʤʤ⤹롥ƻȤƤ MED θ³ˤڤ֤ʤɡѸʸؼԤ˰ռפĥ٤֤ⷫ롥եäΡּѡ (borrowing) ȤǰˤѳפäƤꡤİͤ롥ĤʸϤѤ
The MED reveals on virtually every page the massive and conventional sense and that in literally thousands of cases forms and meanings were adopted (not 'borrowed') into English from Insular, as opposed to Continental, French. The relationship of Anglo-French with Middle English was one of merger, not of borrowing, as a direct result of the bilingualism of the literate classes in mediaeval England. (174)
The linguistic situation in mediaeval England . . . produced . . . a transfer based on the fact that generations of educated Englishmen passed daily from English into French and back again in the course of their work. Very many of the French terms they used had been developing semantically on English soil since 1066, were absorbed quite naturally with all their semantic values into the native English of those who used them and then continued to evolve in their new environment of Middle English. This is a very long way from the traditional idea of 'linguistic borrowing'. (179--80)
[I]n England . . . the social status of French meant that it was used extensively in preference to English for written records of all kinds from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. As a result, given that English was the native language of the majority of those who wrote this form of French, many hundreds of words would have been in daily use in spoken English for generations without necessarily being committed to parchment or paper, the people who used them being bilingual in varying degrees, but using only one of their two vernaculars --- French --- to set down in writing their decisions, judgements, transactions, etc., for posterity. (185)
εǤ bachelor Ρȿפθ apparel Ρְפθ⤦1 Anglo-French DzǤȤơRothwell (184) εƤ rape Ȥ夲褦MED ˤȡֶפΰ̣Ǥ rāpe (n.(2)) ϡѸǤ1425ǯ㤬ФǤ롥ΦΥեǤϤθϸʤΤAnglo-French Ǥ rap ȤƤθˤ13ʸڤ롥
[A]s early as c. 1289 rape is defined in the French of the English lawyers as the forcible abduction of a woman; in c. 1292 the law defines it, again in French, as male violence against a woman's body. Therefore, for well over a century before the first attestation of 'rape' in Middle English, the law of England, expressed in French but executed by English justices, had been using these definitions throughout English society. rape is an Anglo-French term not found on the Continent. Admittedly, the Latin rapum is found even earlier than the French, but it was the widespread use of French in the actual pleading and detailed written accounts --- as distinct from the brief formal Latin record --- of cases in the English course of law from the second half of the thirteenth century onwards that has resulted in so very many English legal terms like rape having a French look about them. . . . As far as rape is concerned, there never was, in fact, a 'semantic vacuum' . . . .
Rothwell (184) ϡۤˤ larceny Ϥ¿ˡΧѸ˻褦ʾƤϤޤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ѸθäθˤĤơޤޤ٤Ȥ¿ĤƤ褦
Rothwell, W. "The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-French." Medium Aevum 60 (1991): 173--96.
Ѹǡȿפ1ĤȤƤ bachelor ˴ؤợδ#1908. ɽ魯ΰ̣ΰ (1) ([2014-07-18-1])#1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1])#1969. ΰ̣ʬʬϤ ([2014-09-17-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ13˥ե줫Ѥ줿θϡּ㤤Ρԡפạ̈žơȿפȯŸȤ롥
OED bachelor, n. θ4aˤȡǤνФ Chaucer Merchant's Tale (c1386) Ǥꡤl. 34 "Bacheleris haue often peyne and wo." ȸ롥MED bachelēr (n.) θ1(b)ˤȡʲ̤ꡤ14ˤޤ̤롥"c1325(c1300) Glo.Chron.A (Clg A.11) 701: Mi leue doȝter .. Ich þe wole marie wel .. To þe nobloste bachiler þat þin herte wile to stonde.
嵭ΰ̣Ѳϡбեñ bachelier ˤʤäȤ졤ߤǤϱʩδ֤ "false friends" (Fr. "faux amis") δطȤʤäƤ롥Τ褦ˡΰ̣ѲŪ˱ѸȼȯãȹͤƤȤRothwell (175) ϡѸȼȯãˡAnglo-French ȤĤʤΥ饯о줵ơԤڤ
Chaucer's use of this common Old French term in the Modern English sense of 'unmarried man' has no parallel in literature on the Continent, but is found in Anglo-French by the first quarter of the thirteenth century in The Song of Dermot and the Earl and again in the Liber Custumarum in the early fourteenth century. It is a pointer to the fact that the development of modern English, at least as far as the lexis and syntax are concerned, cannot be adequately researched without taking into account the whole corpus of Anglo-French.
The Anglo-Norman Dictionary Ĵ٤Ƥߤȡbacheler θ2Ȥ "unmarried man" ꡤ嵭νŵȤȤ˳Τ㤬Ƥ롥ѸȼȯãǤϤʤޤƤΦΥեȯãǤʤ¤ Anglo-French ˤȯãǤꡤ줬Ѹˤܿ줿ˤʤȤʤȤñǤϤ뤬ܤڤ褦ʷǤ롥ְפθıѸ apparel ȡ⤿ʤե appareil false friends Ʊͤ Anglo-French ͳȤȤ
Rothwell ʸǤϡAnglo-French ȤפȤˤꡤѸä˴ؤ¿λ¤餫ˤʤꡤ꤬褹뤳Ȥ⤵롥Ѹ˸Ǥ⡤եȤФޤѥɸŪʥեѼפ⤫١ȤƥեѸʤɤΤäAnglo-French ȤѼɾ뤳Ȥˤäơ̤ȤƤѸ˾¿꤬ǽȡRothwell ⤯Rothwell ΤΥϡ#2349. Ѹ˥եѸ줬ȯΤϤʤ (2) ([2015-10-02-1])#2350. Prioress Anglo-French ϰ̤Ϥۤ㤯ʤä ([2015-10-03-1]) ǻȤʸǤӤƤꡤȯŪǤ롥
Rothwell, W. "The Missing Link in English Etymology: Anglo-French." Medium Aevum 60 (1991): 173--96.
ܥ֥ΤĤε ̣semantic_borrowing, 뤤 "semantic loan" ȤѸȤäƤȤꤿƤˤȤϤʤäΤǡĤƤ̣ѤϤȤ (loan_translation) ȺƱѤ뤳Ȥ뤬2ĤϰۤʤǤ롥ѤˤƤϿʸùܤ߽Ф뤬̣ѤˤƤϴ¸θùܤ˿ʸɲä뤫줬Ť֤뤫Τߤǡʸùܤ߽ФʤѸη֤ȿǤʤȤǶ롥#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) Haugen Ѹ˽С importation ǤϤʤ substitution ȤȤˤʤ롥
Ѹˤˤ̣Ѥŵ1Ĥˡdream 롥űѸ drēam "joy, music" ʴӡڡˤΰդѤ줿бťΥɸ draumr "vision" ̴ˤΰդäƤȤˤꡤαƶѸޤǤˡ̴פθȤȤΥޥʳǤθ֡ʶʤɤˤǤ路פΰ̣ȯŸˤ֡ʴڤˤ˶ڡӡפηȡָơ̴פηȤ¸Ƥȹͤ뤬ԤϸűѸؤʤä褦ºݤˤϡűѸˤ⡤ťΥɸαƶζǤϡ̴פθԤƤפ롥
ۤˤ褯ΤƤΤȤơbloom 롥űѸ blōma "ingot of iron" ʲŴˤ̣ťΥɸ blóm "flower, blossom" ʲ֡ˤαƶǡѸޤǤ˿ʤˤϰ⤢ˡdwell űѸñ dwellan, dwelian "to lead astray" ¤碌ˤѤ줿ťΥɸ dvelja ʤ롨ȤɤޤˤȯŸŪʸֽפѤȤ롥ޤ#340. ťΥɸ줬ѸͿƶ Jespersen ɾ ([2010-04-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡbread ϸűѸǤ brēad "morsel of food" ۤɤΰ̣äťΥɸ brauð "bread" ֥ѥפθڤƤ褦 (Old Northumbrian ˡ֥ѥפȤƤ㤬ߤˡ
ťΥɸ줫ΰ̣ѤĤƥ줫Ȥƥƥ rēs ֽȡΡפθäƤȤ顤ֽפΤߤ̣űѸ þing ֤ȡΡפΰ̣Ȥ롥ƱͤˡűѸ Dryhten "lord" "the Lord" θɲä줿Τ⡤бƥ dominus αƶʴϢơ#1619. ʤ deus Ѥ줺 God ݤ줿Τ ([2013-10-02-1]) ȡˡűѸˤΥꥹȶѸˤϡбƥαƶǿ˰̣Τ¿ (ex. wītega "prophet", þrōþung "suffering", getimbran "edify", cniht "pupil" (cf. Strang 368--69)
ۤˤϡֿΡפΰ̣ǥե줫ѸäƤnovel θ她ڥڤӥꥢб줫ʪ졨פΰ̣줿ʤɤ롥
Ѹ줬̣ߤФ¦ȤʤäƤ⤢롥ե realizer ʤϤäˤ introduirʾҲ𤹤ˤΤ줾θϡѸб줫μѤǤ롥ޤꥫäݥȥ engenho ϡֵѡפ̣Ѹ engine ֵؼ֡פΰ̣ѤˡֿܸסʧפϤ줾ʪŪʰ̣Τۤˡ֡ʤɤˡ˸ڤס֡աɰդʤɤʧפΰ̣Ĥб touch, pay ξĤȤαƶȤ롥
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
6˥ꥹȶ֥ƥˤ⤿餵줿θ塤űѸˤϿɴΥƥñ줬Ѹή¿ϥꥹȶطѸǤ롥ϡ#32. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2009-05-30-1]) #1437. űѸ˼Ѥ줿ƥ ([2013-04-03-1]) ˤ̤Ǥ롥
ꥹȶطƥñήȤߤƤƤϡλΥꥹȶθŪ¦̤ʬ뤳ȤϤǤʤBaugh and Cable (90) Ѥ褦
The words that Old English borrowed in this period are only a partial indication of the extent to which the introduction of Christianity affected the lives and thoughts of the English people. The English did not always adopt a foreign word to express a new concept. Often an old word was applied to a new thing and by a slight adaptation made to express a new meaning. The Anglo-Saxons, for example, did not borrow the Latin word deus, because their own word God was a satisfactory equivalent. Likewise heaven and hell express conceptions not unknown to Anglo-Saxon paganism and are consequently English words.
#865. ѸƤˤΰϲ ([2011-09-09-1]) ˤ̤ꡤʤ deus ɮƬˡ̣ǺǤ⥭ꥹȶŪȤ뤤Ĥθ줬ѤʤäΤפʻͿ2顤ˤĤƤθڤ褦ޤϡKastovsky (310) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Substitutive semantic borrowing is particularly frequent in the religious vocabulary, since in using a native ('heathen') word for a Christian concept, the pagan interpretation had to be replaced by the Christian concept and all its theological associations. A good example is the word God as used for Deus (cf. Strang 1970: 368). Originally it seemed to have meant 'that which is invoked', 'that to which libation is poured', was a neuter noun and could form a plural, since the Germanic peoples had a polytheistic religion. The missionaries, however, had to convey the notion of a single Deity, a Person or One of the persons of the Trinity. Instead of adopting the lexical item Deus, its meaning was substituted for the old meaning of god, which, in this case, even produced a grammatical change: God as a singular noun became masculine; if it occurred in the plural, it only referred to pagan gods and remained neuter.
ˡΰʸǸڤƤ Strang (368) äƤߤ롥Strang ϡűѸ (loan_translation) ̣ (semantic loan) ˤĤƿƤսǡgod ΰ̣ѲʲΤ褦Ƥ롥
The best term to start with is the word god. This is an old neuter noun, the meaning of whose stem has been disputed. It may mean 'that which is invoked' or 'that to which libation is poured' (in which case, it represents the same stem as we find in the name of the Goths and the Geats . . .); OE shares the form with other Germanic languages, which have formations from the same stem with the same meaning. In its inherited form the noun has a plural, since the monotheistic idea was unfamiliar to the Germanic peoples. The missionaries need to convey to the English the conception of a single Deity, a Person, One of the Persons of the Trinity, the Father, the Creator of the Universe, etc. They have a choice of explaining all this, and adding that the word for it is Deus; or of saying that the English have hitherto misunderstood the nature of god --- not it, but He, not many but One, etc. They choose the latter course, and their usage, as well as their belief, prevails. The noun acquires a new meaning, or rather, the whole complex of Christian meanings, though it is still the term for the old gods. From this development follows a curious grammatical change, akin to the modern use of the capital letter. When singular the word becomes masculine; when plural (therefore pagan in reference) it remains neuter. Thus, even syntax enters into the pattern of adaptation.
ɸϡߤ˴Ϣ2ĤǶ̣1ĤϡľܼѤ̣Τۤ露﷿Ǥꡤꥹȶ۶ˤäơȤͭäǽ뤳ȡ⤦1Ĥϡ̤ˡ¾줫θäؤαƶͤݤˤϡʷ֡ˤǤʤ̣ʰ̣ˤŻ뤷ʤФʤʤȤȤ Baugh and Cable (91) äơѤƤ
It is important to recognize that the significance of a foreign influence is not to be measured simply by the foreign words introduced but is revealed also by the extent to which it stimulates the language to independent creative effort and causes it to make full use of its native resources.
ϢơѤ importation substitution ζ̤ˤĤơ#901. ʬ ([2011-10-15-1]) ȡ
Strang, Barbara M. H. A History of English. London: Methuen, 1970.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.
Kastovsky, Dieter. "Semantics and Vocabulary." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 290--408.
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