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semiotics - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-29 20:50

2026-08-18 Tue

#6322. åȥɤ̾ Gretna Green Υȥ [onomastics][tabihel][semiotics][semantics][sociolinguistics][voicy][heldio]


Gretna_Green_notice.jpg



ꥹι뵡񤬤ꡤ󥰥ɤ饹åȥɤؤ̾夹롼Ȥ򤿤ɤʤιhel (tabihel) Ƥޤƻ桤󥰥ɤȥåȥɤι񶭤ۤƤξˤ륹åȥ¦¼Gretna Green Ωޤåȥɤθظ˰֤¼Ǥ
¼ˤѸݥå Gretna Green Famous Blacksmiths Shop ˬ줿ݡΩäȥ˽ɽܤαޤޤ̾ Men Women ʤɤǤϤʤGroom ʲ̻ˤ Bride ʲֲǡˤȤʸǰ⤵ƤΤǤϤ˥ԥȥϤʤä褦˻פΤǤˤ褳ñֻܤӹǤᡤ֤䡤ɤäɤäääפȰֹͤĤġ Groom ΤۤޤʤΤ褦ɽʤƤΤǤ礦
طʤˤϡGretna Green Υˡˤޤ1754ǯLord Hardwicke's Marriage Act ʥϡɥåη뺧) ܹԤޤˤꡤ󥰥ɤӥ륺Ǥ21̤μԤƤξʤ˷뺧뤳ȤˡŪ˸¤뤳ȤˤʤޤȤ񶭤ۤ¦ΥåȥɤǤϺ˴ؤˡΧˤ䤫ǡƱΤη뺧ǽäΤǤ
ǡ󥰥¦Ǽ㤤åץ뤿񶭤ܻؤ̾夷ǽã¼Ǥ Gretna Green ؤȶƷ뺧ΩƤ褦ˤʤޤơ¼ϡֶ̾סҤƤϡְϡפȤ夷ƤäΤǤ¼결⾲ǤäƷ뺧ڤäȤȤǤ
ߤǤ¿δѸҤ䥫åץ뤬ˬ̾ȤʤäƤ褦Ǥ䤬ˬ줿Ȥˤ⡤뺧򽪤Ȥܤ1ȤΥåץ뤬Ǽ̿򻣤äƤޤְϡפȤơܤǤ⸫褦ʥåäȤƤޤ


Gretna_Green_locks.jpg



ȥ˽ɽˤɽȤǤϡ813 heldio/helwa ΥꥹʡǤ Grace note ֤ɤ뤫줬ǡΤŹΥȥɽֲֻҡϺפ夲εŪʸ̤ͻƤޤͭ̾ (onomastics) δ餤Сͭ̾줽켫ΤˤϻؼоݤΤߤǵŪʰ̣Ụ̄ϤʤΤŪǤ̾첽ɽ뵭ȤѤȡʸŪϢۤʷϵ򴭵 connotation ӤӤ褦ˤʤ롤ȤŦƶ٤ͤǤ
Groom Bride ξ硤ñ줽ΤΤϤȤ̾Ǥ̾ Men / Women Ѥ뤳ȤǡGretna Green ȤϤŪʸ̮䤫⤭Ħˤ뵭ȤƵǽƤޤ̾ҤȤĤˡϤˤߤ˿ޤƤ빥Ȥޤ
ʤܷˤĤƤ Voicy heldio ˤ#1904. ̾ Gretna Green Υȥä#1905. wedlock ַ뺧פ lock ϡ־פǡϢäƤޤΤǡҤ⤪İ

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2026-08-13 Thu

#6317. ֽ񵭸ءפι [writing][graphology][linguistics][double_articulation}[kanji][terminology][sign][semiotics][linguistics_of_writing][linguistics_of_speech][grapholinguistics]

5ΤȤפФʤ顤ΤȤ˻Ĥˡε񤤤Ƥ롥37ȥꥢǮԻԥ󥺤ںߤƤȤˡǮīˤդ1ĤΥǥߤäƤֽ񵭸ء (linguistics_of_writing) ιۤ
ؤʬϡȤ뵬ϤƤʸ˻ĤƤѸ򸦵оݤȤѸʸؤ˷ȤäƤԤȤơ񤭸դ˸줷Ωˤ뤳ȤϼǧĤġƤΤȤĥθؤϤֲء (linguistics_of_speech) äΤǤϤʤȤݤǤ䤤ľǤ롥
ʸ񤭸դθϤ¸ߤƤɤ⡤񵭸ϲŪʤˤʤȰ֤ŤΤŪäȤäƤ褤񵭸Ͻ񵭸ΤޤޡΩηϤȤ򤵤ɬפΤǤϤʤʸפʤɤȤθƤǤϡܼŪʼ򥫥Сʤֽ񵭸ءפ餤礭ʥ٥뤬ɬפʤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
줬ĴİФ˰¸ΤФ񵭸ϱɮȻФ˰¸롥ɽʸηϤʤɡ񵭸ˤϲ˰¸󤵤¦̤⤢뤱ɤ⡤§ȤΩƥȹͤȤвбʤۻƼﵭ桤ˡλŪθ¸ߤ뤷񵭸ȼϰ衦νѰۡˤ¸ߤ롥񵭸ˤäƤϡˤ벻ǤбΤϲʤΤȥбΤ⤷ʤä̯ʤΤΤ褦ʵ⤹롥
񵭸ؤۤ礭ȤʤΤκŪ°Ȥ (double_articulation) θءʡ᲻ءˤǤϡ̣⤿ʤǡ2ʬˤ礷ợķǡ1ʬˤȤ2ʬθθŪħǤȤƤϥե٥åʸ˴ƤɽʸƳΡֲءŪʸˤʤΤǤϤʤ
ɽǡɽŪ򶯤ʸηϤǤ˹ͤƤߤ褦ݷʸػʸˤϡǤ褦ʡְ̣⤿ʤǡפƤʤ褦˻פ롥ĤޤꡤǤ2ʬθƤϤޤʤǡʸʸͤȡʤɤιǤǽƤ롥ʸˤϲǤʤְ̡̣ǡפȤ2ʬʸǤϰ󤬰̣ǡ¾󤬲ŪǤȤƵǽƤ롥
Τ褦ˤߤƤȡˤ2ʬɬܤǤϤʤΤΡ2ʬǤƳ뤳ȤȤ߹碌αѲǽȯŪ˹롤ۤɤª֤¨Ƥȸɽʤ뤤ɽǡˤä˿񵭸ؤʸΥץϡؤ̤Τ˴˾ꤽȴƤ롥
ʤʸȯˤˤưȤΤñˡϿƻפФǤϤʤȤϰۤʤ븶ưֿ2θפΤȯǤϤʤȻϹͤϤƤ롥
ܤν񤭸դˤˤʸѤ diglossiaʻѡˤȤªľȤ䡤ܸˤ¸졦졦ʸȤʬ򥳡ɥå󥰤ȤƲ᤹⡤񵭸ؤȤߤ褦˻פ塤ؤμæѤΩηϤȤƤΡֽ񵭸ءפۤƤȹͤƤ롥󥺤ˤǡȤͯŪʥǥ5ۤޤƤ补

Referrer (Inside): [2026-08-14-1]

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2023-09-08 Fri

#5247. ̾Ѳ¿̾ [hydronymy][onomastics][toponymy][name_project][polynymy][language_change][terminology][sign][semiotics]

Ϣͭ̾˴ؤϤƤ롥
̾̾ˤ褯ߤ뤬ƱؼоݤǤʤ顤ˤäưۤʤ̾ǸƤФ륱롥̻Ū̾Ѳ (name change) Ǥ롥ƱˡƱؼоݤФʣ̾ͿƤ륱롥Ū¿̾ (polynymy) Ǥ롥ͭ̾ǤϤʤ̾ǤС줾ָ֤ (onomasiological change) ȡƱ (synonymy) б
ε#5246. hydronymy --- ̾򸦵椹ʬ ([2023-09-07-1]) ǻȡѤ Strandberg (111) Ǥϡ̾ name change polynymy ˤĤơȤȤƳʤƤ롥

Name change is a common phenomenon in the history of hydronyms. In England, Blyth was replaced by Ryton, Granta by Cam, Hail by Kym, Writtle by Wid, etc. During a transitional stage of polynymy, there must often have existed both an older name and a new one. Trent (< Terente) is an alternative name for the river Piddle in Dorset. In Denmark, an older Guden and a younger Storå(en) were for a long time used in parallel for the same river.
   Polynymy may also involve the simultaneous existence of different names for different parts of a (long) river. There are, for example, cases where the upper and lower reaches of a river have different names. The upper part of the Wylye in Wiltshire, England is called the Deverill, and the source of the French river Marne has the name Marnotte. A present-day name for a long river may have replaced several old ones denoting different stretches of it. The Nyköpingsån is a long and large river in Sweden; its name is formally secondary, containing the town name Nyköping. Two lost partial names of the Nyköpingsån (Blakka, Sølnoa) are recorded in medieval sources, while others, like *Sledh and *Vrena, may be or probably are preserved in names denoting settlements on the river; the current partial name Morjanån most likely goes back to an OSwed. *Morgha.


̾ǤСƱʪܤ˲̾ (name change)˥å͡䤢̾ʣ (polynymy) Ȥͭ̾κΰյϡؼоݤƱ̾ˤ깱Ū˳ݤˤϤȹͤƤ̾Ѳ¿̾ϡषεդԤΤǤ롥̣򤽤븽ݤ

Strandberg, Svante. "River Names." Chapter 7 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 104--14.

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2023-07-20 Thu

#5197. ͭ̾˰̣ϤΤʤΤ [onomastics][semantics][sign][semiotics][lexicon][connotation]

ɸ䤤ˤĤƤϡ¿εʤƤ㤨п̾̾ͤƤߤ褦ëפֹפˤϡؼо (referent) Ǥꡤ˰̣ (meaning) ϤʤȤ롥ϡ#2212. ͭ̾ϥ˥եʤ˥եǤ ([2015-05-18-1]) ǤȤΩ
ëפϡ礭סëסֹפϡֹספȤǤꡤơǤ⡤Ȥ߹碌ʪ⡤줾ܸˤƳΤ˰̣ĤΤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥ˤС¿ܸüԤˤȤä¿ξ硤ëפˤϥץ峦ˤҡΥ᡼տ路Ƥꡤֹפˤʿ¤ΥåƤ롥Τ褦ʥ᡼åϡỤ̄ǤȤϤʤޤǤ⡤̤δ鲿餫ΰ̣ǤȤȤǤäợְפȤ뤫Ȥ񤷤ˤĤʤäƤȤԲǤ롥
ȴϢơNyström 5Ĥۤɤΰ̣̤Ƥ롥ΥȤդʤ⤹롥

(1) Ụ̄ (lexical meaning)嵭ǤСëפϡ礭ëפۤɤ̾θỤ̄äƤ롥

(2) ͭ̾Ụ̄ (proprial meaning)ֹפϡܤܽ˰֤븩뤤ϻԤؼͭ̾Ǥ롥

(3) Ụ̄ (categorial meaning)֥ݥפϡŵŪˡ˸Ȥƥ꡼°Сդ̾Ǥ롥

(4) ϢỤ̄ (associative meaning)ëפϡ¿οͤˤȤäơ˥ץ峦δ˾Ǥ롥

(5) Ụ̄ (emotive meaning)ֹפϡ¿οͤˤȤäơ˸ﳲζỴʿ¤ؤδꤤ򴭵롥

Ȥ櫓 (4) (5) Τ褦ʴỤ̄ (connotation) ϡƤ٤Ŀͤˤäơ뤤ϽĤˤȤäưۤʤΤǤꡤỤ̄ͭ̾Ụ̄ˤߤɬߤʤ⤷ʤ

Nyström, Staffan. "Names and Meaning." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 39--51.

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2023-07-15 Sat

#5192. ̾ĤΤ --- ͭ̾̾դоݤΥץȥ [onomastics][prototype][noun][hypostasis][semiotics][typology][trademark][personal_name][toponymy]

ͤϲ̾ĤΤŪˤϡȤΤ̾Ĥ롥ºݾ⡤ͤϸ̤ƿݤ˥٥ŽդƤ줬̾ (noun) Ǥ롥ͤΤϤ⤦̣Ǥ̾ͭ̾Ǥ롥ͤϲ˸ͭ̾ĤΤ
Van Langendonck and Van de Velde (33--38) ϡۤʤ͡ʸӤǡʸˡŪʴ顤̾դоݤŵˡʤץȥŪʤΤ餽ǤʤΤء󤷤Ƥ롥ŪʰǤϤʤȤǤ񤭤뤳Ȥ򤳤Ƥ

̾
̾
̾
̾ɸ̾

µ̾ʪμ̾
"autonym"

ʸǤϳƹܤ˲⤬ĤƤ뤬ǤϺǸ "autonym" ñ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤΤʤǤϺǤץȥŪǤϤʤ֤Ťˤ̾դоݤǤ롥ϡ㤨 "Bank is a homonymous word." Bank ʤȤñˤƱ۵ǤפȤ Bank ΤȤؤƤ롥Ȥɽξ¤ǡ̾פȤʤ롤ȤȤ׻Ū̾դˤϡ#1300. hypostasis ([2012-11-17-1]) طƤ롥
β2ܤˤµ̾ʤɤϡ̾դоݤȤƤΥץȥ㤤ΤǡˤäƤϸͭ̾Ϳ줺ޤ̾Ȥ̤äƤˤʤȤ⤢롥Τ Covid-19 ϸͭ̾ݤ cold ̾ݤ˸ͭ̾ĤΤȤˤĤƤϡ̸Ū˷ϤΤΡޤǥץȥפȤƹͤɬפȤȤ

Van Langendonck, Willy and Mark Van de Velde. "Names and Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 17--38.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-07-18-1]

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2023-07-01 Sat

#5178. ̾ŪѲ2ĤΥ [lexicology][semantic_change][homonymic_clash][semantics][synonym][semiotics][onomasiology]

ε#5177. (semasiology) ̾ (onomasiology) ([2023-06-30-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡ̣Ѳ (semantic_change or semasiological change) ȤȤ˰뤳Ȥ¿Τ˶̤٤Ȥ̾ŪѲ (onomasiological change) ȤΤ롥
Traugott and Dasher (52--53) ϡ̾ŪѲ ("onomasiological changes") ˤĤơBréal ε򻲾Ȥǡ2ĤΥפ󤲤Ƥ롥

(i) Specialization: one element "becomes the pre-eminent exponent of the grammatical conception of which it bears the stamp" . . . , for example, the selection of que as the sole complementizer in French . . . .
(ii) Differentiation: two elements which are (near-)synonymous diverge. Paradigm examples include, in English, (a) the specialization, e.g. of hound when dog was borrowed from Scandinavian, and (b) loss of a form when sound change leads to "homonymic clash," e.g. ME let in the sense "prohibit" from OE lett- was lost after OE lætan "allow" also developed into ME let . . . .


Bréal ˤС̾ŪѲϡ̣ѲǤʤФ꤫ñ̾ѲȤ櫓Ǥʤ"the proper subject of the 'science of significations'" (95) ȤȤ餷
ľˤȡBréal ϹäƤ򤷤ˤ

Traugott, Elizabeth C. and Richard B. Dasher. Regularity in Semantic Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2005.
Bréal, Michel. Semantics: Studies in the Science of Meaning. Trans. Mrs. Henry Cust. New York: Dover, 1964. 1900.

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2023-06-30 Fri

#5177. (semasiology) ̾ (onomasiology) [lexicology][semantic_change][semantics][semiotics][onomasiology][terminology]

ΰ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ݤˡ (semasiology) ̾ (onomasiology) ʬƹͤɬפ롥 (155) Ѥ롥

ΰ̣ѲͤäƤϡ (semasiology) ̾ (onomasiology) ̤Ƥ̣ȯηӤĤȹͤȤȯ̾ˤꤷƤȯ˷ӤḤ̂ѲƤͼŪѲȸƤ̣֡ꤷƤΰ̣˷ӤĤ̾ѲƤͼ̾ŪѲȸƤ֡ΰ̣Ѳ򡤵ˤӤĤѲȤƹªʤСŪѲΤߤʤ餺̾ŪѲθƤ褤


פˡ̾ΰ̣Ѳ̾̾Ѳ򤷤ƤФ褤#3283. ˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡϤǤޤ ([2018-04-23-1]) 򻲾ȡ

historical_linguistics_front_cover.jpg


δ졡8ϡ̣ѲѲס˸ءīоȸإ꡼ȯŸԡ3 ԡˡīҽŹ2018ǯ151--69ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-07-01-1]

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2023-05-17 Wed

#5133. ư෿ [contact][borrowing][grammaticalisation][semiotics][semantic_borrowing][syntax][word_order][terminology][typology]

ABؤबư뤳Ȥ "linguistic transfer" ʸưˤȸƤǤܿ (contact) ˤˤ˵븽ݤǤꡤŵŪʸ1Ĥμ (borrowing) Ǥ롥ǤϤʤΰ̣ự (semantic_borrowing) ⤢СŪñ̤طư⤢롥ǡηϡˤΰưŪܤΰư⤢뤫⤷ʤ "linguistic transfer" ȤäƤ⡤ʼबΤ
Heine and Kuteva (87) ϡ5θưǧƤ롥

   a. form, that is, sounds or combinations of sounds,
   b. meanings (including grammatical meanings) or combinations of meanings,
   c. form-meaning units,
   d. syntactic relations, that is, the order of meaningful elements,
   e. any combination of (a) through (d).


ΰưȼ a c ϡʿСּѡ (borrowing) Ǥ롥b d ϲΰưȼʤưǤꡤԸˤʤäơʣ (replication) ȸƤǤ绨ĤˤСѤϤŪʹܤΰưǡʣϤŪʹܤΰưǤ롥ʤߤ e Ϥ٤ƤΤäѤǤ롥θư෿ϡճȤ狼䤹ȻפäƤ롥

Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-18-1]

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2023-04-06 Thu

#5092. ɸؤȱѸˡ˸ؤ [trademark][goshosan][youtube][voicy][heldio][link][semantics][semantic_change][metaphor][metonymy][synecdoche][rhetoric][onomastics][personal_name][toponymy][eponym][sound_symbolism][phonaesthesia][capitalisation][linguistic_right][language_planning][semiotics][punctuation]

ޤǤˡVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) YouTube ְʼδѸظإ̤ͥơʣˤ錄޽ءˤɸ (trademark linguistics) ˤĤ̤Ƥޤ

ΡVoicy

#667. ޽¤Ȥ --- ɸؤȤϲ329
#671. ޽¤Ȥ --- ɸεŪͻ42
#674. ޽¤Ȥ --- ɸŪˡ45

ΡYouTube

#112. ɸθ --- ޽¤о322
#114. ޥƤ뤳ȡƤʤȡƤȤϲ̣뤫 --- ޥμҲỤ̄ --- ޽¤μȡ329
#116. ǤϤʤɸ޽¤󤬸ؤڤǥץ45
#118 412ͽˤ³ʸ嵭2023/04/12(Wed)#118. ޽¤󤬿ꤹˡءɸ --- ѥˡؤء

ɸθؤȤΤϻˤȤäƤߤäΤǤ¤Ū򰷤äƤ뤳Ȥ⤢ꡤϢʬ¿ΰ褬ȤȤ褯ʬޤ伫ȤδؿϱѸˡ˸ؤǤδͤƤ¿ޤפĤΤվ񤭤ǵ󤲤Ƥߤޤ

ΰ̣ѲȤΥᥫ˥ࡥä , metonymy, synecdoche ʤɡ rhetoric Ȥɤ
ͭ̾ (onomastics) ̡̾ (personal_nameeponym ʤɡ餬ˤư̾βΤȤꡥ
ΰ̣ѡʲ˴ؤ벾ȤƤ "Onymic Reference Default Principle" (ORDP) ˤĤƤϡ#1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1]) 򻲾ȡ
(semiotics) ̤νꡥ
ħ (sound_symbolism) Ȳ (phonaesthesia)
񤭸դˤʸʸޥΡåΤ (cf. capitalisation)
ïȥ뤹ΤȤȻۤȸμҲŪꡥ츢 (linguistic_right) ײ (language_planning) Υơޡ

٤󤲤Ƥȥ꤬ʤǤ򵡤˾ɸθؤ¸ߤǰƬ֤ƤȻפޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-09-1]

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2021-12-25 Sat

#4625. Υ㡼 [gesture][paralinguistics][kinesics][history_of_linguistics][linguistics][origin_of_language][sign_language][semiotics][generative_grammar]

#4623. 㡼Ȥϲ ([2021-12-23-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǯؤȤؤοʬȤƥ㡼椬ˤʤäƤƤ롥㡼γػˤ򿶤֤ȡ19ޤǤϼ˸쵯׸ȤδϢǥ㡼ؤδؿϳͷߤä20Ⱦ˹¤λ夬Ϥޤȡܤ뤳Ȥʤʤä
¤λˤϡؤ϶ŪʴؿĤäᡤ쵯ȷӤĤζ㡼θⲼФˤʤäΤǤ롥ޤؤμΧȤ˼ĥ줿ˡؤȤΥܥ졼Ȥ른㡼ϡϤ꿶ʤʤä
塤㡼뤲롥طʤˤϡؤӴϢسˤؿΰܹԤäKendon (81) λ򼡤Τ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥

In the first years following the Second World War, certain changes eventually produced a climate in which gesture again became relevant for theoretical issues related to language and thought. First, information theory and cybernetics, developed as solutions to problems in communication engineering, were applied in the study of communication within and between living systems, with the result that much thought and investigation came to be devoted to social communication. Not unrelated was the emergence of semiotics which, especially in North America, greatly broadened attention to sign processes, enhancing an interest in visible modes of signification, including gesture. Further, the question of language origins once again began to be taken seriously. When experiments with chimpanzees suggested that they might use gesture symbolically, as in a sign language, the idea of gesture as a first form of language was discussed once again . . . .
   At the same time, in psychology, complex mental processes once again became legitimate objects of investigation. Psychologists took an interest in language and the field of psycholinguistics was established. Noam Chomsky's work was especially important. He showed the inadequacy of a behaviourist approach to language and argued that linguistics should focus on 'competence', the mental apparatus making the acquisition and use of any language possible, rather than on descriptions of specific languages. Although neither Chomsky himself nor his followers showed interest in gesture, their mentalistic orientation was influential. When, later, psycholinguists looked at gesture, they did so for what it might reveal about the mental operations of utterance production.


ΰʸ顤㡼ؤδؿ᤹Τ˹׸θؤȴϢʬĬήɽ魯ɤ¤٤С"information theory", "cybernetics", "semiotics", "origin_of_language", "sign_language", "Chomsky" դȤ櫓塼ϻϤ¤ؤäƥॹ򿷤˿ؤ褵Ȥΰյ礭ˤȿӤĤƤ褤Ȥ󤬲줿Ǥ롥
Ϣʬγػˤɤ϶̩ϢȤƤΤȼ´碌ơ#252. ʸˡȸ쵯 ([2010-01-04-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ

Kendon, Adam. "History of the Study of Gesture." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 71--89.

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2021-10-09 Sat

#4548. ȤỌ̇̄Ѥδط [metaphor][semantic_borrowing][semiotics][semantic_change][semantics][polysemy]

ΰ̣Ѳ˴ؤ Williams ɤǤơʤۤɤȻפäȤ롥ޤǤޤӤĤƤȤʤä2ĤγǰδطˤĤƹͤ줿ΤǤ롥 (metaphor) Ọ̇̄ (semantic_borrowing) ˤȿФǤϤ뤬ˤƶ̤ƤȤ⤷طˤȤȤ
ȤȤΤϡ¸θΰ̣򡤲餫ΰ̣Ū­ˤơ̤ΰ (domain) ˻DZѤǤ롥̣ѤȤΤϡ¸θηܤ¾Ǥθ줬ˡ¾Ǥθΰ̣Ǥ롥
֤ۤʤΤ褦˻פ뤬롥ŪˤС¸εǽ (signifiant) ϤΤޤޤˡ국 (signifié) Ū˳ĥѤȤΤǤ롥̤Ȥơȿ夤ƶ¸뤳Ȥ⤢СɤФȤ⤢뤬褽ηϤꤽȤξˤϤƤݻ¿ (polysemy) ˵뤹̣ѤξˤϤƤϤ˴ơ̤ȤƸִ (semantic replacement) Ȥˤʤ
ưŤˤĤƤСȤϼ˥ꥸʥƥդ̣δϢŤ˰¸Ƥ뤬̣ѤϤޤ¾ǻäȤˤϢŤǤꡤꥸʥƥǤ롥
嵭Υ󥹥ԥ졼뤳Ȥˤʤä Williams (193) ʸϤѤƤ

Semantic Replacement
   In our linguistic history, there have been cases in which the reverse of metaphor occurred. Instead of borrowing a foreign word for a new semantic space, late OE speakers transferred certain Danish meanings to English words which phonologically resembled the Danish words and shared some semantic space with them. The native English word dream, meaning to make a joyful noise, for example, was probably close enough to the Scandinavian word draumr, or sleep vision, to take on the Danish meaning, driving out the English meaning. The same may have happened with the words bread (originally meaning fragment); and dwell (OE meaning: to hinder or lead astray).


ȤʤäƤ̣ѤŪȤƤ dream, bread, dwell ˤĤƤϡ#2149. ̣ѡ ([2015-03-16-1]) 򻲾ȡȤ櫓 bread ˤĤƤϡ#2692. ťΥɸѸ˴ؤ Gersum Project ([2016-09-09-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Williams, Joseph M. Origins of the English Language: A Social and Linguistic History. New York: Free P, 1975.

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2021-10-08 Fri

#4547. clang association [semantic_change][synonym][psycholinguistics][terminology][etymology][semiotics][pun][clang_association]

ѸˤθŵŪȤäƤ褤 Algeo and Pyles ɤǤơΰ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ȴϢ clang association ȤѸΤäȤȤϿؤѸΤ褦಻ϢۡϢˡϢפ졤㤨 cling ring Τ褦˲ʤȯƤɤ˺Ѥ̣ŪϢۤΤȤ򤤤褦ĤαѸѸ켭ŵƤܤäƤʤäΤǡ夲Ƥ Algeo and Pyles (233--34) Ѥۤʤ

   Sound Associations
   Similarity or identity of sound may likewise influence meaning. Fay, from the Old French fae 'fairy' has influenced fey, from Old English fǣge 'fated, doomed to die' to such an extent that fey is practically always used nowadays in the sense 'spritely, fairylike.' The two words are pronounced alike, and there is an association of meaning at one small point: fairies are mysterious; so is being fated to die, even though we all are so fated. There are many other instances of such confusion through clang association (that is, association by sound rather than meaning). For example, in conservative use fulsome means 'offensively insincere' as in "fulsome praise," but it is often used in the sense 'extensive' because of the clang with full. Similarly, fruition is from Latin frui 'to enjoy' by way of Old French, and the term originally meant 'enjoyment' but now usually means 'state of bearing fruit, completion'; and fortuitous earlier meant 'occurring by chance' but now is generally used as a synonym for fortunate because of its similarity to that word.


ȯᤤñɤ̣Ǥƶ礦ȤΤϡŪˤϤäȤʤȤ뤷Ƥ꿼ͤ뤳Ȥʤä֤ϢȤȤΤϡ٤˵뤳ȤΤǤҥȤʤǤϷǤ롥䡤ΩӤ륪䥸㥰뤳Ȥʤ졥Ωɤ clang association ʤΤ顥

Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.

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2021-09-29 Wed

#4538. ͭ̾ϰ [onomastics][toponymy][personal_name][semantics][noun][category][linguistics][semiotics][sign]

ޤˤ⤷ǡФƤޤäȤǤܤȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤȤʬޤ͡ˤȤäơϸͭ̾ (onomastics) ǤüŪˤп̾̾Ǥť¤ˤϤޤळȤɬʤΤɬ򤱤ƤΤǤǯ˰١ɬơޤ֤ΤǤؤ󺤤ޤäƤޤۤɡˤȤäƼϤΤǤ
ͭ̾ꡤפˡ̾פۤɡؤˤƼŪǿ򤷤Ƥʤ顤¤ܼŪϤޤ󡥸դ̾˻Ϥޤ̾˽ǽ뤫Ǥ (cf. #1184. ͭ̾첽 (1) ([2012-07-24-1])#1185. ͭ̾첽 (2) ([2012-07-25-1]) ǿ줿 "Onymic Reference Default Principle" (ORDP)ˡ
⤽ͭ̾ȤΤϡΰʤΤǤʤΤȤȤ餷ˤʤΤǺޤǤ͡ꤵǤϤޤ󤬡䤬֥ѥꡤ󡤥ޥ륻桤֥르˥פȾʥե󥹸ȯǸȤƤ⡤ե󥹸줬褯äȤȤˤʤޤ󡥤⤽̾ϥե󥹸ʤΤɤʤΤȤ꤬뤫Ǥ (cf. #2979. Chibanian ϥƥ졩 ([2017-06-23-1]
ѸˤΥϥɥ֥åˡCoates ˤͭ̾ؤ˴ؤϤޤƬΡָͭ̾ϰ̡פꤹ1ꡤǽѤޤ (312)

The status of proper names
   Names is a technical term for a subset of the nominal expressions of a language which are used for referring ('identifying or selecting in context') and, in some cases, for addressing a partner in communication. Nominal expressions are in general headed by nouns. According to one of the most ancient distinctions in linguistics, nouns may be common or proper, which has something to do with whether they denote a class or an individual (e.g. queen vs Victoria), where individual means a single-member set of any sort, not just a person. Much discussion has taken place about how this distinction should be refined to be both accurate and useful, for instance by addressing the obvious difficulty that a typical proper noun denoting persons may denote many separate individuals who bear it, and that common nouns may refer to individuals by being constructed into phrases (the queen). I will leave the concept [±proper], applied to nouns, for intuitive or educated recognition before returning to discussion of the inclusive concept of proper names directly. Proper nouns have no inherent semantic content, even when they are homonymous with lexical words (Daisy, Wells), and many, perhaps all, cultures recognise nouns whose sole function is to be proper (Sarah, Ipswich). Typically they have a unique intended referent in a context of utterance. Proper names are the class of such proper nouns included in the class of all expressions which have the properties of being devoid of sense and being used with the intention of achieving unique reference in context. Onomastics is the study of proper names, and concentrates on proper nouns; I shall confine the main subject-matter of this chapter to the institutionalised proper nouns associated with English and, in accordance with ordinary usage, I shall call them proper names or just names. Readers should note that strictly speaking these are a subset of proper names, and from time to time other members of the larger set will be discussed. There is some evidence from aphasiology and cognitive neuropsychology that institutionalised proper nouns --- especially personal names --- form a psychologically real class . . . .


Ǥ⤷ȴϡ֤⤷ޤ󡥤ҾΤɤǤߤƤ

Coates, Richard. "Names." Chapter 6 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 312--51.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-12-09-1] [2022-03-22-1]

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2021-01-26 Tue

#4292. ʾȸ (4) [linguistics][semiotics][sign][metaphor]

#2743. ʾȸ ([2016-10-30-1])#2746. ʾȸ (2) ([2016-11-02-1])#2755. ʾȸ (3) ([2016-11-11-1]) ³5ǯ˼夲ꡥΩĤΡظ٤ꡤե󥹤ůؼ Jean-Joseph Goux ΡָȲʾץפ˴ؤ (68--73) ɤ
ʾϷкѤˤơָ򴹤ΥƥפμȤʤ롥򴹤Ω뤿ˤϲ餫ΡסƱפɬפǤꡤʾΤΡְʪפ̤Ƥȹͤ롥Goux ϡְʪϽФΥᥫ˥ϡʾкѤΤߤʤ餺ʹ֤Фħ뤹٤Ƥθ򴹥ƥˤߤΤȤߤʤʹ¦ǽϤ˰ĤƸСʹ֤ˤϡ־ħǽϡפȤðۤǽϤ롤ȤȤˤʤ롥ϡָ¤¸ߤ뤢Ȥ뺹ۡѲΤʤѤΤΡ١ƱΤΡ٤Фǽϡ (71) ΤȤǤ롥кŪˤϤϲʾȤƸ뤬Ūˤ˺濴ȤơŪˤϷȤơŪˤϰȤƸȤްŪʥƥǤȤ롥
ޤǤСƱȤˤƤϤޤͽۤ뤳Ȥ񤷤ʤGoux ϡ⤦1Ĥοʹ֤Ρָ򴹤ΥƥפμȤߤʤƤ롥ŪˤС濴Υƥ޲𤷤ƤȹͤƤ롥Goux ˤȤäơ쵭Ȥϸ¤ԡƸ뤿ΥƥްŪǤʤΤǤ롥
Τˡʾ⡤ҲˤƼŪˤƱ˲ްⴶʪǤ롥ܼȤơۤ¿򲡤Ĥ֤äƤ뤫ǡۤ¿ɤƤä鶦ѶȤƤΩʤʤ뤳Ȥ⡤ʬ롥ʾȸϡˤƤƤ롥
εϡ̷⤹2Ĥ뤳ȤפФƤ롥üԽĴ֤Ǥ mutual intelligibility ܻؤȡġüԤ identity marker ȤƵǽǤ롥

Ω 󡦻 ظ١˼ҡ1990ǯ

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2020-12-07 Mon

#4242. 塼ˤȤäƵѲϡ֥פǤϤʤִ [terminology][saussure][sign][language_change][diachrony][semiotics]

塼 (Ferdinand de Saussure; 1857--1913) ϡζ (synchrony) ̻ (diachrony) ̤ȤΤ (2Ĥ֤ˤĤƤεå򻲾ȡˡ塼̻ŪֽͤưΤȤǤꡤͭñ̤ưȤȤˤۤʤʤסʴݻp. 310ˤƤ롥Ρưפϡե󥹸 déplacement ʱѸ displacementˤषִפ򤷤ۤʬ䤹塼ϡ˥ե (signifié) ȥ˥ե (signifiant) η礫뵭 (signe) ѲϡξԤΡ֤פȤ⡤̤εˤִפȹͤƤ᤬뤫
Ʊݻإ塼뾮ŵ٤ déplacement ι (284) 򷫤äƤߤȤƤ֤졤ưפȵƤ뤬Ƥ褯ɤǤߤȼºݤˤϡִפˤۤʤʤʲѤ롥

déplacement Τ졤ư
󥰤ʤηǤμ (terme) ֤Ѥꡤη̤ȤƲ (valeur) ư뤳ȡּȽͤΥХʴط (frag. 1279) ư déplacer ʤ餹ˤѤ줿֤ʤ󥰤ʡġ (altération) νװ˹뤹٤Ϥʤη̡ȤȤ˥˥ե (signifie) Ф륷˥ե (signifiant) Υȡʴط (rapport) (frag. 1259) Τϡ˥ (signe) ǤԲʬΥबȤ̣ǤϤʤ˥سԤꤹʬΤΤƿ˥夬뤳Ȥ̣뤬Ť˥ȿ˥Ӥݡ (sujet parlant) ˤȤäƤϥ˥եȥ˥ե줿褦˺ФΤǤ롥


Ĥޤꡤ"déplacement" ȤѸ򡤵Υ˥եȥ˥եδطΡ֤졤ưפؤΤǤ뤫Τ褦˻ȤäƤ뤬ºݤ˥塼뤬տޤƤΤϡ֤פǤϤʤִפʤΤǤʡֺפǤʤˡȤȡβѲ̣Ѳ⡤˥ե˥եϸꤷƤ¾줿ΤǤ롤ȤϤߤʤʤʤ롥Ť˥夬˥֤줿ΤȡߤʤȤˤʤ

ݻ Ϻإ塼뾮ŵ١罤ۡ1985ǯ

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2017-09-29 Fri

#3077. ĹĤˤʸιǤȰŹб [cryptology][semiotics][sign][writing]

ϢĹĽԡˡذŹ٤򻲾ȤƤ뤬ʸˤĤǡŹʳءˤ¿Υ󥹥ԥ졼ͿƤ뤳Ȥ˶äƤ롥ϡ͡ʼΰŹʸιǤȰŹб״طˤʬषĹĤɽ򼨤 (29)

ʸιǤȿͰŪ̾ħ
ʸ̤ʸŹ餷ŹʰŪʰŹ
νؤžּŹ餷ŹʰŪʰŹ
̤ʸʬּŹ餷ʤŹüʰŹ
ΰ̣̤ΰ̣Ѵ뤤ϱ󤷤ɽ졦ʸŹ餷ʤŹüʰŹ
嵭Ȥ߹碌Ź餷ʤŹüʰŹ


(substitution) ϡ#2704. Ź ([2016-09-21-1]) ɽ륿פǡʸ̤ʸѤΤǤ롥žּ (transposition) ϰν¤Ǥʸ̤ν¤ؤ륿פǤ롥㤨СǤñžּŹ1Ĥϡnowhere erehwon ʤɤȵս¤ؤΤǤ롥2ΰŹǤϡǤäŹʸϤƤ̣ʸˤʤΤǤˤ⸫ɤϰŹ餷ʤ롥
ʬּϡν¤Ǥʸ̤ʸΤǡ#3072. ܸζ߸ա ([2017-09-24-1]) ǵ󤲤֥ΥաפʤɤȤʤ롥#3071. Pig Latin ([2017-09-23-1]) ϡžּʬּ碌褦ʰŹǤ롥ϡ̸Τ褦ʸɤ򤷤ƤΤħǤ롥
ʾ3ϡʸ٥ǤꡤǤȤǽ (signifiant) 򤤤뤳ȤˤŹ沽Ǥ롥Фƽ국 (ssignifié) 򤤤륿פΰŹ⤢ꡤ졦ʸʤɤȸƤФ롥ɤȤƤ̸θʤɤʤäƤ뤬θΰ̣̤ΰ̣ѴƤΤǡλ򤷤Ƥʤꡤɤ߲򤯤Ȥ񤷤

Ĺ ԡذŹȤ١̼ҡ2017ǯ

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2017-09-28 Thu

#3076. 졤֡Ź [cryptology][taboo][semiotics][sociolinguistics][anthropology][kotodama]

ҲǤϡ֤̾뱣줬ѤƤ㤨С奨ץȿͤ奤ɤΥХλҶ2Ĥ̾äƤ1Ĥϰ̤˳ƾѤ̾Ǥꡤ⤦1Ĥƿ뿿̾Ǥ롥̾򱣤ΤϰȤ뤿Ǥ롥Τ褦̾Ѥ뤳ȤĿ̾ˤȤɤޤ餺̤θդˤޤǵڤ֤ȡϱηϡ뤤ϥ֡ (taboo) ȿȤ٤ΤˤʤäƤ롥ȤϡѤŪ춦ƱΤΤʤǤ򤵤ʤȤ̣ˤơοʹ֤ˤȤäưŹʳβʪǤʤˤơ졤֡Ź3ԤϢŤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ηˤĤơĹ (106) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥

Τ褦ˤߤƤȡȥФִǤ뱣λѤˤԲķǤä狼롥ʤϡबȥФäȤƱޤ줿⤦ĤΥȥФäΤǤ롥
ޤ߻ⱣΰȤ褦θդˤ뤳Ȥཬ顤ϲβ֡פȤäꡤեꥫΥХ󥰥²Τ褦ؽ˹ԤȤ򡤡ֿŤäƹԤͤФʤʤפȤ֤ʤ򸫲äƤפȤäꤹΤǤ롥


䥿֡ʹ֤Υߥ˥ǽϤȯ뤳ȤˤʤȯƱȤϡˤȤäƸȤϲȤ˿ʳ٤ƤΤˤʤ
Ϣơ#1338. ֡ε ([2012-12-25-1])#2410. slang, cant, argot, jargon, antilanguage ([2015-12-02-1]) ׻ȡ

Ĺ ԡذŹȤ١̼ҡ2017ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2018-02-22-1]

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2017-09-26 Tue

#3074. ʸϸǧΰŹǤ [cryptology][language][semiotics][saussure][arbitrariness][sign][writing]

̾οͤˤäƤͭƤʤʸؤưŹȸƤ֤ɸΤ褦΢Ȥ館ơʸϸǧΰŹǤפɽ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡߤȤʵžȯۤǤ롥Ĺ (136--37) Ѥ롥

ɽ뤿ˤɤΤ褦ʸѤ뤫ϤɤǤ褤ȤǤäơפϤʸλȤӤƤСȤƤܤ̤ȤǤ롥եǥʥ󡦥ɡ塼ϡֵ԰ȲİפˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ǽϡɽϤǰȾȤϤϡͳФ줿ΤȤƸϤȤСդˤѤҤҲȾȤϤϡͳǤϤʤơݤ줿ΤǤ롥Ҳ罰ϰĤ̤ˤŤ餺ǽ¾ΤΤؤ櫓ˤϤͤ롥̷ޤफ˻פϤ¤ϡʿؤСضɼ٤ȤǤ⤤դ٤˸äơӤޤء٤ȸĤФ顤ؤεۤΤǤʤơ٤äؤסʾӱظظ١
ϤΤޤ޴ŹˤƤϤޤ븶Ǥ롥Ѵ뵭ȤƤϤɤΤ褦ʤΤǤ⤵ĤʤʤСεѤ֤Ϥäѹ뤳ȤϵʤŹΰ㤦ϡȤɽδط軰ԤƿƤ뤳ȤǤ롥
̤ʸּҲǧѤΰŹˡפȸƤ֤ΤϡΤ褦дطˤΤǤ롥


ޤΤ褦ˤҤ٤Ƥ (137--38)

륺ϡΡˡ٤ˡʸϡ줬ȯ줿ȤΤϴط̩ͤ̿˻ȤƤפȽ񤤤Ƥ롥ϡΨ㤤֤ʸΤΤ̩ɽǤäȤŪΤˤȤ館դǤ롥


ʸŹŪʵǤȤǤ϶̤Ƥ롥ʺۤ1ĵ󤲤ȤСʸ̾¿οͤ˶ͭƤ뤬ŹϾοͤˤΤƤʤȤȤΤäƤͤοȤѥ᡼ٳ뤹СʸϤʤŹǤꡤŹϤʤʸǤȤ롥ŪʸȰŹؤʤߴطˤΤ쵤ݤ߹᤿롥
Ϣơ#2699. Źؤȸء ([2016-09-16-1])#2700. Źˤ륳ߥ˥ ([2016-09-17-1]) ȡ#2701. ŹȤƤʸ ([2016-09-18-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿

Ĺ ԡذŹȤ١̼ҡ2017ǯ

[ | ѥڡ ]

2017-06-26 Mon

#2982. ܸ˰륢ե٥åƬ [acronym][initialism][sign][semiotics][binomial]

ʹɤǤȡե٥åȤƬ (acronym) ȤƤΩġѻʹǤϤʤܸοʹäǤ롥Ƕ TPPʴʿηкϢȶˤ˴ؤ1ĤεΤʤǤ⡤EPAʷкϢȶˡNZʥ˥塼ɡˡCEOʺǹбǤԡˡIMFʹ̲ߴˡGDPʼ¼ˡGEʹݷкѡˡEUʲϢˤʤɤΤ褦˸ƤǺǽ˸Ȥˤϡ嵭Τ褦ˤäդ줢뤤񤭤Ȥ٤ܸɽźƤ뤬2ܰʹߤƬΤߤǤ롥¿ɤ߼ˤȤäơƬȤαѸɽŸ뤳ȤɬưפǤϤʤºݡŸɬפ⤵ۤɴƤʤȤǤϡ1Ĥο졤̵ŪʵȤäƤ褤ʡ#1108. 쵭̵ͭ ([2012-05-09-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
иΡEPAʷкϢȶˡפΤ褦ɽϡŪˤС֥ե٥åȤˤ륷˥եܸ졦ˤ륷˥եˡפȤˤʤäƤꡤΤȤ1Ĥεʥ˥ˤŪƳˤۤʤʤϡε椬Ǻ巫֤Ȥ뤳Ȥä뵡ǽΤۤˡε򼭽Ū˲⤹뵡ǽͭƤ롥ʹҤˤȤäƤϡѽФ̾ɽ魯Τʸ򸺤餻åȤ뤷ޥǥȤƤѸ̤˹ôäƤΤȤͤ롥̾͡¿ȿ̾ˤޥԥå߽ФξˡȤ褦Ȥ1ĤθŪбʤΤ
ɽȴϢƻפФΤϡܸΤߤʤ餺ѸˤŪ˸줿Τ binomial Ǥ롥Ѹ my heart and my corage ꡤˡΧѸ acknowledge and confess ꡤʸɤͳ褹 (å) Τ꤮ꤹפʤɡ夢뤤°1ĤθʸŪȤäƤ褤ˤĤƤϡ#820. ʩƱ ([2011-07-26-1])#1443. ˡΧѸˤƱ ([2013-04-09-1])#2157. word pair μȸ̡ ([2015-03-24-1])#2506. Ѹ2।ǥܸʸɤߡ ([2016-03-07-1]) ʤɤ򻲾Ȥ줿
ĤޤȤܸǤ⡤⤦1ĤθʸŪƳƤƤȤȤʤΤ

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2017-06-03 Sat

#2959. ŪưȤƤοء [kanji][mathematics][semiotics][category][linguistics]

ʪ졡ؤˡ٤路ƣ (37) ϡŪưȤƤοؤüȤưʲ󤲤Ƥ롥

ʹݤڤФƤŪоݤβưȡ
оݤǧ˴ؤʲ2ˤĤưŪʥ󥻥󥵥뤳ȡ
ߥŪ¦̡оݤ갷ݤζɽŪήδĴ
ޥŪ¦̡ηΤŪͤȽǤࡥ


ؤξ硤ǽϡֿפȤʪʪǤ뤫Τ褦˰Ȥ롥2ܤˤĤƤϡߥŪ¦̤ȤϷ׻ˡˡʤɤؤޥŪ¦̤ȤϿؤˤĤľѤ뿳¸ߴΤ褦ʤΤؤΤ褦ʥޥŪ¦̤ϡˤȤä̵ͣΤǤϤʤषźʸγơäƤȼΡֿؤ餷פб롥
ơŪưνüؿϡ줬ؤ伫ʳذʳˤŬѤ뤳ȤǤ롥ƣ (38--39) ϡ1ȤƴηϤ󤲤Ƥ롥

桹Żο顤ȤΤͤμѼڤФ줿٤ŪʳǰŪħǤ뤳ȡƤ¸μɽηΤΤȤƤμĤȤؤ֤ȤǤ롥Τߤʤ餺դ䲾ڤȤäϻˤǼηϤäƤȡƤ줬ºߤγǰȵҴѲȤб§̤ơ¤Բʬδطˤ뤳Ȥ´뤳ȤǤ롥

Ϥˤ̤ơñʤʸȤƤΤߵǽȤΤǤϤʤäʸǤȤȤˡޤͼμ¸ξǤꡤ̤ƤλۤɽǤ뤳ȤǤ šشɴá١ (1978) 159--160ǡ


ϴηϤˤμʳؤǤäȤͺۤʪäƤ롥


ºݤΤȤŪưüϡؤΤߤʤ餺¿γ䵭ηϤ˸ΤǤϤʤʳءˤꡥǤϡȤŪ¸ߤŪǤνȤƼβ롥ޤ͡ʥ٥ǶɽŪ˺ѤʸˡפȸƤФ뵬§ꤵƤ롥ơΤȤ1ĤѤƤ롥
ˡηϼΤŪưʣΤǤȤߤʤȤǤ㤨Сʸˡʡˡ֤ʤɤʸˡ (category) γơ嵭üͭ1ĤŪưǤȹͤ뤳ȤǤ롥
ָ餷פθǤϲ䤤Фǽοءˤ¸ߤΤ⤷ʤ

ƣ ʸʪ졡ؤˡ١ҡӡ2009ǯ

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