pos Υ夤ĤεǡʻȤϲƤؼŵ˵äơʻˤĤƤInternational Encyclopedia of Linguistics pp. 250--51 ꡤ8ʤ PARTS OF SPEECH ιȤ˰Ѥ褦
PARTS OF SPEECH. Languages may vary significantly in the number and type of distinct classes, or parts of speech, into which their lexicons are divisible. However, all languages make a distinction between open and closed lexical classes, although there may be relatively few of the latter in languages favoring morphologically complex words. Open classes are those whose membership is in principle unlimited, and may differ from speaker to speaker. Closed classes are those which contain a fixed, usually small number of words, and which are essentially the same for all speakers.
ʻϤˡޤäֳ줿饹 (open class) ȡĤ饹 (closed class) 礭2ʬƤ롥2ʬˡŪǤ뤳Ȥ⤫롥
The open lexical classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Not all these classes are found in all languages; and it is not always clear whether two sets of words, having some shared and some unshared properties, should be identified as belonging to distinct open classes, or to subclasses of a single class. Criteria for determining which open classes are distinguished in a given language are syntactic and/or morphological, but the names used to identify the classes are generally based on semantic criteria.
ֳ줿饹פˤĤƤϤޤ롥ˤ뤬̾졤ư졤ƻ졤줬˰̣Ūʴˤ̤Ȥ
The noun/verb distinction is apparently universal. Although the existence of this distinction in certain languages has been questioned, close scrutiny of the facts has invariably shown clear, if sometimes subtle, grammatical differences between two major classes of words, one of which has typically noun-like semantics (e.g. denoting persons, places, or things), the other typically verb-like semantics (e.g. denoting actions, processes, or states).
Ȥ櫓̾ư2ĤʻˤĤƤϡۤŪ˶̤ȤäƤ褤
Nouns most commonly function as arguments or heads of arguments, but they may also function as predicates, either with or without a copula such as English be. Categories for which nouns are often morphologically or syntactically specified include case, number, gender, and definiteness.
̾ŵŪʵǽͭƤҲ𤵤롥
Verbs most commonly function as predicates, but in some languages may also occur as arguments. Categories for which they are often specified include tense, aspect, mood, voice, and positive/negative polarity.
ˡưŵŪʵǽͭƤˤĤơ
Adjectives are usually identified grammatically as modifiers of nouns, but also commonly occur as predicates. Semantically, they often denote attributes. A characteristic specification is for positive, comparative, or superlative degree. Some languages do not have a distinct class of adjectives, but instead express all typically adjectival meanings with nouns and/or verbs. Other languages have a small, closed class that may be identified as adjectives --- commonly including a few words denoting size, color, age, and value --- while nouns and/or verbs are used to express the remainder of adjectival meanings.
³ƷƻŵŪʵǽ롥ˤäƤϷƻȤΤˤ⤿ʤΤ⤢롥
Adverbs, often a less than homogeneous class, may be identified grammatically as modifiers of constituents other than nouns, e.g. verbs, adjectives, or sentences. Their semantics typically varies with what they modify. As modifiers of verbs they may denote manner (e.g. slowly); of adjectives, degree (extremely); and of sentences, attitude (unfortunately). Many languages have no open class of adverbs, and express adverbial meanings with nouns, verbs, adjectivesr, in some heavily affixing languages, affixes.
줬ŪޤȤޤΤʤʻȤƾҲ𤵤롥̾ʳȤợ¿ͤǤ롥
Some commonly attested closed classes are articles, auxiliaries, clitics, copulas, interjections, negators, particles, politeness markers, prepositions and postpositions, pro-forms, and quantifiers. A survey of these and other closed classes, as well as a detailed account of open classes, is given by Schachter 1985.
ǸˡĤ饹פñ˿롥
Ū˱Ѹ١ʻȤʤäƤ봶Ϥ뤬䤹Ǥ롥ιμɮԤǤꡤǸ˸ڤ⤢ Schachter ˤܳŪʻͤ褦
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.
Schachter, Paul. "Parts-of-Speech Systems." Language Typology and Syntactic Description. Vol. 1. Clause Structure. Ed. Timothy Shopen. p. 3?61. Cambridge and New York: CUP, 1985. 3--61.
μͭӥ Mond ˤơ䤤ޤ
be + ʬ()βʬϡưʤǤ, ȤƻʤǤThe door was opened by John. ֤ΥɥϥˤäƳ줿פϰ̣ŪˤưȻפޤJohn is interested in English. ֥ϱѸ˶̣פ, ưȤ꤫ϷƻȻפޤθݤϡŪˤɤǤ礦
䤤Фơβ Mond ƤޤܤϤɤǤФȻפޤȤƤץȥ (prototype) ǹͤΤ褤ȤǤ
ʬưͳǤϤޤǽȤƤϷƻ˴äƤޤ⤽ʬ˸¤餺ʬ⡤ˤư̾ʤɤ¾νư⡤ư̤ʻȤƳѤʸˡܤǤΤǡưȡξäƤΤԻĤʤȤǤϤʤषơ˶ᤤȤΤΤǤ
嵭 Mond βǤϡư줫ƻؤϢ³Τꤷ4ĤФȤݤʸޤκݤ˻Ȥ Quirk et al. §3.74--78) εҤǤϡ¤ϤäȾܤ8ĤۤɤꤵƤޤʲ8ĤʸѤMond ؤβȤȻפޤ(1)--(4) ưݤȾʬ(5)--(8) ƻݤȾʬǤ
(1) This violin was made by my father
(2) This conclusion is hardly justified by the results.
(3) Coal has been replaced by oil.
(4) This difficulty can be avoided in several ways.
(5) We are encouraged to go on with the project.
(6) Leonard was interested in linguistics.
(7) The building is already demolished.
(8) The modern world is getting ['becoming'] more highly industrialized and mechanized.
ȴϢơʲ hellog ⤴Ȥ
#1964. ץȥס ([2014-09-12-1])
#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ ([2018-12-29-1])
#4436. ƻΥץȥס ([2021-06-19-1])
#3307. ʸˡѸȤƤ participle ʬס ([2018-05-17-1])
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)ˤơ#844. ¾ưȤϲ --- ¼Ȥ̡ۿޤ30ʬۤɤǻ̩ transitivity ̵ǤΤ#5184. ¼إꥹůؼԤαѸ١ʳҡ2023ǯˡ ([2023-07-07-1]) ε˴Ť̵ȤʤäƤޤΤǡ⤴ФȻפޤ
̤ǤƤ̤ꡤ¾ưȤŪʻɸȤϡŪϢ³ŪǥץȥŪʻɸǤ¾ưꤹѥ͡ޤˤöλϰۤʤޤ줯餤٤ι⤤ǰǤϤޤ餳Ūʸνݤ˴ؤäƤΤǤꡤŪˤⶽ̣Ȥʤ櫓Ǥ (agentivity) Ѳ (subjectification) ȤǰȤʣ˴ϢƤ褦ǡ碌ƸѲĬήҤͭ˾ƻΩƤȤʤꤽǤ
¾ưˤĤƤϡܥ֥Ǥ⼡εƤޤͤޤǡ
#5202. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ ([2023-07-25-1])
#5204. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ (2) ([2023-07-27-1])
#5209. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ (3) ([2023-08-01-1])
ͤϲ̾ĤΤŪˤϡȤΤ̾Ĥ롥ºݾ⡤ͤϸ̤ƿݤ˥٥ŽդƤ줬̾ (noun) Ǥ롥ͤΤϤ⤦̣Ǥ̾ͭ̾Ǥ롥ͤϲ˸ͭ̾ĤΤ
Van Langendonck and Van de Velde (33--38) ϡۤʤ͡ʸӤǡʸˡŪʴ顤̾դоݤŵˡʤץȥŪʤΤ餽ǤʤΤءƤ롥ŪʰǤϤʤȤǤ뤳ȤƤ
̾
̾
̾
̾ɸ̾
µ̾ʪμ̾
"autonym"
ʸǤϳƹܤ˲⤬ĤƤ뤬ǤϺǸ "autonym" ñ˾Ҳ𤷤ƤΤʤǤϺǤץȥŪǤϤʤ֤Ťˤ̾դоݤǤ롥ϡ㤨 "Bank is a homonymous word." Bank ʤȤñˤƱ۵ǤפȤ Bank ΤȤؤƤ롥Ȥɽξ¤ǡ̾פȤʤ롤ȤȤŪ̾դˤϡ#1300. hypostasis ([2012-11-17-1]) طƤ롥
β2ܤˤµ̾ʤɤϡ̾դоݤȤƤΥץȥ㤤ΤǡˤäƤϸͭ̾Ϳ줺ޤ̾Ȥ̤äƤˤʤȤ⤢롥Τ Covid-19 ϸͭ̾ݤ cold ̾ݤ˸ͭ̾ĤΤȤˤĤƤϡ̸Ū˷ϤΤΡޤǥץȥפȤƹͤɬפȤȤ
Van Langendonck, Willy and Mark Van de Velde. "Names and Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 17--38.
ͭ̾ (onomastics) Υϥɥ֥åˤơname ̾ˤĤηƤ롥2ϤηεҤǤ褯ޤȤޤäƤ褦˻פΤǡʬѤ褦
Names are nouns with unique denotation, they are definite, have no restrictive relative modifiers, and occupy a special place in anaphoric relations. They display an inherent basic level and can be argued to be the most prototypical nominal category. Names have no defining sense. They can have connotative meanings, but this has little grammatical relevance. We have stressed the need to rely on grammatical criteria, which are too often ignored in approaches to names.
The approach developed in this chapter aims at being universally valid in two ways. First, the pragmatic-semantic concept of names defined in the introduction is cross-linguistically applicable. It is distinct from language-specific grammatical categories of Proper Names for which language-specific grammatical criteria should be adduced. Second, our approach takes into account all types of proper names. The question of what counts as a name, very often debated in the literature, should be answered on two levels, keeping in mind the distinction between proprial lemmas and proper names. The language specific question as to what belongs to the grammatical category of Names does not necessarily yield the same answer as the question of what can be considered to be a name from a semantic-pragmatic point of view. Mismatches are most likely to be found at the bottom of the cline of nameworthiness . . . . (Langendonck and Van de Velde 38)
ΤˤСʸϤ name Ȥ⡤name ˳ǧŵŪʣħҤΤȹͤ롥2ˤ褦ˡʤħϡ(1) ̸ŪͭǤꡤ(2) ̾̾˸¤餺̾ƤϤޤ롤Ȥ2ˤơ褯줿ΤȤäƤ褵ˤʸϤϡ̾ᤰǤϡܤ̾ݤȤǥǤϤʤ̾餷פΥץȥפꡤ٤ȤƤȤ館ɬפ뤳Ȥ⼨Ƥ롥
̾פۤʣDZԤΤȤϻפʤä
Van Langendonck, Willy and Mark Van de Velde. "Names and Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 17--38.
#5074. Ѹɸ43 ([2023-03-19-1])#5075. ɸθŪħ ([2023-03-20-1]) ɸ () ŪˤȤ館ƤΤ褤ȤǤ롥
¤Ϥ3ĤΥץϡɸΰ̣ˤȤɤޤ餺̤θΰ̣ʬϤݤˤ⤽ΤޤޱѤǤ롥פˡƱ۵ (homonymy) ʤΤ뤤¿ (polysemy) ʤΤȤˤĤƤϡʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#286. homonymy, homophony, homography, polysemy ([2010-02-07-1])
#815. polysemic clash? ([2011-07-21-1])
#1801. homonymy polysemy ζ ([2014-04-02-1])
#2823. homonymy polysemy ζ (2) ([2017-01-18-1])
ʸҡע ͳˡرѸɸˡŵ43δܥǥޡ١ҡ2015ǯ
εǾҲ𤷤#5078. ˡ (forensic linguistics) ([2023-03-23-1]) ϹˡȸפʬȤȤ館Ƥ褤1Ĥ˾ɸ (trademark) 롥ɸˤϥԡ饤ȤͿ졤ˡŪ˼뤳Ȥˤʤ뤬б뾦ʤޤ˿͵ȡɸŪ (generic) ̾졤Ĥޤ̾˶ŤƤ롥ˡŪ˼ƤȤϤҲ¿ˤ̾ȤѤ褦ˤʤСˡΧȤƼҲδѤ˹碌ѲƤʤɸŪˡҲŪˤɤΤ褦˰֤Ť뤫ϼºŪǤ롥
McArthur Ѹ켭ŵȤȡtrademark ŪǤ뤳Ȥ褯ʬ롥
TRADEMARK, also trade mark, trade-mark, [16c]. . . . A sign or name that is secured by legal registration or (in some countries) by established use, and serves to distinguish one product from similar brands sold by competitors: for example, the shell logo for Shell, the petroleum company, and the brand name Jacuzzi for one kind of whirlpool bath. Legal injunctions are often sought when companies consider that their sole right to such marks has been infringed; the makers of Coke, Jeep, Jell-O, Kleenex, Scotch Tape, and Xerox have all gone to court in defence of their brand (or proprietary) names . . . . Although companies complain when their trademarks begin to be used as generic terms in the media or elsewhere, their own marketing has often, paradoxically, caused the problem: 'Most marketing people will try hard to get their brand names accepted by the public as a generic. It's the hallmark of success. But then the trademarks people have to defend the brand from becoming a generic saying it is unique and owned by the company' (trademark manager, quoted in Journalist's Week, 7 Dec. 1990).
There is in practice a vague area between generic terms proper, trademarks that have become somewhat generic, and trademarks that are recognized as such. The situation is complicated by different usages in different countries: for example, Monopoly and Thermos are trademarks in the UK but generics in the US. Product wrappers and business documents often indicate that a trademark is registered by adding TM (for 'trademark') or R (for 'registered') in a superscript circle after the term, as with English TodayTM, Sellotape®. The term usually differs from trade name [first used c.1860s] by designating a specific product and not a business, service, or class of goods, articles, or substances: but some trademarks and trade names may happen to be the same. Everyday words of English that were once trademarks (some now universal, some more common in one variety of English than another, some dated, all commonly written without an initial capital) include aspirin, bandaid, cellophane, celluloid, cornflakes, dictaphone, escalator, granola, hoover, kerosene, lanolin, mimeograph, nylon, phonograph, shredded wheat, zipper. Trademarks facing difficulties include Astroturf, Dacron, Formica, Frisbee, Hovercract, Jacuzzi, Laundromat, Mace, Muzak, Q-Tips, Scotch Tape, Styrofoam, Teflon, Vaseline, Xerox. The inclusion of such names in dictionaries, even when marked 'trademark' or 'proprietary term', indicates that their status has begun to shift. Trademark names used as verbs are a further area of difficulty, both generally and in lexicography. One solution adopted by publishers of dictionaries is to regard the verb forms as generic, with a small initial letter: that is, Xerox (noun), but xerox (verb).
ɸΰ֤ŤŪѰۤŪѲȤʤСѲ˸ؤȤƤߤ뤳ȤǤ־ɸαѸˡפȤΤʤʤ⤷ʥơޤǤϤʤ
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ε#5074. Ѹɸ43 ([2023-03-19-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ۤΡرѸɸˡŵ٤Ǥϡɸ (discourse_marker) ˤĤƤν¤⤬ͿƤ롥äˡɸˤĤƤδŪʹͤפεͭѤǤ롥
ɸʻʹ⤤٥ΥƥǤꡤĤΥƥϥץȥ (prototype) ȤƲᤵ٤ΤǤ롤ȤϤޤ롥ɸΤΤȤ⡤ɸŪˡ롤Ȥª˶ᤤθˡɸΰŪħפꤹ륳ब³ (333--34) ȤƤ褯ޤȤޤäƤΤǡ˰ѤƤ
ɸ˶̤ǤŪħϡäβ餫ȯðտޤޤõǽƤפȤǤ롥á (discourse) ϹˤȤ館ơɸʸ̮䡤ƥȤȤƶʸ̮Τߤʤ餺ȯþ (utterance situation) ΤޤΤȤ롥ˡȯþ˻Ϳäꡦʹμ䥳ߥ˥νǤɸεǽ˴Ϳ롥ʲĤδɸħޤȤ롥
ڸŪŪħ
(a) 줫ʤΤ¿٥롤٥ΤΤޤޤ롥
(b) ŪñθˤϽǤʤ
(c) ݡȼΩĴ뤳Ȥ¿
(d) õǽ˱ޤޤʲĴȼ
Ūħ
(a) ʸƬ˸뤳Ȥ¿ʸ桤ʸΤ⤢롥
(b) ̿ιǤγ¦롤뤤칽¤ˤ䤫ղä롥
(c) ŪǤ롥
(d) ʣɸ뤳Ȥ롥
(e) ñȤѤ뤳Ȥ롥
ڰ̣Ūħ
(a) 켫Τǡʸοͤ˴ؤ복ǰỤ̄ۤȤɡ뤤ʤΤ¿
(b) ʸοͤ˴ؤ복ǰỤ̄ľˤ⡤ʸ̤ΰ̣ɽ礬¿
ڵǽŪħ
¿ǽŪǡĤå٥ǵǽΤ¿
ڼҲŪʸŪħ
(a) դäդѤ礬¿
(b) ʸΤѤΤ¿
(c) ϰŪװ̡ǯ𡤼Ҳء̤ʤɤˤħ롥
͡ʳ٤ʬϤ뤳ȤΤǤοƥǤ뤳Ȥʬε ([2023-03-19-1]) 43ɸפ⤫٤ʤ顤ħǧ줿
ʸҡע ͳˡرѸɸˡŵ43δܥǥޡ١ҡ2015ǯ
̾ (noun) ̾ (pronoun) 2ĤΰۤʤʻȤߤʤ٤뤤ϸԤԤΰȤȤ館٤ʻʬϤʤʤ̩ˤϤʤΤǤꡤˤäƤϤפȤˤʤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤĤȤϡץȥ (prototype) ȤƥեªƤΤ褤Ȥ¿ʤäƤΤ⤷ʤǽŪˤϥĤʤȵȻפΤʹ֤Ǥꡤäʥơޤ
Aarts ξرĤεޤȤƤΤǰѤ롥
Ρ̾̾ϰۤʤ륫ƥȤߤʤ٤Ǥ (Aarts, p. 25)
Pronouns show nominative and accusative case distinctions (she/her, we/us, etc.); common nouns do not.
Pronouns show person and gender distinctions; common nouns do not.
Pronouns do not have regular inflectional plurals in Standard English.
Pronouns are more constrained than common nouns in taking dependents.
Noun phrases with common or proper nouns as head can have independent reference, i.e. they can uniquely pick out an individual or entity in the discourse context, whereas the reference of pronouns must be established contextually.
Ρ̾̾ƱΥƥȤߤʤ٤Ǥ (Aarts, p. 26)
Although common nouns indeed do not have nominative and accusative case inflections they do have genitive inflections, as in the doctor's garden, the mayor's expenses, etc., so having case inflections is not a property that is exclusive to pronouns.
Indisputably, only pronouns show person and arguably also gender distinctions, but this is not a sufficient reason to assign them to a different word class. After all, among the verbs in English we distinguish between transitive and intransitive verbs, but we would not want to establish two distinct word classes of 'transitive verbs' and 'intransitive verbs'. Instead, it would make more sense to have two subcategories of one and the same word class. If we follow this reasoning we would say that pronouns form a subcategory of nouns that show person and gender distinctions.
It's not entirely true that pronouns do not have regular inflectional plurals in Standard English, because the pronoun one can be pluralized, as in Which ones did you buy? Another consideration here is that there are regional varieties of English that pluralize pronouns (for example, Tyneside English has youse as the plural of you, which is used to address more than one person . . . . And we also have I vs. we, mine vs. ours, etc.
Pronouns do seem to be more constrained in taking dependents. We cannot say e.g. *The she left early or *Crazy they/them jumped off the wall. However, dependents are not excluded altogether. We can say, for example, I'm not the me that I used to be. or Stupid me; I forgot to take a coat. As for PP dependents: some pronouns can be followed by prepositional phrases in the same way as nouns can. Compare: The shop on the corner and one of the students.
Although it's true that noun phrases headed by common or proper nouns can have independent reference, while pronouns cannot, this is a semantic difference between nouns and pronouns, not a grammatical one.
ƤФ塤ơϰۤʤ륫ƥɡ뤤Ʊ쥫ƥɤΤǤ礦
Aarts, Bas. "Syntactic Argumentation." Chapter 2 of The Oxford Handbook of English Grammar. Ed. Bas Aarts, Jill Bowie and Gergana Popova. Oxford: OUP, 2020. 21--39.
դΰ̣ȤϲؼԤůؼԤǺޤ³ƤǤ֤ϼʹܤ˸ꤹʪǡʬϤ䤹ΤǤ̣ƬΤʤ˼ޤäƤʪǡưפʬϤǤޤϰ̣礦ƻȤС̣ǤȤǤ̣θʡ̣ (semantics)ˤϸػˤΤʤǤǤΩƤޤcf. #1686. Ụ̄άˡ ([2013-12-08-1])ˡ
̣õϵ®˿ޤäƤƤޤcf. #4697. 褯ؤäƤ̣桪 ([2022-03-07-1])ˡ̣ˤ͡ʥץޤ礭Ụ̄ǧΰ̣ޤ Day 4 ǤϡξԤγפؤӤޤ
1. ̣Ȥϲ
1.1 #1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1])
1.2 #2795. ְ̣ؼоݡ ([2016-12-21-1])
1.3 #2794. ְ̣ ([2016-12-20-1])
1.4 #1990. ͡ʼΰ̣ ([2014-10-08-1])
1.5 #2278. ̣ۣ ([2015-07-23-1])
2. Ụ̄
2.1 #1968. ΰ̣ʬʬϡ ([2014-09-16-1])
2.2 #1800. ͡ȿи ([2014-04-01-1])
2.3 #1962. ǰء ([2014-09-10-1])
2.4 #4667. Ļ̾ԲĻ̾ȤϲʤΤ --- ð̣ˤʬϡ ([2022-02-05-1])
2.5 #4863. ưΰ̣ʬϤ3Ĥδ ([2022-08-20-1])
3. ǧΰ̣
3.1 #1961. ܥ٥ơ ([2014-09-09-1])
3.2 #1964. ץȥס ([2014-09-12-1])
3.3 #1957. Ụ̄ǧΰ̣ˤ복ǰ ([2014-09-05-1])
3.4 #2406. metonymy ([2015-11-28-1])
3.5 #2496. metaphor metonymy ([2016-02-26-1])
3.6 #2548. ǰե ([2016-04-18-1])
4. heldio #451. ̣ȤäƤ͡ʰ̣εå
ε#4837. worth, (un)like, due, near ֻݤƻ ([2022-07-25-1]) ˰³worth ʻʬˤĤơHuddleston and Pullum (607) ˤȡޤ worth 㳰ŪʷƻǤȤεҤ롥
As an adjective, . . . worth is highly exceptional. Most importantly for present purposes, it licenses an NP complement, as in The paintings are [worth thousands of dollars]. In this respect, it is like a preposition, but overall the case for analysing it as an adjective is strong.
ǤϡHuddleston and Pullum ϲä worth ƻŪȷŤƤΤޤǽŪȤ2ŦƤ롥1ĤϡŵŪʷƻ餷 become ˤʤȤȡ⤦1Ĥϡʬ칽ʸŪˡ˽ҸȤƵǽǤȤȤǤ롥줾ʲ2ĤʸˤäƼ롤ֻǤϤʤȤȤ
What might have been a $200 first edition suddenly became [worth perhaps 10 times that amount].
[Worth over a million dollars,] the jewels were kept under surveillance by a veritable army of security guards.
ѲӽȤߤȡworth Ϸƻ餷ʤIt was more worth the effort than I'd expected it to be. Τ褦ӵʸϲǽǤϤ뤬worth 켫Τΰ̣ˤĤӤƤΤɤˤĤƤϵ롥ƱͤˡIt was very much worth the effort. Τ褦 worth ĴƤ뤫Τ褦ʸϤ뤬ζĴ worth ٤ĴƤΤ롥
⤦1ġ̯ŪʬϤ롥worth ֻǤдط̾ź뤳ȤǤ뤬ƻǤͽۤ롥ơͽۤäƤΤ
This was far less than the amount [which she thought the land was now worth].
*This was far less than the amount [worth which she thought the land was now].
嵭ƤŪɾʤСworth ŵŪʷƻȤϤֻŪħĤΤΡǤɤ餫ȤзƻȤȤˤʤꤽʪޤäǤ뤳ȤϾΤĤġ
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum, eds. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
khelfʷѸ˥եǡworth Ϸƻ줫ֻ줫Ȥ꤬줿ŪˤϸűѸηƻ졦̾ w(e)orþ ̤뤳ȤʬäƤ뤬Ѹ worth ŪʬϤʤСɤʬϤǽǤ롥
ޤֲͤפȤΤʸŪʰֲ̣͡פΰ̣б̾⤢뤳Ȥ顤ƻȤߤΤȤո롥˸§ȤŪˤֻ᤹Τ褦ʿȤΤºݤˡĤα¼ȤȡƻȼäƤΤ⤢СֻȤΤ⤢롥
̤˱ѸؤǤϡΤ褦ƤΤ prototype Υץ롥ŵŪʷƻ졤ŵŪֻ˴ѻŪħ餫ꥹȥåפƤθ졤ξǤ worth ˤĤơɤʻħ¿ͭ뤫ˤäơƻŪǤȤֻŪǤȤäȽǤΤǤ롥
ʬϼΤʤʤ⤷Τ̤ worth ᤹Ȥ㳰ŪħġְۼʡƻȤߤƤHuddleston and Pullum (546--47) ˤС褦ʰۼʷƻ֤Ȥ (un)like due 롥ʲʸǡѳ̤˳äʬ줾ȼäƻȤʬϤ롥
The book turned out to be [worth seventy dollars].
Jill is [very like her brother].
You are now [due $750]. / $750 is now [due you].
ˤΥꥹȤ near ä뤳ȤǤ
Ϣơ#947. Ѹֻ ([2011-11-30-1])#4436. ƻΥץȥס ([2021-06-19-1])#209. near Ρ ([2009-11-22-1]) ȡ
ʻʬѸȤƤϡƻζʬͭ̾ˤĤƤϡ#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1])#995. The rose smells sweet. The rose smells sweetly. ([2012-01-17-1])#1354. ƻܿ ([2013-01-10-1])#2441. ȷƻζ (2) --- ѸǤ⺤ ([2016-01-02-1]) ʤɤȡ
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum, eds. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: CUP, 2002.
ͤƤꡤȤ褯Ƥ뤳ȤʤΤ¾ư (transitive verb) ȡּư (intransitive verb) ȤѸʶ路
ưΤȤ¾ưפּưפʬह⡤ưˤϡ¾ưŪˡ (transitive use) ȤּưŪˡ (intransitive use) ȤξˡȤΤ褦ѸȤΤۤʬ䤹ΤǤϤʤȻפ
Τˡ̾ϼưŪˡ⤿ʤ exist, fall, matter Τ褦ưּưפȸƤǤΤϰ츫ʬ䤹Ʊ̤ͤ¾ưŪˡ⤿ʤ greet, have, visit Τ褦ư¾ưפȾΤΤʤ褦˻פ롥eat, write, move ʤ¿ư줬¤ξˡĤΤǤꡤưġζŪʸ̮ˤˡܤ°פȤơ¾ưפּưפʬषƤޤΤŬڤǤϤʤeat ϴŪˤϡ¾ưפˤäƤŪ줬άּưפȤʤ롤Ȥ褦ʸϺΤȤǤ롥
褦ʤȤϡֲĻ̾ (countable noun) ԲĻ̾ (uncountable noun or mass noun) ˤĤƤ뤷ָƻ (attributive adjective) ֽҷƻ (predicative adjective) ˤĤƤѸϡư졤̾졤ƻΥפȤƤΡּ̡פɽ魯ѸǤϤʤŪ˼¸ȡȤƤΡˡפɽ魯ѸȲᤷƤΤ˻פ롥
̤Ȥ A B ˸̩˥ƥ饤ǤʤΤϡʳѸˤξǤ롥褽AŪBŪǤ⤢Ȥ˱AŪˤBŪˤʤȤΤ褦ʥΤۤ¿ݤѸ⤿Ƥץȥ (prototype) δߤƤΤ褤
Τ褦ͻϡ Taylor ɤˤ#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1])
Taylor, John R. Linguistic Categorization. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2003.
ʻ (part of speech = pos) ȤΤϡǤ褯ΤƤʸˡ (category) 1ĤǤ롥ƤθѸʤʸˡѸʤϡʸˡƤˤĤ줿٥Ǥ롥졤ʡӡԡ˲ĻʤɤѸ줬ФƤ顤ʸˡƤˤĤƸäƤΤȹͤƤ褤
ѸηƻʤˤȤʻˤĤƹͤ硤 (comparison) ȤʸˡƤ1ĤȤʤ롥ܸʤɤǤϡӡפʸˡƤȤ̰봷Ϥʤʽ֤פˡ1ĤȤ٤²ˤƤϸηϤ˿ޤ줿ʸˡƤȤơ̻뤵뤳ȤˤʤäƤ롥ϤޤˤδФĤƤʤΤѸؤˤȤʸˡƤ̻ŪˤⶦŪˤ뤵ƤȤϳΤǤ롥
ϤޤäƷƻʤˤʸˡƤȤȤ줬ƻǤ뤫Ȥäơɬ⤳ƤͿ櫓ǤϤʤ˷ƻ餷ƻӤƤŬ礹뤬ۤɷƻ餷ʤƻӤȤƤʤդ˸Сƻ夲ȤӤƤŬ礹뤫ɤǡƻ餷ƻ줫Ǥʤƻ줫Ƚ롥ϡȤʤƻ˴ؤץȥ (prototype) Ǥ롥
Crystal (92) ƻΥץȥפˤĤʬ䤹ͿƤƤ롥
The movement from a central core of stable grammatical behaviour to a more irregular periphery has been called gradience. Adjectives display this phenomenon very clearly. Five main criteria are usually used to identify the central class of English adjectives:
(A) they occur after forms of to be, e.g. he's sad;
(B) they occur after articles and before nouns, e.g. the big car;
(C) they occur after very, e.g. very nice;
(D) they occur in the comparative or superlative form e.g. sadder/saddest, more/most impressive; and
(E) they occur before -ly to form adverbs, e.g. quickly.
We can now use these criteria to test how much like an adjective a word is. In the matrix below, candidate words are listed on the left, and the five criteria are along the top. If a word meets a criterion, it is given a +; sad, for example, is clearly an adjective (he's sad, the sad girl, very sad, sadder/saddest, sadly). If a word fails the criterion, it is given a - (as in the case of want, which is nothing like an adjective: *he's want, *the want girl, *very want, *wanter/wantest, *wantly).
A B C D E happy + + + + + old + + + + - top + + + - - two + + - - - asleep + - - - - want - - - - -
The pattern in the diagram is of course wholly artificial because it depends on the way in which the criteria are placed in sequence; but it does help to show the gradual nature of the changes as one moves away from the central class, represented by happy. Some adjectives, it seems, are more adjective-like than others.
ƻȤʸˡƤˤĤơäˤӤȤʸˡƤˤĤƤϡʲεȡ
#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ ([2018-12-29-1])
#3835. ƻʤɤΡӡפֵפȤƤˤĤơ ([2019-10-27-1])
#3843. ʤƻ졦Ρָפ "positive degree" ȸƤФΤ ([2019-11-04-1])
#3844. ӵ4ˡ ([2019-11-05-1])
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: CUP, 1995. 2nd ed. 2003. 3rd ed. 2019.
Ϣ#4426. hedge ([2021-06-09-1]) ȡ#4427. ͡ hedge ӴϢɽ ([2021-06-10-1]) Τ褦 hedge 夲Ƥ롥 Lakoff ʸȤƹͻ³
ʸɤ hedge ѤäƤεκǸǤҤ٤ñʤ֤ܤաפǤϤʤ֤̿餷ˤꡦ¤άפ٤ʤȤ Lakoff ιͤ hedge ϤΤ褦ʤΤ餷ȡɬŪ˰̣̤˹äƤȤˤʤ̣˴ؤ븡ڼȤůؤˤĤʤäƤ
hedge prototype οط餫ˤʤä㤨Сsort of Ȥ hedge ϡץȥפ龯æΤƤ˺Ѥ̣ΡִؿפȤߤ뤳ȤǤ롥ºݡLakoff ϥե Lofti Zadeh θꥤԥ졼ءŪʴؿѤ tall, very tall, sort of tall, pretty tall, rather tall ΰ̣ʬϤԤʤäƤ롥Lakoff ʸ (482) ꡤʲοޤƤ餤

οޤθϼ̤֤ͤ tall, very tall, sort of tall, pretty tall, rather tall ǤפȤ꤬̿硤ºݤˤɤ줯餤ؤι⤵ǤС̿ϿǤȹͤ뤫ˤĤ¿οͤ˥Ȥä̤Υޥɤ롥Ĥޤꡤ5'3" 5ե3160cmˤ tall ȤߤʤԤϤۤ0%6'3" 6ե3190cmˤǤФۤ100%βԤ tall ʷƻȤߤʤ6'3" ǤСvery tall Ǥ100%˶ᤤ⤤ͤrather tall 6'3" ФƤϡäŬڤɽȽǤ
פˡ5ɽФ줿ƶηɽ hedge ȤƤθ̤Ǥ롤ȲǤ롥϶Ǥ뤫顤ŪˤϴؿȤɽǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥 Lakoff ȤƲ餫Ϳ̩ʰ̣ǤδؿΩܻؤƤ櫓ǤϤʤΤhedge prototype δط褯ʬͤǤϤ롥
ˤĤ Lakoff Ȥ (492--93) ѤƤ
6.5. Algebraic Functions Play a Role in the Semantics of Certain Hedges
Hedges like SORT OF, RATHER, PRETTY, and VERY change distribution curves in a regular way. Zadeh has proposed that such changes can be described by simple combinations of a small number of algebraic functions. Whether or not Zadeh's proposals are correct in all detail, it seems like something of the sort is necessary. . . .
6.6. Perceptual Finiteness Depends on an Underlying Continuum of Values
Since people can perceive, for each category, only a finite number of gradations in any given context, one might be tempted to suggest that fuzzy logic be limited to a relatively small finite number of values. But the study of hedges like SORT OF, VERY, PRETTY, and RATHER, whose effect seems to be characterizable at least in part by algebraic functions, indicates that the number and distribution of perceived values is a surface matter, determined by the shape of underlying continuous functions. For this reason, it seems best not to restrict fuzzy logic to any fixed finite number of values. Instead, it seems preferable to attempt to account for the perceptual phenomena by trying to figure out how, in a perceptual model, the shape of underlying continuous functions determines the number and distribution of perceived values.
Ĥδ֤ˤեȤȴʤʤΰˤޤãƤޤä⤽ hedge ֤ܤʸաˡפȤǧϤޤä櫓ʤΤǡΥƤʤ褦ˤפƤ
Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.
εǡ#4426. hedge ([2021-06-09-1]) 夲ѸˤĤƤ sort of hedge ɽȤƵ뤳Ȥ¿ºݤΤȤ hedge μ¿ͤǤ롥
ΰʸǿ줿 Lakoff ʸɤp. 472 "SOME HEDGES AND RELATED PHENOMENA" ꤹɽǤƤ롥Ѹ hedge ʴϢɽζȤơʲ˷ǺܤƤ
sort of
kind of
loosely speaking
more or less
on the _____ side (tall, fat, etc.)
roughly
pretty (much)
relatively
somewhat
rather
mostly
technically
strictly speaking
essentially
in essence
basically
principally
particularly
par excellence
largely
for the most part
very
especially
exceptionally
quintessential(ly)
literally
often
more of a _____ than anything else
almost
typically/typical
as it were
in a sense
in one sense
in a real sense
in an important sense
in a way
mutatis mutandis
in a manner of speaking
details aside
so to say
a veritable
a true
a real
a regular
virtually
all but technically
practically
all but a
anything but a
a self-styled
nominally
he calls himself a ...
in name only
actually
really
(he as much as ...
-like
-ish
can be looked upon as
can be viewed as
pseudo-
crypto-
(he's) another (Caruso/Lincoln/ Babe Ruth/...)
_____ is the _____ of _____ (e,g., America is the Roman Empire of the modern world. Chomsky is the DeGaulle of Linguistics. etc.)
ʬ褦ˡ#4236. intensifier ʬ ([2020-12-01-1]) ǵ̣Ǥζո (intensifier) ϡ hedge ΰȤߤʤȤǤ롥ޤ hedge ñˡ֤ܤաפ餤ǧƤǤʤȤʬäƤ̿餷ˤꡦ¤άƤΤ褵
Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.
hedge (hedge) ϡѸ졦ǰȤƹΤƤ롥ѸȤƤϡֳפ̣ñžơ֤ܤաפ̣롥ܸյΤȤȸäۤʬ䤹
إ˥¼ŵ٤ˤȡ֡ʸȤʤΡˤϤ餫ȯܤ硨̸Ĵ¤餲աإåԢI wonder, sort of ʤɡաפȤ롥
ޤCruse ΰ̣Ѹ콸Ƥߤȡؤʬ䤹ͿƤ
hedge An expression which weakens a speaker's commitment to some aspect of an assertion:
She was wearing a sort of turban.
To all intents and purposes, the matter was decided yesterday.
I've more or less finished the job.
As far as I can see, the plan will never succeed.
She's quite shy, in a way.
Ҥ٤Ƥ̿˴ؤơ줬ȤʤΤϤβˤƤǤ롤ȾդƤȽΤͽɤ뤿θάȤäƤ褤̤ˤϡ#1122. Ĵθ ([2012-05-23-1]) ˤäƥҤ٤櫓ˤ⤤ʤǸդȤˤäơͿʤDzؤ˺ѤޤƤȤάǤ롥ϻ䤿Ū˹ԤʤäƤ뤳ȤǤꡤܸ˸¤餺ɤθˤƤ⤽Τμʤ͡ѰդƤ롥
hedge ȤѸ嵭Τ褦ʸŪʰ̣ƤѸȤƤ hedge ϤȤǧΰ̣ʸ̮Ȥ櫓 prototype ʸ̮Ѥ줿Τ餷Bussmann Ѹ콸 (205)
hedge
Term introduced by Lakoff (1973). Hedges provide a means for indicating in what sense a member belongs to its particular category. The need for hedges is based on the fact that certain members are considered to be better or more typical examples of the category, depending on the given cultural background ( prototype). For example, in the central European language area, sparrows are certainly more typical examples of birds than penguins. For that reason, of these two actually true sentences, A sparrow is a bird and A penguin is a bird, only the former can be modified by the hedge typical or par excellence, while the latter can be modified only by the hedges in the strictest sense or technically speaking.
θѸ켫ΤȾδ̣֡礤ѤʤȯŸƤȤȤΤ褦ȤǡĿŪˤ hedge ȤѸϤɤ⤷äꤳʤʤֳס
Cruse, Alan. A Glossary of Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2006.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
Lakoff, G. "Hedges: A Study in Meaning Criteria and the Logic of Fuzzy Concepts." Journal of Philosophical Logic 2 (1973): 458--508.
#4293. Trier Ρְ̣ξפθػ˾ΰյ (1) ([2021-01-27-1])#4294. Trier Ρְ̣ξפθػ˾ΰյ (2) ([2021-01-28-1]) Trier Ρְ̣ξפˤĤƾҲ𤷤ƤԤεκǸǡTrier ι¤Ūʡ־פޤۼŪǤꡤ¤θäˤ줤ŬѤǤΤǤϤʤȤɾ˿줿
ºݡỴ̈ʬʬ (componential analysis) ϡTrier Ρְ̣ξפΥ줷ǰǤ뤳Ȥΰ̣ȤϡΤ˹¤Ū¦̤⤢뤬ʳˤ¿ͤ¦̤äƤΤ
Trier Ū³ŦɾؿѸؼŵ٤ field ιѤ (434)
¤˴ؤƤϡκϡTrier ͭ̾ʡ֥⥶͡פΤȤˤ⸫褦ˡޤäǰʬĤθ줬֤ʤޤŤʤʤʤäƤȤäƤΤ褦ʥϡ Trier Ȥޤ졤äơġθϤΰ̣μǤ¾θΰ̣ϰϤȤνʣꡤĤξ켫ΤζΤȤƤǤϤʤ¾ܤؤδˤ䤫ʰܹԤȤǼ褦ˤʤäޤΰ̣Ϥ˰֤Ť뤳ȤˤäƤΤߤ狼ȤǤμĥ䡤줫餢줬줿ꡤ줬ؿäƤ硤ξ°뤹٤Ƥθ줬αƶȤ褦ʹͤ⸽ߤǤϤŪˤȤƤ롥ˡϤνѸ줫줬ʤ褦ʿŪʹ¤ͭƤΤߤȤϸ¤餺㤨п²Ѹʤɤ˾Ȥ餷Ƥ餫ʤ褦ˡĤΩμ˴Ť¿Ūʹ¤ͭƤȤˤĤƤոΰפƤ褦Ǥ롥̣ʬʬ (COMPONENTIAL ANALYSIS) θ椬ʤˤĤơδŪʡ־פγǰ˿ƻΤͽۤ롥
ȤϤTrier üȯ빽¤Ūʸạ́ʬϤϡѸˤѸؤֵǤϤޤޤ夲뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤϤʤŪǤ줤ǤΤǡΤȻפ롥ΰ̣Ȥ櫓ǧΰ̣Ǥϡष̣ζȤƤʤȤȤ prototype θήǤꡤTrier ήΥι¤Ụ̄ϸȤäơŪˤСTrier Ρְ̣ξפŪ³餫
Ǥ⡤ػŪˤߤСʤե prototype Фϡι¤Ūʡְ̣ξפΤۤäʬ䤹äΤ¤Ǥ롥ޤäꤷ褬ȤƤꡤθ塤¤ϤäȥեʤΤʤΤȺƲ¥롤ȤǶ줿ۤۤ䤹ΤǤ롥ϤꡤTrier Ρְ̣ξפ礭ʳػŪʰյͭȻפ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
Geeraerts ˤ롤Ѹˤǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) Υܤ⤯ͤꡥ sore Ūʰ̣Ѳ (semantic_change) ˤơmetaphor, metonymy, prototype ʤɤǧθŪѸ졦ǰȶ㤬ʷƳƤ롥
Ѹ sore θűѸǤ sār ϡꤹǤ¿äűѸˤƱ prototypical ʸϡ٤ξ夫餫 "bodily suffering" Ū줷ߡˤäθ濴Ȥơ⤿餹ȤƤγŪ "bodily injury, wound" ʽˤŪ "illness" µˤθȥ˥ߡˤȯãƤ"emotional suffering" Ū줷ߡˤθ⡤ΤؤΥե̤ȯãƤΥեطʤˤϡ츻Ūˤ̵طǤ뤬Ū sorrow ʸűѸ sorgˤȤϢۤѤƤ
űѸ sār 嵭¿ϡʲγơθǤʸˤ꼨 (Geeraerts 622)
(1) "bodily suffering"
þisse sylfan wyrte syde to þa sar geliðigað (ca. 1000: Sax.Leechd. I.280)
'With this same herb, the sore [of the teeth] calms widely'
(2) "bodily injury, wound"
Wið wunda & wið cancor genim þas ilcan wyrte, lege to þam sare. Ne geþafað heo þæt sar furður wexe (ca. 1000: Sax.Leechd. I.134)
'For wounds and cancer take the same herb, put it on to the sore. Do not allow the sore to increaase'
(3) "illness"
þa þe on sare seoce lagun (ca. 900: Cynewulf Crist 1356)
'Those who lay sick in sore'
(4) "emotional suffering"
Mið ðæm mæstam sare his modes (ca. 888: K. Ælfred Boeth. vii. §2)
'With the greatest sore of his spirit
Τ褦ˡűѸ sār'' ϡޤ (1) "bodily suffering" θ prototype ȤĤġȥ˥ߡեˤä (2) -- (4) θŪѤƤȤäȤ³Ѹ1297ǯˡޤ "bodily suffering" ̣ pain Ȥեñ줬ѤƤ롥Ĺ餯ƱôƤ sore ϡο pain ˤäƼϰϤå뤳Ȥˤʤäɤ줿櫓ǤϤʤprototypical ʸ (1) "bodily suffering" (2) "bodily injury, would" ؤȥեȤ뤳Ȥˤ̿ΤǤ롥ơԤθѸ sore prototype Ȥʤä¾θषθŪʾΤ˳ΩΤ϶Ѹˡ
Geeraerts, Dirk. "Cognitive Linguistics." Chapter 59 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 618--29.
(70) ϡåƥʤʻˤʤ顤̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³ܤƤ롥ζˤ˰꤬ꡤ¾ζˤ˰ưѲ1ĤϢ³ΤȤ
åƥΩĴפϡγФξѤоݤȡѲȤʤȤΩ˸ФȤǤ롥ĤޤꡤǤϻ֤ηвǰꤷоݤꡤ⤦ǤϤΰưѲβγФ롥ΩȤ˹ͤȡ̾ΥץȥפϡѲΤʤꤷäоݤǤ롥ؼԤˤϡƤسԤΤʪΤǤ뤳ȤܤȤʤ롥ФưΥץȥפϡ֤ѲȤäǤ롥ҤԤΤϡΩäѲߤȤ줿礬ǤꡤŵŪˤϹ٤η̤ȤƸ뤫Ǥ롥äǤεǽȤ餳С̾餷פǰоݤ³ˤ뤿ΰꤷطʤߤư餷פϻ֤ǤѲˤäƵ֤οʹԤɽϤ餭ġ
Τ褦˹ͤȡŪ˷ƻ줬̾餷ư餷δ֤ǡɤפ뤤ϼΩƥȤƤϸ¤줿С⤿ʤȤ¿Ȥϡƻ줬ˡȻפ롥ƻϽŪˡ㡧֤סˤȽŪˡ㡧֥֤סˤξäƤꡤԤоݤ̤ơ̾餷פ¦ˡԤϡʹ٤ǤϤʤˤĤƤνҤ̤ơư餷פ¦˶ŤǤ롥ƳǰŪ˥ץȥפ鳰줿Ȥˤϡ̾ư줫ˤäɽ뤳Ȥ¿ʤ롥
ƻ줬̾ư˶ޤ줿ŪƤǤ뤬椨ˡȤˡ̾餷פȤˡư餷פӤӤȤϤ롥ΰ㤤ŪˡȽŪˡ˸ƤΤǤϤʤȤƶԤޤŪˤäơƻȤƥϸÿʸˡŪˤƸ֤ΰۤʤ꤬㤷Τ⡤ŪʥƥȤ⼨٤㤨СܸǤϷƻΩƽҸˤʤư˶ᤤǤ϶Ūˤ̾˶ᤤȹͤˡ
Τ褦Ϣ³ƲȤʻȤ館ȡʻž (conversion) ˤޤḤ̂䤽¾ηˤ⿷ʸƤ뤫⤷ʤ
סǧθء١ؽDz2002ǯ
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