ε#5879. ΰͤ ([2025-06-01-1]) (tense) ˴Ϣ夲ޤĤơ#3693. ˤȤϲ ([2019-06-07-1]) ǻˤĤƹͤȤ⤢롥
ƻȤϲʤΤ긵ˤ International Encyclopedia of Linguistics TENSE ƤߤߤƤߤ褦 (223--24)
Definition
Tense refers to the grammatical expression of the time of the situation described in the proposition, relative to some other time. This other time may be the moment of speech: for example, the past and future designate time before and after the moment of speech, respectively, while the perfect (or anterior) designates past time which is relevant to the moment of speech. Or it may be some other reference time, as in the past perfect, which signals a time prior to another time in the past---as in I had just stepped into the shower when the phone rang, where the first clause signals a time prior to that of the second. The most commonly occurring tenses are past and future; however, perfect tenses are also common, as are combinations of perfect with past and future. Some languages show degrees of remoteness in the past or future: distinctions are possible between past situations of today vs. yesterday, yesterday vs. preceding days, or recent time vs. remote time. Analogous distinctions are possible in the future but not as common. Tense is expressed by inflections, by particles, or by auxiliaries in construction with the verb; it is rarely expressed by derivational morphology . . . .
ǤϡλˤƸɽΤ (224)
Expression
According to the traditional view, tense is a verbal inflectional category expressing time; however, the possibility of tense being realized also by periphrastic constructions is usually acknowledged. There are several difficulties in applying this view to actual languages. First, the semantics of many inflectional categories contain aspectual and modal as well as temporal elements: e.g., perfective aspect in many languages is restricted to past time reference, and future tenses almost always have modal overtones. Furthermore, if a language has several tense distinctions, they often have rather different modes of expression. An example is the past/non-past and future/non-future oppositions of English; the former is inflectional, and the latter periphrastic . . . .
An alternative is to view "tense" as a cover term for those inflectional categories whose semantics is dominated by temporal notions. In inflectional systems, then, the most common tense oppositions are past/non-past and future/non-future. Less common, but by no means rare, are distinctions pertaining to degrees of remoteness, e.g. recent and remote past. At least four or five such degrees can be distinguished in certain systems, but the main remoteness distinction is generally between 'today' and 'not today'.
Tense in finite verb forms normally expresses the relation between the time referred to in the sentence and the time of the speech act (absolute tense); in non-finite verb forms, and sometimes in finite subordinate clauses, tense is relative, expressing the relation between the time expressed by the verb and that of a higher clause. Categories such as perfects and pluperfects, which signal that a situation is viewed from the perspective of a later point in time, have a debated status; they are usually expressed periphrastically, but can also occur in inflectional systems.
ǽ¦̤Τ뤤Ϸ鸫ΤˤäƤȤƤªѤäƤޤ̸ŪˡŪ˴ϢݤƤȤɬפ
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.
ܥ֥ǤϡޤǡֻΰספˤĤƹͤ뵡ʤäʸˡˤ뤳̾ˤĤơ塤ŪʻޤĤġޤޤ˹ͤƤȻפ
ֻ̾ξȱ (sequence_of_tenses)뤤ä˻ˤ餹Ǥϡָžܡ (backshift) ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢롥
ˤѸѸ켭ŵΤĤäƤߤŪʴͻäƤΤϤʤޤ Bussmann βɤǡhellog ˤͻϵȤ
sequence of tenses
Fixed order of tenses in complex sentences. This 'relative' use of tenses is strictly regulated in Latin. If the actions depicted in the main and relative clauses are simultaneous, the tense o the dependent clause depends on the tense in the independent clause: present in the main clauses requires present subjunctive in the dependent Cal's; preterite or past perfect in the main clause requires perfect subjunctive in the dependent clause. This strict ordering also occurs in English, such as in conditional sentences: If I knew the answer I wouldn't ask vs If I had known the answerer I wouldn't have asked.
ֻΰספˤĤƤϺä긡ƤƤ (tense) Ȥʸˡ (category) ΤΤˤĤƤϵƤȤ櫓εȤ줿
#2317. Ѹˤ̤ȯã ([2015-08-31-1])
#2747. Reichenbach λ ([2016-11-03-1])
#3692. Ѹˤϲ2Ĥʤ ([2019-06-06-1])
#3693. ˤȤϲ ([2019-06-07-1])
#3718. Ѹ̤ʤȹͤͳ ([2019-07-02-1])
#4523. --- ο̤ĤäưΥƥ ([2021-09-14-1])
#5159. Ѹˤ̤ƻϤɽƤ ([2023-06-12-1])
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
ۿ줿֤إ饸κǿϡפ֤Ρ֥å1900ɤפǤȥright ϤʤֱפָפɽΤǤ郎ޤơβδƽ̳ᤵƤޤʿ⤪꤬Ȥޤˡ
Ĥαñ줬줿ΤǤܤΤ matter count Ȥñ줬ֽפǤפ̣ưȤѤƤǤưǿŦƤޤäʤޤֽפǤפǤСbe important Τ褦˷ƻѤΤդ路褦˴뤫ǤʤưʤΤȤ䤬ޤ
2Ĥư̡˹ͤޤ礦ޤ matter ʤֽפǤפȤ̣ưˤʤΤǤ礦Ҳ𤵤Ƥ褦 matter ̾ȤƤδŪʰ̣ϡʪפǤϡȤͤޤäƤΡǤϤʤΡդȻפޤä꽼ŶƤ륤ȤΤסּ¼ŪʡסͭյʡסֽפǤפʤɤθȹͤޤ
⤦1ĤΡֽפǤפ̣ư count ϤɤǤ礦ưǾҲ𤵤Ƥޤcount 1ϡֿפǤܸ͡Ǥ֤ΤοʤפȤѶ礬ޤդˡֿ롨פΤϡֽפǤפȤͤޤѸǶ̤ȯۤΤ⤷Ǥ͡
ʤߤ count ϥƥ computāre եˤޤäͳ褷ޤ computāre ϡƬ com- ʶˡˡˤ putāre ʹͤˤꡤŰŪ˹ͤסֹθפȤạ̈礤ФơֿסַפȤ̣ȯŸƤäȹͤޤơΥƥ computāre ľܤ˱Ѹ compute ȤƤѤƤޤĤޤꡤcount compute Ʊ츻2Ÿ (doublet) δطȤʤޤ
ơmatter count ֽפǤפ̣褦ˡǤзƻɽƤ٤ȤǡưȤɽƤ¾ˤ⤢ޤ㤨 cost Ѥˤ resemble ʻƤˤʤɤ⡤ưȤϾ֡˶ᤤ̣礤ӤӤƤꡤľŪˤ be worth be like Τ褦˷ƻѤɽ魯Τդ路ȵ뤫⤷ޤ
դ⤢ޤʻȤƤϷƻǤʤ⡤Ūʰ̣礤ĶơưŪʥ˥奢ӤӤΤޤactive ʳưŪʡˤȤƻϡ֡ɽ路Ƥ褦ˤפޤưäƤưŪʥΤ¤Ǥꡤʤ̣ŪˤϽʬưŪȤȤǤΤǤޤưθʬʬ줫ƻ졤㤨 interesting, surprised ʤɤϡȤưʤ櫓Ǥ顤ʬưŪʴޤߤݻƤΤ̵̤ȤʤΤǤ
Τ褦˸ƤȡưȷƻȤʻʬϳΤ¸ߤΤΡΰ̣ŪʶܤΤ˻Ŧ뤳ȤȤ狼ޤξʻϡ̣ŪˤϤषϢ³ΤǤĤʤäƤȸʤΤդ路褦˻פޤˤĤƤϡ#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ ([2018-12-29-1]) ε⻲ͤˤʤǤ礦
Τإ饸֥å1900ɤǤϡƽ˴ؤ餻Ƥʤ顤matter count ȤäŵŪưˤĤƹͤľ뤳ȤǤٶˤʤޤˤʤäƤʤϡҥåƤߤƤ
פС䤬ơ֤إ饸פ˴ؤ餻Ƥä1Ĥ֥å1900ɤפǤ#5196. ֤إ饸б4 --- رñ쥿åȡ٤ñ츻 ([2023-07-19-1]) Ǥϡvid ʸˤȤƥ캬Τߤͥ1ֶä³ȤѤʲϿΤǤ⤼ҤС
夲 matter count ᤰϡ heldio ۿ#1418. ֤إ饸פΥå1900ɤ --- right ϤʤֱפָפɽΤǤܤޤܵˤʤȻפޤΤǡҤ⤪İ
pos Υ夤ĤεǡʻȤϲƤؼŵ˵äơʻˤĤƤInternational Encyclopedia of Linguistics pp. 250--51 ꡤ8ʤ PARTS OF SPEECH ιȤ˰Ѥ褦
PARTS OF SPEECH. Languages may vary significantly in the number and type of distinct classes, or parts of speech, into which their lexicons are divisible. However, all languages make a distinction between open and closed lexical classes, although there may be relatively few of the latter in languages favoring morphologically complex words. Open classes are those whose membership is in principle unlimited, and may differ from speaker to speaker. Closed classes are those which contain a fixed, usually small number of words, and which are essentially the same for all speakers.
ʻϤˡޤäֳ줿饹 (open class) ȡĤ饹 (closed class) 礭2ʬƤ롥2ʬˡŪǤ뤳Ȥ⤫롥
The open lexical classes are nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Not all these classes are found in all languages; and it is not always clear whether two sets of words, having some shared and some unshared properties, should be identified as belonging to distinct open classes, or to subclasses of a single class. Criteria for determining which open classes are distinguished in a given language are syntactic and/or morphological, but the names used to identify the classes are generally based on semantic criteria.
ֳ줿饹פˤĤƤϤޤ롥ˤ뤬̾졤ư졤ƻ졤줬˰̣Ūʴˤ̤Ȥ
The noun/verb distinction is apparently universal. Although the existence of this distinction in certain languages has been questioned, close scrutiny of the facts has invariably shown clear, if sometimes subtle, grammatical differences between two major classes of words, one of which has typically noun-like semantics (e.g. denoting persons, places, or things), the other typically verb-like semantics (e.g. denoting actions, processes, or states).
Ȥ櫓̾ư2ĤʻˤĤƤϡۤŪ˶̤ȤäƤ褤
Nouns most commonly function as arguments or heads of arguments, but they may also function as predicates, either with or without a copula such as English be. Categories for which nouns are often morphologically or syntactically specified include case, number, gender, and definiteness.
̾ŵŪʵǽͭƤҲ𤵤롥
Verbs most commonly function as predicates, but in some languages may also occur as arguments. Categories for which they are often specified include tense, aspect, mood, voice, and positive/negative polarity.
ˡưŵŪʵǽͭƤˤĤơ
Adjectives are usually identified grammatically as modifiers of nouns, but also commonly occur as predicates. Semantically, they often denote attributes. A characteristic specification is for positive, comparative, or superlative degree. Some languages do not have a distinct class of adjectives, but instead express all typically adjectival meanings with nouns and/or verbs. Other languages have a small, closed class that may be identified as adjectives --- commonly including a few words denoting size, color, age, and value --- while nouns and/or verbs are used to express the remainder of adjectival meanings.
³ƷƻŵŪʵǽ롥ˤäƤϷƻȤΤˤ⤿ʤΤ⤢롥
Adverbs, often a less than homogeneous class, may be identified grammatically as modifiers of constituents other than nouns, e.g. verbs, adjectives, or sentences. Their semantics typically varies with what they modify. As modifiers of verbs they may denote manner (e.g. slowly); of adjectives, degree (extremely); and of sentences, attitude (unfortunately). Many languages have no open class of adverbs, and express adverbial meanings with nouns, verbs, adjectivesr, in some heavily affixing languages, affixes.
줬ŪޤȤޤΤʤʻȤƾҲ𤵤롥̾ʳȤợ¿ͤǤ롥
Some commonly attested closed classes are articles, auxiliaries, clitics, copulas, interjections, negators, particles, politeness markers, prepositions and postpositions, pro-forms, and quantifiers. A survey of these and other closed classes, as well as a detailed account of open classes, is given by Schachter 1985.
ǸˡĤ饹פñ˿롥
Ū˱Ѹ١ʻȤʤäƤ봶Ϥ뤬䤹Ǥ롥ιμɮԤǤꡤǸ˸ڤ⤢ Schachter ˤܳŪʻͤ褦
Frawley, William J., ed. International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2003.
Schachter, Paul. "Parts-of-Speech Systems." Language Typology and Syntactic Description. Vol. 1. Clause Structure. Ed. Timothy Shopen. p. 3?61. Cambridge and New York: CUP, 1985. 3--61.
ε#5790. ʻȤϲ --- OED "part of speech" ɤ ([2025-03-04-1]) ʤɤǿƤʻ (pos) ȽŤʤĤĤ⡤äȴˤǤ (word_class) ˤĤ OED Ƥߤ
A category of words of similar form or syntactic characteristics; esp. a part of speech.
1882A root is an abstraction of all word-classes and their differences. (E. Channing, translation of A. F. Pott in translation of B. Delbrück, Introd. Study Language v. 74.
1914Other word classes which are not expressed by formational similarity. (L. Bloomfield, Introduction to Study of Language iv. 109)
1924We have a great many words which can belong to one word-class only: admiration, society, life can only be substantives [etc.]. (O. Jespersen, Philosophy of Grammar iv. 61)
1953The so-called parts of speech (still more inappropriately word-classes) are classes of stem-morpheme. (C. E. Bazell, Linguistic Form vi. 76)
1998All of the general properties shared by whole word classes..are assumed to be within the competence of the grammar rather than of the lexicon. (Euralex '98 Proceedings vol. I. ii. 261)
Ф1882ǯǡŪˤϿ츻ˤϥɥĸ Wortklasse (1817) ΤʤȤμ⤢롥
̣ǤʻƱͤѤ뤳ȤǤΤΡñϤ褦ˤǤʬǤդʬˤĤƸ뤳ȤǤ뤿ˡŪˤϤͭѤѸǤ롥
Ѹǡʻפɽ魯 part of speech (pos) ϡɤΤ褦ƤΤƤĽФΤOED Ǥ part (NOUN1) I.1.c. part of speech ΩवƤ롥Ѥ褦
I.1.c. part of speech noun
Each of the categories to which words are traditionally assigned according to their grammatical and semantic functions. Cf. part of reason n. at sense I.1b.
In English there are traditionally considered to be eight parts of speech, i.e. noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection; sometimes nine, the article being distinguished from the adjective, or, formerly, the participle often being considered a distinct part of speech. Modern grammars often distinguish lexical and grammatical classes, the lexical including in particular nouns, adjectives, full verbs, and adverbs; the grammatical variously subdivided, often distinguishing classes such as auxiliary verbs, coordinators and subordinators, determiners, numerals, etc. See also word class n.
In quot. c1450 showing similar use of party of speech (compare party n. I).
[c1450Aduerbe: A party of spech þat ys vndeclynyt, þe wych ys cast to a verbe to declare and fulfyll þe sygnificion [read sygnificacion] of þe verbe. (in D. Thomson, Middle English Grammatical Texts (1984) 6 (Middle English Dictionary))
c1475How many partes of spech be ther? (in D. Thomson, Middle English Grammatical Texts (1984) 61 (Middle English Dictionary))
1517For as moche as there be Viii. partes of speche, I wolde knowe ryght fayne What a nowne substantyue, is in his degre. (S. Hawes, Pastime of Pleasure (1928) v. 27)
. . . .
Ǥϡʻ줬ʸˡỤ̄ŪʵǽˤäʬवƤ뤳ȡѸǤŪ8ġʾˤäƤ9ġˤʻ줬ǧƤȡʻʬ˽सƸ (word class) ȤʬˡŪ饹ʸˡŪ饹ʤɤʬ뤳ȤʤɤҤƤ롥
ǽʸ1450ǯΤΤȤʤäƤ뤬Ǥ party of spech θǤ뤳Ȥդ٤Ǥ롥ˤȴϢ party of reason part of reason Ȥ OED ˺ϿƤꡤ˸1450ǯƱ D. Thomson, Middle English Grammatical Texts ʸȤƤ뤳ȤŦƤ
ޤpart ñΤȤơʻפ̣ˡꡤƥɽΤʤȤ̤ǻʤűѸʸڤƤÆlfric ʸˡˡ
OEÞry eacan synd met, pte, ce, þe man eacnað on ledenspræce to sumum casum þises partes. (Ælfric, Grammar (St. John's Oxford MS.) 107)
OEÞes part mæg beon gehaten dælnimend. (Ælfric, Grammar (St. John's Oxford MS.) 242)
part of speech ȤѸθϡűѸ˳ǧƥʸˡŪѸ츯ˤ䤫ĤġѸ˸졤θѤ褦ˤʤäȤȤˤʤ롥
ʻͤˤĤƤ pos δϢȤ櫓ʲεȡ
#5762. ʻȤϲ --- ܸΡʻפŵŵĴ٤ ([2025-02-04-1])
#5763. ʻȤϲ --- ΡָפȸƤǤϥᤫ ([2025-02-05-1])
#5765. ʻȤϲ --- Bloomfield θ ([2025-02-07-1])
#5771. ʻȤϲ --- ʬ ([2025-02-13-1])
#5772. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˰̣ˤʬϲǽ ([2025-02-14-1])
#5773. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˵ǽˤʬλߡ ([2025-02-15-1])
#5782. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˷֤ˤʬहȤɤʤ뤫 ([2025-02-24-1])
ϡʻᤰʲεǼ夲Ƥ
#5763. ʻȤϲ --- ΡָפȸƤǤϥᤫ ([2025-02-05-1])
#5765. ʻȤϲ --- Bloomfield θ ([2025-02-07-1])
#5771. ʻȤϲ --- ʬ ([2025-02-13-1])
#5772. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˰̣ˤʬϲǽ ([2025-02-14-1])
#5773. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˵ǽˤʬλߡ ([2025-02-15-1])
ʻϡʬ˲뤫꤬礭ۤʤäƤ롥ϡ̩˷֤˴ŤʬहȤɤʤ뤫ͤƤߤȤΤϡ³ؿѸؼŵ٤ parts of speech ιǤ롥
֤˴ŤʬȤƺǤʬ䤹Τϡñ줬ŪѲ뤫ʤǤ롥٥ŽȤСѲפȡѲפդ路
º Sweet ϡδˤʻʬƤˤȡŪˤȤΡ̾סַƻסưפϡʸˡǽ˱Ʋ餫ηѲΤǡѲפȤʤ롥ֻס³סִפϸ§ȤƷѲʤΤǡѲפȤʤSweet ǤϤˡפäƤ뤬ˤѲ뤳ȤդɬפǤˡ
³ơJespersen ŪʴˤѲפȡѲפʬѲפˤϽΡ̾סַƻס̾סưפޤޤ졤ѲפˤϽΡסֻס³סִפޤޤ롥
Sweet ˤ Jespersen ˤ衤ѲפѲפγơβ̶ʬδˤĤƤϿƤ餺ɤΤȤεǽ̣ŪŤ˺ѤƤǤϤʤȤȽʤ
̾פˤ̾ȼΡưפˤưȼηѲΤǡηŪˤƲ̶ʬƤȤϲǽǤ롥ξ硤㤨̾ưǤ love Ȥξ硤ƱªΤʸˡŪƱ۵פȤưۤʤ2ªΤȤ꤬롥ŪʻʬˤƤƤꡤ̤ǤϤʤȤФʤΤ⤽ʻʬȤϲΤˤϤäΤȤΩ֤ͿƤϤ롥
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
ε#5772. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˰̣ˤʬϲǽ ([2025-02-14-1]) ǡ1Ĥδ̩ŬѤʻˤĤƹͤϤ³ؿѸؼŵ٤ parts of speech ι˰͵ʤ顤ϵǽΤߤ˴Ťʻʬͼ¸Ƥߤ褦
(3) ǽˤʻʬ. Fries (1952, ch. 6) ʻ̩˵ǽˤʬह٤ǤȼĥȼʻʬƤΰ֡εǽϤˤơƱΰ֤ˤĤθˤޤȤThe concert was good (always). / The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly). / The team went there. 3ɽŪʸ (test frame) ȯȤơʸˡ¤ѤˡʸΤɤθΰ֤ˤ뤫ˤäơ4 (CLASS WORD) --- ۤƸ (CONTENT WORD) Ʊ --- ꤷʻȤ
(class 1 word): concert, clerk, tax, team ΰ֤ˤ
(class 2 word): was, remembered, went ΰ֤ˤ
軰 (class 3 word): good ΰ֤ˤ
(class 4 word): always, suddenly, there ΰ֤ˤ
ʳϵǽ (FUNCTION WORD) Ȥ A O ޤ15η (group) ʬդ٤ϡThe poorest are always with us. poorest ϡη֤ɤǤȤΰ֤Ȥ뤷ޤI know the poorest man. poorest ϡ軰ȤΤǤ롥ˡa boy friend a good friend boy good Ʊ軰Τ餫Ǥ롥ä a cannon ball cannon ̾Ǥ뤫ƻǤ뤫εƤʤ̤ξ cannon 軰Ȥʤ롥͡ʬˤСĤθ줬ĤʻʤʤΤʤĤΤȤˤʤꡤĶˤɤʸ줬뤫ȡ̾Ȥ̾ȤǤʤ1줺ĸ줦뤹٤ƤθʤФʤʤΤ褦ʬˡθ̩˲ͤϤ뤬ʸˡηΤȤƤ;̣Τʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ޤɤʬȻפֵǽפȤϡŪǽפΤȤǤ롥ΤˤϤŪ˰ӤƤ롥Ѥˤ϶Ť餤ؿѸؼŵ٤εҤˤϡʻʬϼˤꡤȤ뤳ȤǧǤ롥ϽפȻפ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
ɸˤĤơ#5763. ʻȤϲ --- ΡָפȸƤǤϥᤫ ([2025-02-05-1])#5765. ʻȤϲ --- Bloomfield θ ([2025-02-07-1])#5771. ʻȤϲ --- ʬ ([2025-02-13-1]) ǵƤ
ʻ (parts of speech, or pos) ȤΤߤȷʾ塤˴ŤʬहΤ٥ȤʤΤȤ꤬ʻߤɬפʤȤΤ1ĤΩǤϸʬΤ褤ΤȤ̤䤤ˡεǤϡŪʻʬब̣ǽ֤3Ĥδʣ˵äƤ뤳ȤǧΥСåפȤʤΤǤС줫1Ĥ˴Ť̩ܻؤ٤Ȥʤ롥
Ǥϡ̣ (semantics) ˴Ť̩ʬȤɤʤ뤫ؿѸؼŵ٤ parts of speech ιǤϡλߤϤޤԤʤƤ롥ʲ˰Ѥ褦 (p. 837)
̣ǽ֤3δΤɤѤƤ褤櫓Ǥ뤬ĤȤ硤ޤΤʬǤ뤫ɤޤˡʬǤˤƤ⡤ʬबʸˡҤͭɤͤʤФʤʤ㤨С̣ʬषƤߤȡʻ֤ζΤ˶̤뤳ȤǤꡤˤ⤷ʬषȤƤ⡤ʬबʸˡҤˤ;ͭפˤϤʤʤǤ㤨Сarrive arrival Ʊʻ줿ȤȡˡˤĤƵҤ褦ȤСʬϡȤᤫؤžȤƤ̵̣ˤʤΤ褦˰̣ʻʬ̵פ顤˵ǽ֤ˤʬबͤ롥
̣ˤʬϡޤǤʤ̣ȤƤϤ˰յΤʻڤȤƤͭפǤϤʤ褦ȤȡʻȤΤϡ⤽̣ؤ;ϤʤȤȤˤʤΤ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
#5763. ʻȤϲ --- ΡָפȸƤǤϥᤫ ([2025-02-05-1]) ȡ#5765. ʻȤϲ --- Bloomfield θ ([2025-02-07-1]) ʻҲ𤷤ƤϡؿѸؼŵ٤ parts of speech ιȤʤ顤ѸŪ8ʻʬˤĤƹͤƤߤ롥
ѸŪ8ʻϡ̣ǽ֤3Ĥʬब㺮ˤʤäʬǤꡤŪˤ꤬Ȥ롥ޤ̾졤ƻ졤ư졤ˤĤƤϡ˰̣ŪʴʬƤȤäƤ褤̣ŪʴȤäƤ̯ʥϤǤ⤢롥Ѹ white ϡܸǤϡפȤ̾ˤ⡤פȤƻˤ̣Ūˤϸߤ˸¤ʤᤤƱͤˡʬϷƻưι礤λҤȤäƤ褤礤λҤߤФˤ̣Ū˶ᤤˡʾ4ʻʬˤĤƤϷŪʴ⾯ʤ餺ؤäƤꡤ̣ŪʴǸ櫓ǤϤʤ¾٤ựŪʼΧȤޤƤ;Ϥ뤫⤷ʤ
̾졤졤³ϵǽŪʴˤʬˤơֵǽŪפȤΥ٥ϥСϰϤ˹ˡŪפȶƤСʤǤ뤫⤷ʤ졼ϻĤ롥³Ū˷Ǥ̾ŪǽƱ˸ŪǽӤӤƤꡤֵǽŪפΥСϰϤäȹꤷƤɬפ褦ˤפ롥
ǸֻϤɤŪˤŪʵǽδʬȤäƤ褵̣ŪʹθäƤʤȤϤʤlike worth ϸˡŪפ餷ΤȤŪˤֻŪʿŪȤΤỤ̄äƤǤϷƻݤ
ʻ֤ζܤΤǤʤȤ꼫ΤϸŤ餢ꡤġŦƤ3Ĥʬबʣ˥СåפƤȤܼŪʲƤΤǤ롥
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
ε#5763. ʻȤϲ --- ΡָפȸƤǤϥᤫ ([2025-02-05-1]) ǡ"parts of speech" ʻˡ"word-class" ʸˡ"form-class" ʷˤȤäѸ췲ˤĤƹͤꥫ¤δ Bloomfield ϡɽŪ Language (§12.11) ˤơ3Ĥ̤ƹͤƤ롥
The syntactic form-classes of phrases . . . can be derived from the syntactic form-classes of words: the form-classes of syntax are most easily described in terms of word-classes. Thus, in English, a substantive expression is either a word (such as John) which belongs to this form-class (a substantive), or else a phrase (such as poor John) whose center is a substantive; and an English finite verb expression is either a word (such as ran) which belongs to this form-class (a finite verb), or else a phrase (such as ran away) whose center is a finite verb. An English actor-action phrase (such as John ran or poor John ran away) does not share the form-class of any word, since its construction is exocentric, but the form-class of actor-action phrases is defined by their construction: they consist of a nominative expression and a finite verb expression (arranged in a certain way), and this, in the end, again reduces the matter to terms of word-classes.
The term parts of speech is traditionally applied to the most inclusive and fundamental word-classes of a language, and then, in accordance with the principle just stated, the syntactic form-classes are described in terms of the parts of speech that appear in them. However, it is impossible to set up a fully consistent scheme of parts of speech, because the word-classes overlap and cross each other.
form-class ϸŪбñ̡word-class Ϥ form-class ŵŪʼ°Ūʶʬparts of speech Ϥ word-class ŪǴŪʷȤȤˤʤ
ƤäޤȤΤǤС줾Ūñ̡Ūñ̡á졦Ūñ̤ȤäƤ褤ʻ (parts of speech) ϼŪ椨˹ѤƤ뤬ºݤˤʣŪʤǰճʣˤñ̤ȤȤˤʤ롥
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
ε ([2025-02-04-1]) ³ʻ (parts of speech, or pos) ȤǰѸᤰꡥ Crystal θѸ켭ŵäƤߤ
part of speech The TRADITIONAL term for a GRAMMATICAL CLASS of WORDS. The main 'parts of speech' recognized by most school grammars derive from the work of the ancient Greek and Roman grammarians, primarily the NOUN, PRONOUN, VERB, ADVERB, ADJECTIVE, PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION and INTERJECTION, with ARTICLE, PARTICIPLE and others often added. Because of the inexplicitness with which these terms were traditionally defined (e.g. the use of unclear NOTIONAL criteria), and the restricted nature of their definitions (reflecting the characteristics of Latin or Greek), LINGUISTS tend to prefer such terms as WORD-class or FORM-class, where the grouping is based on FORMAL criteria of a more UNIVERSALLY applicable kind.
ꥷƥʸˡΰ仺ѤŪŪʸˡ (category) Ǥ뤳ȤĴƤꡤ줬ɬΤʸäζʬǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤˤƤ롥衤ʻϳǰŪʸöʬȤ뤳Ȥ¿äºݤˤϤ "unclear" ΡˤǤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥
äơCrystal ϸؤǤϤष "word-class" ʸˤ "form-class" ʷˤȸƤָ¿ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ΤˡʻפȤѸ륱ϤꤽʻפǤ줤˳ڤʤˡŪʳǰѸȤƤΡָפФȤϤȻפ
Ǥ⡤ؤˤƤϡäΩǤϤ뤬ʻפϤޤƼʤΤۤ¿ΤǤϤʤؤȤƤޤƧ߸Ǥ줿ʻפΤˤ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ʻ (parts of speech, or pos) ϺǸŤʸˡƤ1ĤȤäƤ褤夫鸽ˤ빭̣Ǥθ (linguistics) ˤΤʤǡͭѤǤ³Ǥ롥
ܸΡʻפȤѸˤĤơ켭ŵɴʻŵεҤΤƤߤޤܹ缭ŵ٤ꡥ
Ҥ-ʻۡ̾͡ұ parts of speech ӡʡбѡparts of speech ʸˡΰյǽ֤ʤɤʬषñζʬƸγعʸˡǤϡ̤߰Ȭʻ̾졦̾졦ƻ졦ư졦졦³졦ֻ졦ˤȤ롣ʸˡǤϡ̾졦졦̾졦ư졦ƻ졦ư졦Ϣλ졦졦³졦ư졦졦ư줬뤬ʻ硢ʬ⤢ꡢޤˤäưƱ롣ʻפθϡʸˡȤƤϡǯʰȬ͡ˤ־ʸŵפǼʻ⤤ΤǤᤤʸẉ̂͡Ȭּʻ̾ܡס¯ϻỌְ̃̄ʻǡ˴ؤñɸϤȽоȤΡסʸˡ涵ʽ̣͡ʸɧӰñΰʾȬʤʻ̾Ťסʸẉ̂͡˧Ӱ졦컰ֽϼʻβˤĤ¾ʻȤδط¶Ѥʤ
ˡإǥ缭٤ꡥ
Ҥ-ʻۡparts of speechʸˡοǽˤä̤ñζʬʸˡǤϤդĤ̾졦̾졦ư졦ƻ졦ư졦Ϣλ졦졦³졦ư졦ư졦11ʻʬह롣ʬˤĤƤϡΤưǧʤΤ䡢Τۤ˿ΩƤΤʤɡˤƱ롣
ɴʻŵ٤ǤĹܤȤʤäƤ롥Ƭ1ΤߤѤ롥
ʻ Ҥ
ʸˡѸΰġ줾θˤȯäεȤʤñ̡ʤʸϡʸˡΥ٥ǤϺǽŪñʬϤʵդˤСñʸˡΤ褦ñˤϡޤ¿ʤơʤϤ椦ˡʥƥˤ¸ߤơ٤ƤñϤΤ줫°Ƥ롣ĤƤ°ñϤεǽѤʤʸΤɤΤ褦ʰ֤˸뤫ˤͭƤ롣Ƥʻ parts of speech ȸƤǤ̾ȤưȤȸƤФƤΤǤ롣
ɴ٤ǤĹܤʤΤǡǽ3Τ
ʻ Ҥ
ʸˡεҡηϲŪȤơʸˡ˴Ťʬष̡ǽʸˤʤɤδȤʤ롣ġθϤ줫ʻ˽°뤳ȤȤʤ롣
ʻ̾Τ parts of speech ʱѸˡparties du discours ʥեˤʤɤʸŵνѸȤΩΡͻˤϡʸˡȤơֻʡסʡסֶʤλפΤ褦ʤΤäʬռȤƤϡܤˤŤ餢ꡢֻסּס֤Ƥˤϡסֽסֵ٤ס̾ʤʡˡפʤɤ̾ΤΤȤ˸ʬबԤƤʻפȤϡ̤ˡʸŵ͢ˤäƿͤ줿̤ʻμࡢ̾Τˤϡˤä¿ΰƱ⤢뤬̤˹ԤƤΤϡ̾졦졦̾졦ư졦ƻ졦ư졦Ϣλ졦졦³졦ư졦졦ưʤɤǤ롣ΤοξʬǤθסѸפʤɤ̾ΡӲʬǤֳʽסַפʤɤʻȤư뤳Ȥ⤢롣ʤƬספʤɤʻ̾ΤȤѤ뤳Ȥ⤢롣
줾ʻ˽°Ūʸ⡢ˤäưƱ롣ȤСȡǽȯºɡɽ֤롦롦ʤ롦롦롦ˡפϡĹͺ ʤ褷 γǤϡʣסܿʵȤγǤϡֽưס ʤȤ γǤϡפȤ롣ߤι켭ǤϡФβʻ̾Ȥ̤Ǥ롣Ū˿¿̾פˤĤƤϡάƤΤ¿
פȻפ4ФȡΤ褦ˤʤ롥
ʻϸյǽ֤ˤäƶʬΤǤ
⡦Ԥˤäʻζʬۤʤ
̤˶ʬ줿ʻοϾǡĤҤȤĤñϤ줫ʻ°
ܸΡʻפϡθ줫͢줿ζʬؤΤ˼ȤѤ
¿θǡ̾ˤޤĤʸˡƥ (category) ¸ߤ롥ɤθǤ̾ο¿Τ餫δʬहȤȤ̸Ū˹ѻ롥Ǥʸˡ (gender) ŵŪ̾쥫ƥǤꡤܸǤϽ줬Ȥʤ롥
θ̾쥫ƥȤ Genders and Classifiers: A Cross-Linguistic Typology 롥Aikhenvald (1) ϡƬ̾쥫ƥΤ褦ƳƤ롥
A noun may refer to a man, a woman, an animal, or an inanimate object of varied shape, size, and function, or have abstract reference. Noun categorization devices vary in their expression, and the contexts in which they occur. Large sets of numeral classifiers in South-East Asian languages occur with number words and quantifying expressions. Small highly grammaticalized noun classes and gender systems in Indo-European and African languages, and the languages of the Americas are expressed with agreement markers on adjectives, demonstratives, and also on the noun itself. Further means include noun classifiers, classifiers in possessive constructions, verbal classifiers, and two lesser-known types: locative and deictic classifiers.
All noun categorization devices are based on the universal semantic parameters of humanness, animacy, sex, shape, form, consistency, orientation in space, and function. They may reflect the value of the object, and the speaker's attitude to it. Their meanings mirror socio-cultural parameters and beliefs, and may change if the society changes. Noun categorization devices offer a window into how speakers conceptualize the world they live in.
Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ǡAikhenvald (2--6) ϡδ顤7̾쥫ƥμʤƤ롥
I. Gender systems
II. Numeral classifiers
III. Noun classifiers
IV. Possessive classifiers
V. Verbal classifiers
VI. Locative classifiers
VII. Deictic classifiers
ĸʸˡ I ˡܸν줬 II °뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y. "Noun Categorization Devices: A Cross-Linguistic Perspective." Chapter 1 of Genders and Classifiers: A Cross-Linguistic Typology. Ed. Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald and Elena I. Mihas. Oxford: OUP, 2019.
μͭӥ Mond ˤ5αѸ˴ؤ˲ޤΤ̤äƥĥꡤդޤ
(1) ʤ̻ͷΥǤΤˡͭʤͷΥǤʤΡ
ŪˤϿ̻ (QP) ȸ (DP) ΰ㤤ˤΤǤǤǤϹԤޤŪˤСűѸ줫鸽Ѹ˻ޤǡ̻ͷΥϾ¸ߤƤޤȤȤ¤ʤäƤƤȤ¤ޤܤϿ Ƿ ͵ ˡʸˡȸѲ١ʳҡ2024ǯȤ
(2) have got to got ȤϲʤΤǤ礦
have got ֳȤפȤߴλΰ̣Ǥ16ֻäƤפȤñʰ̣žޤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) βФơ have ѤȤ夷Ƥޤ#5657. Ū have got ȯã (1) ([2024-10-22-1])#5658. Ū have got ȯã (2) ([2024-10-23-1]) ȡ
(3) ѸǤñʣζ̤ޤʤ1ȤʳפʤΤǤ礦
1פ¾ο٤ä˴ŪǽפʿǤ뤿ȹͤޤűѸˤп⤢ޤѸʹߤñʣ2ʬȤʤޤθǤϺ5ʬޤǻĤΤ⤢ޤ#5660. ʤѸˤñʣζ̤Ρ --- Mond ǤμȲ ([2024-10-25-1]) ȡ
(4) λϤʤưη³ɽǤΤǤ礦
λνˡζϡָߤȤδͿפǤ³ΰ̣ϼ˾ưǸ졤ưưǤϴλΰ̣ɽФޤޤֻŪפⴰλνפħȹͤޤ#5651. Ф븽ߴλΰ̣ŪħϡפǤ ([2024-10-16-1]) ȡ
(5) subjunctive mood ʲˡ³ˡˤθߴλˤĤ
ˡߴλ¸߲ǽǼ⸫ޤŪޤǤˡηϤϡָߡλפ3ȤߤȤΤǡǴλ꤬ɬפʾ˸ߴλѤ롤Ȳ᤹ΤϤǤ礦
ʾǤ11 Mond ˤƱѸʻˡˤ˴ؤѤʵդƤޤˤʤ䤤
Ϣ (typology) ȸ (universal) ˤĤˤƤ롥ȤäƤ⡤ζ٤ˤꡤŪ⤢СŪ뤤ϳΨŪ⤢ȽҤ٤ˤСˤϰۤʤΤΤ롥Ҳ𤹤ΤϡCrystal (85) ̤Ƥ3줾ּ¼ŪסַŪסִްŪפƤ
Substantive
Substantive universals comprise the set of categories that is needed in order to analyse a language, such as 'noun', 'question', 'first-person', 'antonym', and 'vowel'. Do all languages have nouns and vowels? The answer seems to be yes. But certain categories often thought of as universal turn out not to be so: not all languages have case endings, prepositions, or future tenses, for example, and there are several surprising limitations on the range of vowels and consonants that typically occur . . . . Analytical considerations must also be borne in mind. Do all languages have words? The answer depends on how the concept of 'word' is defined . . . .
Formal
Formal universals are a set of abstract conditions that govern the way in which a language analysis can be made --- the factors that have to be written into a grammar, if it is to account successfully for the way sentences work in a language. For example, because all languages make statements and ask related questions (such as The car is ready vs Is the car ready?), some means has to be found to show the relationship between such pairs. Most grammars derive question structures from statement structures by some kind of transformation (in the above example, 'Move the verb to the beginning of the sentence'). If it is claimed that such transformations are necessary in order to carry out the analysis of these (and other kinds of) structures, as one version of Chomskyan theory does, then they would be proposed as formal universals. Other cases include the kinds of rules used in a grammar, or the different levels recognized by a theory . . . .
Implicational
Implicational universals always take the form 'If X, then Y', their intention being to find constant relationships between two or more properties of language. For example, three of the universals proposed in a list of 45 by the American linguist Joseph Greenberg (1915--) are as follows:
Universal 17. With overwhelmingly more-than-chance frequency, languages with dominant order VSO [=Verb-Subject-Object] have the adjective after the noun.
Universal 31. If either the subject or object noun agrees with the verb in gender, then the adjective always agrees with the noun in gender.
Universal 43. If a language has gender categories in the noun, it has gender categories in the pronoun.
As is suggested by the phrasing, implicational statements have a statistical basis, and for this reason are sometimes referred to as 'statistical' universals . . . .
ʾ3θޤȤȼΤ褦ˤʤ
1. ¼Ū (Substantive universals): ̾졤ʸ;Ρ첻ʤɡʬϤɬפʴŪ (category) Τȡ٤Ƹ˶̤¸ߤǤ⤢Сֻ̤Τ褦ɬŪǤʤǤ⤢롥
2. Ū (Formal universals): ʸι¤뤿ɬפŪʾʸˡ§Τȡ㤨Сʿʸ鵿ʸؤѴ§ʤɤޤޤ졤ॹǤϡΤ褦ѷ§ϷŪȤư롥
3. ްŪ (Implicational universals): ֤⤷ X ʤ YפȤɽ蘆֤δطΤȡŪʷ˴ŤƤꡤ㤨 VSO θǤϷƻ줬̾θ뷹λŦʤ롥
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.

μͭӥ Mond ˾嵭Ѥʵ䤬ޤʸϰʲ̤Ǥ
ѸǤñʣζ̤ޤʤ1ȤʳפʤΤǤ礦̤οҤȡ֤ʤΤۤοȤϰ㤦̤ʰˤʤΤǤ礦סΥ֥ʤɤǤпΤäޤ⤷ȤȤñпΤۤο3䡤֤äȤס֤Τפʤɡˤˤäƶ̤ƤΤˤñ㲽ƤȤȤϹͤޤǤ1ζ̤ϽȻĤäƤΤȤȡȤƤԻĤ˴ޤ
ܼŪʼФơΤ褦˲ޤ X @chariderryu Ǥ⡤ˤĤƾʤȿޤΤǡܥ֥ǤƤΤ餻վǤޤȤƤȻפޤ
1. źθˤΥƥ
ѸǤñ1פʣ2ʾפ2ʬ
űѸǤп¸ߤѸޤǤѤ줿
θǤϡ5ʬñп3ʣˤޤdzǧƤ
ܸΤ褦ˡΤʿζʬʤ¸ߤ
ˤäƥƥСοϰۤʤꡤŪѲ⤢
2. ʤ1פȡ2ʾפ̤ʤΤ
1פ¾οӤüǺΩäƤ
ǤŪŪ١ĽפʿǤ
Ѹ쥳ѥ (BNCweb) ˤСone λ٤¾ο갵Ū˹⤤
1פްդɽ˭ (ex. a(n), single, unique, only, alone)
2ĤΥƥΤߤĸǤϡ̾1פȡ2ʾפζʬˤʤ
3. ä̤ʤΤϡ0פȡ1ʾפ⤷ʤ
0פȡ1ʾפζ̤꺬Ūʲǽ
ƻǤ no vs. oneǤ not ̵ͭ vs. ˤб
Ķơ̿ꡦȤ̣ŪŪʺ˴ؤ
ꡦפγǰϡAI ˤȤäȤ
0פޤΥƥιͻܼŪˤĤʤǽΤǤϤʤ
ΥƥȤƻϤޤޤĤδ֤ˤꡦεˤؤäƤޤޤ³ͻƤȻפޤ Mond μ䡤Ǥ
μͭӥ Mond ˤơ䤤ޤ
be + ʬ()βʬϡưʤǤ, ȤƻʤǤThe door was opened by John. ֤ΥɥϥˤäƳ줿פϰ̣ŪˤưȻפޤJohn is interested in English. ֥ϱѸ˶̣פ, ưȤ꤫ϷƻȻפޤθݤϡŪˤɤǤ礦
䤤Фơβ Mond ƤޤܤϤɤǤФȻפޤȤƤץȥ (prototype) ǹͤΤ褤ȤǤ
ʬưͳǤϤޤǽȤƤϷƻ˴äƤޤ⤽ʬ˸¤餺ʬ⡤ˤư̾ʤɤ¾νư⡤ư̤ʻȤƳѤʸˡܤǤΤǡưȡξäƤΤԻĤʤȤǤϤʤषơ˶ᤤȤΤΤǤ
嵭 Mond βǤϡư줫ƻؤϢ³Τꤷ4ĤФȤݤʸޤκݤ˻Ȥ Quirk et al. §3.74--78) εҤǤϡ¤ϤäȾܤ8ĤۤɤꤵƤޤʲ8ĤʸѤMond ؤβȤȻפޤ(1)--(4) ưݤȾʬ(5)--(8) ƻݤȾʬǤ
(1) This violin was made by my father
(2) This conclusion is hardly justified by the results.
(3) Coal has been replaced by oil.
(4) This difficulty can be avoided in several ways.
(5) We are encouraged to go on with the project.
(6) Leonard was interested in linguistics.
(7) The building is already demolished.
(8) The modern world is getting ['becoming'] more highly industrialized and mechanized.
ȴϢơʲ hellog ⤴Ȥ
#1964. ץȥס ([2014-09-12-1])
#3533. ̾ -- ƻ -- ưϢ³Ʋ ([2018-12-29-1])
#4436. ƻΥץȥס ([2021-06-19-1])
#3307. ʸˡѸȤƤ participle ʬס ([2018-05-17-1])
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
(interjection) Ȥޥʡʻϡ褽쵬§ʤͣθȤȤǡɤͳ̥Ϥ롥Ū˼椫졤夲Ƥ롥εȤƤϡ#3689. Ѹδ ([2019-06-03-1])#3712. Ѹδ (2) ([2019-06-26-1])#3688. ܸδưʬ ([2019-06-02-1]) ʤɤȤ줿
Crystal, McArthur, Bussmann γơѸ켭ŵ interjection Ƥߤ
interjection (n.) A term used in the TRADITIONAL CLASSIFICATION of PARTS OF SPEECH, referring to a CLASS of WORDs which are UNPRODUCTIVE, do not enter into SYNTACTIC relationships with other classes, and whose FUNCTION is purely EMOTIVE, e.g., Yuk!, Strewth!, Blast!, Tut tut! There is an unclear boundary between these ITEMS and other types of EXCLAMATION, where some REFERENTIAL MEANING may be involved, and where there may be more than one word, e.g. Excellent!, Lucky devil!, Cheers!, Well well! Several alternative ways of analysing these items have been suggested, using such notions as MINOR SENTENCE, FORMULAIC LANGUAGE, etc. (Crystal)
INTERJECTION [15c: through French from Latin interiectio/interiectionis something thrown in]. A part of speech and a term often used in dictionaries for marginal items functioning alone and not as conventional elements of sentence structure. They are sometimes emotive and situational: oops, expressing surprise, often at something mildly embarrassing, yuk/yuck, usually with a grimace and expressing disgust, ow, ouch, expressing pain, wow, expressing admiration and wonder, sometimes mixed with surprise. They sometimes use sounds outside the normal range of a language: for example, the sounds represented as ugh, whew, tut-tut/tsk-tsk. The spelling of ugh has produced a variant of the original, pronounced ugg. Such greetings as Hello, Hi, Goodbye and such exclamations as Cheers, Hurra, Well are also interjections. (McArthur)
interjection [Lat. intericere 'to throw between']
Group of words which express feelings, curse, and wishes or are used to initiate conversation (Ouch!, Darn!, Hi!). Their status as a grammatical category is debatable, as they behave strangely in respect to morphology, syntax, and semantics: they are formally indeclinable, stand outside the syntactic frame, and have no lexical meaning, strictly speaking. Interjections often have onomatopoeic characteristics: Brrrrr!, Whoops!, Pow! (Bussmann)
¾Ѹ켭ŵ٤ƤȤǤ롥ޤܤ뤳ȤΤʤ̥ϤäƤ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
ɸϲ褷褦ΤʤǤϤ뤬ػ (history_of_linguistics) ˤƤϸε (origin_of_language) ᤰΤʤǻڤƤ䤤Ǥ롥
Mufwene (22) Ȥơ2ͤԤȤθҲ𤷤ɥĤůؼ Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744--1803) ȥꥫθؼ William Dwight Whitney (1827--94) Ǥ롥
Herder also speculated that language started with the practice of naming. He claimed that predicates, which denote activities and conditions, were the first names; nouns were derived from them . . . . He thus partly anticipated Heine and Kuteva (2007), who argue that grammar emerged gradually, through the grammaticization of nouns and verbs into grammatical markers, including complementizers, which make it possible to form complex sentences. An issue arising from Herder's position is whether nouns and verbs could not have emerged concurrently. . . .
On the other hand, as hypothesized by William Dwight Whitney . . . , the original naming practice need not have entailed the distinction between nouns and verbs and the capacity to predicate. At the same time, naming may have amounted to pointing with (pre-)linguistic signs; predication may have started only after hominins were capable of describing states of affairs compositionally, combining word-size units in this case, rather than holophrastically.
Herder ϸ̾դ (naming) μϤޤäȹͤȤ̾դη̤ȤƤΡ̾פǽ̾ǤϤʤҸưäȤդϰճȯۤǶ̣Herder ϡ̾ϸư줫ΤǤȹͤϸʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤȤʸˡƤȯȤͤ˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
Whitney ϡư̾ζ̤Τʤʳǰɽ (holophrasis) ȯΤǤꡤޤǸˤʤäƤ餽ʸˡƤȯãȹͤ
쵯ʸˡϤΤ褦ˤƴطŤΤȴ补
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
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