YouTube ֤Τۤإͥκǿư褬ۿޤꤷ#373. 줫αѸϤɤʤ롩AIαѸ졦Ѹ̤ɤࡧ¿ͲAIǤϡޤ˺䤿ܤˤƤȥƥΥηŪʸˤĤơ夵ȵޤ
äϡ䤬б餵Ƥʸ麽սPLUS ͥǡϢѸ˥ȡŸȤˤޤΥȡκǸΤۤǡѸ¿䤽̤ˤĤƿ줿ΤǤƱơޤ֤ΤۤإͥפǤ⤵˷겼Ƥߤ褦ȹͤǤAIˤꥢ륿ŪˤʤĤĤꡤѸ̤ͤǡ̤ʤȤʤäƤޤ
ΤۤưǤϡѸʤҤƤϸ̡ˤΤġ2ĤȿϡפˤĤƵޤ1ĤϡѸ줬ζ̸졤Ĥޤꥳߥ˥ƻȤƤֵ̤ῴϡ (centripetal force) Ǥˤ7000θ줬ȸޤDZѸϺǤѤȤơ䤿γؽɸȤʤäƤޤۤʤä͡ӤĤ붯ϤʥġȤƤαѸ졤Ȥ¦̤Ǥ
Ʊ˱ѸʤҤƤϸ̡ˤˤϤ⤦1Ĥ¦̤ޤϡֱϡ (centrifugal force) Ǥ20ȾʹߡѸ (world_englishes) ȤݤˤʤꡤϤɸѸ줫æ¿ͤʱѸ줬ޤ졤äƤޤϡơϰüԤȼαѸѼ̤ƼȤΥǥƥƥɽ褦Ȥưˤۤʤޤ줬ñʤ륳ߥ˥ƻˤȤɤޤ餺°뽸ĤĿͤΥǥƥƥʤȤʤ櫓Ǥ̤ȤơƱѸäƤƤ⡤ߤˤȤäˤ˻ʬ줷ƤȤ츫̷⤷Ƥޤ
ϡεῴϤȱϤΥʥߥ٤ξؤǤȹͤƤޤӤĤ褦ȤϤȡʬ֤Ƥ褦ȤϡϾɹɤưȤǸѲθưϤȤʤäƤΤǤҲХ벽еῴϤޤꡤġ¿ָбϤޤ롥ޤǿҤΤ褦ɤưʤ顤ϵǽ³Ƥȸޤ2ĤȿϤˤĤƤϡ#1360. 21¿εƤϱѸХХˤ뤫 ([2013-01-16-1]) #2073. θѼ˺ѤῴϤȱϡ ([2014-12-30-1]) ⤴Ȥ
ơ˾Ĺ餯³ƤθΥʥߥˡAIȤ̤ʹεѤƤƤޤޤǤΥԥ塼ѤɸŪʱѸΤߤäƤȸäƤ褤ǤAI¿ͤʱѸǤ褦ˤʤĤĤޤϡѸ줬եȤƤδŪô³ΤɤȤŪ䤤ͤĤƤȤޤεῴϤȱϤΥХϡAIȯŸˤäƤɤΤ褦ƤƤΤ뤷Ƥ٤ݤǤ
2020ǯϡˤˤ礭žȤƵ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫⤷ޤ䤿Ϻˤνִ֤ΩäƤȸޤѸ̤衤Ƹ줽ΤΤ̤褬ɤʤäƤΤ³ܤƤȹͤƤޤҡΡ֤Τۤإͥפۿ˹ͤƤߤƤС
֤ΤۤإͥפȸС1015֤ΤۤܡФޤܺ٤ϡҡ#5973. ֤ΤۤܡפФޤ --- ʼ δ졡ظؤǥå衪ѸΡ֤ʤס١ʥʥĥҡˡ ([2025-09-03-1]) εɤ
ε#5772. ʻȤϲ --- ̩˰̣ˤʬϲǽ ([2025-02-14-1]) ǡ1Ĥδ̩ŬѤʻˤĤƹͤϤ³ؿѸؼŵ٤ parts of speech ι˰͵ʤ顤ϵǽΤߤ˴Ťʻʬͼ¸Ƥߤ褦
(3) ǽˤʻʬ. Fries (1952, ch. 6) ʻ̩˵ǽˤʬह٤ǤȼĥȼʻʬƤΰ֡εǽϤˤơƱΰ֤ˤĤθˤޤȤThe concert was good (always). / The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly). / The team went there. 3ɽŪʸ (test frame) ȯȤơʸˡ¤ѤˡʸΤɤθΰ֤ˤ뤫ˤäơ4 (CLASS WORD) --- ۤƸ (CONTENT WORD) Ʊ --- ꤷʻȤ
(class 1 word): concert, clerk, tax, team ΰ֤ˤ
(class 2 word): was, remembered, went ΰ֤ˤ
軰 (class 3 word): good ΰ֤ˤ
(class 4 word): always, suddenly, there ΰ֤ˤ
ʳϵǽ (FUNCTION WORD) Ȥ A O ޤ15η (group) ʬդ٤ϡThe poorest are always with us. poorest ϡη֤ɤǤȤΰ֤Ȥ뤷ޤI know the poorest man. poorest ϡ軰ȤΤǤ롥ˡa boy friend a good friend boy good Ʊ軰Τ餫Ǥ롥ä a cannon ball cannon ̾Ǥ뤫ƻǤ뤫εƤʤ̤ξ cannon 軰Ȥʤ롥͡ʬˤСĤθ줬ĤʻʤʤΤʤĤΤȤˤʤꡤĶˤɤʸ줬뤫ȡ̾Ȥ̾ȤǤʤ1줺ĸ줦뤹٤ƤθʤФʤʤΤ褦ʬˡθ̩˲ͤϤ뤬ʸˡηΤȤƤ;̣Τʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ޤɤʬȻפֵǽפȤϡŪǽפΤȤǤ롥ΤˤϤŪ˰ӤƤ롥Ѥˤ϶Ť餤ؿѸؼŵ٤εҤˤϡʻʬϼˤꡤȤ뤳ȤǧǤ롥ϽפȻפ
ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
ε#5265. ĤߡĴظܼ١2023ǯˡ ([2023-09-26-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȯŪƤ뿷ظܼꡥ
ܽΥᥤε̣ɤͤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤäΤܽκǸŪ桦ǡָ縶§Ƥ뤳Ȥ֥ۥåȤθĥäơɮԤιָͤ縶§פҤ٤ơܽꤿ (257) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ƹܤγƲվˤĤƸƤƤȤ⤷ȤʣͤǵƤΤ⥨ƥΤˡ7վΤޤްѤƤ (257--61)
ܼŪħ
(1) ̣뤳
ϰ̣ɽ
ηϰ̣ˡ̣Ϸ˷ӤĤƤơξԤδطˤ
ϥޡĶۤãǽˤ
ϰտޤäȯä졤ȯäϼˤäƲᤵ
̣ϿˤäƺФ졤ˤäƲᤵ
ääȯðտޤʹβפȤϸ¤ʤ
(2) Ѳ뤳ȡ
ϤȡʷỌ̇̄¤ƴæ褦ȤϤδ֤襤Ǥ
ŵŪʷ̣ΰ̲ȤƤϴ˹äƤƤ⡤˽ʤСָפ뤤ϡԼפȸʤ
쥳ߥ˥ƥȾʷ̣ȤС줬¸η̣Ȥο魯
ѲԲǤ
(3) ŪǤ뤳
ϾơǥŪ˵沽
沽Τϥߥ˥ƥʸ˰¸롥Ĥޤꡤΰ̣ʸ˰¸
ʸ¿ͤǤΤǡɬŪ¿ӤʤꡤʤäƤ
(4) ƥǤ뤳
ǡñܼʤɡˤϡñȤǤϰ̣ʤ
Ǥ椵졤۲뤳Ȥǰ̣ĥƥǤ
ñΰ̣ϰϤϡƥγǰʬˤ¾ñ췲ȤδطˤäƷޤ롥Ĥޤꡤñΰ̣ǰʬɤΤ褦ڤʬ졤¤Ƥơñ줬Ǥɤΰ֤뤫ˤäƷޤ롥Ȥˡ̣ܤñȤκۤˤäƤñΰ̣ޤ
äơ֥פ֥륯פΤ褦ˤäȤγŪǶŪʳǰؤñǤΰ̣ŪǤ
(5) ĥŪǤ뤳
ŪǤ롥ǤФǤߤȤ߹碌뤳Ȥdzĥ
ΰ̣ϴȡȤˤäƹ
ƥǤΰ̣η֤Сñ줬
μĥѻĶ̥ᥫ˥ǽˤ
ϼŪĹĥʲƤ
(6) ŪǤ뤳
ʣδХƥˤƿΤϤƤ
ΰ̣Ǥϸϥޥ⡼¸ߤǤ
ϤĤͤˤλȤǤʹ֤ξ˱褤䤹褦˼η
ϥޥ⡼˿ΤϤȡˤäƳĥ졤ηϲ
βˤäƥҥȤϤȤФ˿ΤȤΤĤʤȴ롥Ū˻ƤʤƱΤˤ褦ˤʤꡤȤȤγŪȶ̤ĤʤʤŪȯȥء
ʸ˺Ūϡ¿ࡥϿŪʤĤʤȯĥƼ¸Ƥ롥ΤȤˤꡤϡʹ֤Ǥʤ褦ʳĥλϤʤޤ콬ǽôݤƤ
(7) ѹդξΩäƤ뤳
ϿŪǤ뤬ƱŪǤꡤŪǤ
ʤĤͤѲʴȤϤȿ¤褦ȤϤζѹա
¿ͤǤʤ顤ƱŪ¦̤ޤ
ϡΥߥ˥ƥˤơŪ̻Ūݼ颫ΰæ¿ʤɡʣμˤĤȿ˸٥ȥζѹΩ
Ĥߡ ظܼ --- ȤФϤɤޤ졤ʲ١2023ǯ
YouTube 69ޤֻȥǥѤҸŪáPhatic communionŪߥ˥ˡǤ
phatic_communion ˤĤƤǤŪʸŪҸŪŪ˸Ѥʤɤޤ͡ˤεǽ (function_of_language) 1ĤǤΰ饹⡼ȡüĤƱΤβäޤǡΤΤ礿ŪʤΤǤϤʤդ魯Ȥ켫ΤŪȤʤ褦ʸѤȤΤޤΤ褦ʾ̤ǤϡդȤϤۤɽפǤʤդ魯Ȥ٤ΤΤҲطۤΤ˽פʤ櫓Ǥ
McArthur αѸѸ켭ŵѤޤ
PHATIC COMMUNION [1923: from Greek phatós spoken: coined by the Polish anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski]. Language used more for the purpose of establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact than for exchanging information or ideas: in speech, informal comments on the weather (Nice day again, isn't it?) or an enquiry about health at the beginning of a conversation or when passing someone in the street (How's it going? Leg better?); in writing, the conventions for opening or closing a letter (All the best, Yours faithfully), some of which are formally taught in school. . .
εǽȤоãȻפǤ¿ȻפޤǤϤޤphatic communion Τ褦ˡȤ̤˶Ȥ⡤Ǥդ魯ȤˤդƤޤΤεǽ˵ŤƤȤϡѸؽˤƤȤƤǤʤʤСȾαѸؽԤϡο͡Ⱦ뤿֤פ˱ѸؤǤȿǤޤäƤ뤫ǤǤϸʱѸˤεǽޤ˶ƤޤäƤ뤳ȤˤʤޤդäȹȤ館Ƥߤޤ
phatic communion ˴Ϣ¿ͤǤȤаʲε
#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1])
#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1])
#1559. в̤ΰ ([2013-08-03-1])
#1564. face ([2013-08-08-1])
#1771. ܼŪʵǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ([2014-03-03-1])
#2003. ܥꥸˡȥդΤ٤δ ([2014-10-21-1])
#2700. Źˤ륳ߥ˥ ([2016-09-17-1])
#2818. 蘆εǽ ([2017-01-13-1])
McArthur, Tom, ed. The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: OUP, 1992.
ߡѸŪȼäƤκǤΤϡɸ̤ꡤѸϹݥߥ˥ΤɸಽƤʤ٤ʡˤΤ뤤ϳϤȼѸѼ郎ޤޤȯãƤʤ٤ʡˤΤȤ2ĤΩϡΤ2Ĥεǽ"mutual intelligibility" "identity marking" ˤ줾бcf. #1360. 21¿εƤϱѸХХˤ뤫 ([2013-01-16-1])#1521. ȷ ([2013-06-26-1])ˡ
ܸȤѸؽԤΤۤȤɤϡܸȤФʸŪǥƥƥͭƤ뤿ˡȤ٤ѸѼȤݤʥץäƥǥƥƥɽ褦ʤɤȤϹͤʤäơѸؤͳ˹ݥߥ˥Τᡤο͡ȸߤ̤礦ᡤȤȤˤʤ롥Ѹ줬ɸಽƤ뤳ȤפʤΤǤäơǥХХѼ郎ƤޤϹޤʤȹͤ롥ܤ˸¤餺 EFL ϰαѸؽԤϡ褽Ʊ褦ʸ
ENL, ESL ϰˤƤϡѤѸѼʤФɸѼˤռŪ뤳ȤǥǥƥƥȤߵϷ褷ƾʤΤ褦ʿ͡ϡѸɸಽĹݥߥ˥ΰյƤˤ衤ϤȼѼ郎ȯãƤȤˤöŪ뤤ѶŪƤ롥
ϤơХʱѸεˤɸΩΩƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥˴ؤ륨åԤ Rubdy and Saraceni ϡϤǼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (5)
The global spread of English, its causes and consequences, have long been a focus of critical discussion. One of the main concerns has been that of standardization. This is also because, unlike other international languages such as Spanish and French, English lacks any official body setting and prescribing the norms of the language. This apparent linguistic anarchy has generated a tension between those who seek stability of the code through some form of convergence and the forces of linguistic diversity that are inevitably set in motion when new demands are made on a language that has assumed a global role of such immense proportions.
ɸಽ (standardisation) ȤϲɸѸ (Standard English) ȤϲʤѸŪؤ¸ߤʤΤε䤬Ƥ롥Τ褦ʵΩˤϡѸˤμˤʤ롥ȤΤϡѸϡ1600ǯˤ錄ˤ̤ơɸಽæɸಽѼ¿ͲˤȤ֤иƤǤ롥21ƤɸಽæɸಽΩΩɬľŪӲǽʤ櫓ǤϤʤλͤˤϤʤϤޤѸŪؤԺߤǤ뤳Ȥ⡤Ѹ˾Ĺ餯ƤȥԥåǤ롥
ɸಽäƤϡᴩ ԡ Ϻ δˡظɸಽͤ --- ʩоȸˡפλߡ١罤ۡ2022ǯˤȤ줿ƱξҲϡ#4784. ظɸಽͤ٤ϼɮԴ֤¿ĥåߤǤ ([2022-06-02-1]) εȤΥˤޤȤޤäƤ롥

Rubdy, Rani and Mario Saraceni, eds. English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles. London: Continuum, 2006.
ε ([2019-08-24-1]) Wittgenstein 쥲 (Sprachspiel, language-game) ˿줿Bussmann (262) Ѹ켭ŵˤȼ̤ꡥ
language game
L. Wittgenstein's term referring to complex units of communication that consist of linguistic and non-linguistic activities (e.g. the giving of and complying with commands in the course of collaborating on the building of a house). Signs, words, and sentences as 'tools of language' have in and of themselves no meaning; rather meaning is derived only from the use of these items in particular contexts of language behavior.
¾ڼ (logical positivism) ž Wittgenstein ΡΤ褦 ƥȽŻθѤ̣Ѥϡů (ordinary language philosophy) 礭ʱƶͿȯù (speech_act) ޤ (pragmatics) ȯŸˤ"the meaning of a word is its use in the language" Ȥ̣ΤȤ館ϡʤ꤬ΤΡ1ĤθȤߤʤƤ롥
̣ΰ̣˴Ϣơ#1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1])#1990. ͡ʼΰ̣ ([2014-10-08-1])#2199. Bloomfield ˤȤäƤΰ̣ΰ̣ ([2015-05-05-1])#2794. ְ̣ ([2016-12-20-1])#2795. ְ̣ؼоݡ ([2016-12-21-1]) ʤɤƤȤӤ줿
Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.
#1578. ϲȤƤ ([2013-08-22-1]) Ǵñ˿줿٤ȥꥢޤůؼ Wittgenstein (1889--1951) ϡ1953ǯ˽Ǥ줿ˤơ Sprachspiel "language-game" ȤȤ館쥲͡ʳưʤͷӤǡΤ褦ʳưޤޤʰƣ߷ġp. 18 ˡ
᤹̿롤̿˽
ʪγҤ롤뤤Ϥ¬
𤹤
ˤĤƿ¬
Ωơڤ
ʪ롤ɤ
ؾζʤΤ
̤
ºŪʿؤ
¾θ
䤹롤դ롤ΤΤ롤Ĥ롤ʤ
ϡ̣Ǹνǽ¤٤ꥹȤȤ롥εǽˤĤƤ¿ε뤬#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) ϤȤ function_of_language γƵȤ줿
ƣ ͺ߷ رѸ١ҡ2001ǯ
ϡߥ˥ƻǤȤȤˡǥƥƥλɸǤ⤢롥Τ2ĤεǽϡڻؼŪǽ (referential function) ȼҲɸŪǽ (socio-indexical function) ȤƤФ롥 ä˸ԤεǽϼҲؤˤǽפΥơȤƶĴ뤬̤ˤϹǧƤȤϸ¿οͤϤҤȤ˥ߥ˥ƻȤƵǽƤȻפǤ롥
ָᥳߥ˥ƻפΤߤȯۤˤȤƤȡĤФǤϤʤ¤ˤҲŪĹǽ餢롥ƻǤ뤫ŪˤΩǤ롤̵ٵˤߤʤƤޤȡŪ˰ѤҲˤⵤŤˤʤ뤫ϡߥ˥ƻǤˤȤɤޤ餺٤Ūʥġؤưפ˲뤳ȤǤΤǤ롥 (137) ˤ륢ꥫιͱѸѸѸ첽ˤĤƤɾ⤬Ū¦̤褯֤ФƤΤǡѤ
ŪʾǤϿͼﺹ̤ɽ֡ȲƤ륢ꥫΤ褦ʼҲͼﺹ̼ԤϡȤ1996ǯ97ǯ˵äܥ˥ˤߤ줿褦ˡͤȽΤǤϤʤͱѸȽꡤ뤤ϥå塦ʱѸѸ첽˱ưˤߤ褦ˡҥѥ˥åȽΤǤϤʤڥ뤳ȤȽꤷƤ롥Ĥޤ긽奢ꥫǤϿͼ꤬ʤʸˤ֤ƸƤΤǤꡤϡǤߤ褦ʡꥫɸȤƤΥͥ롦ꥫֶˤޤĤӳŪͼŪطʤפפȯʤɤȡϰŪƤˤ꤫ƸȤȤⶦĤ롥
ʤ罰ˡ٤ǤϡͼʤɤȰ㤤Ϻ̤κȤʤ ("suspect category") ȤϤߤʤƤ餺줬ŪʸŪˤͼΥ֡ȤȤˡ줬ͼˤĤƸ뤿Ρ֥ɡɡפȤʤäƤ뤳ȤȴطƤ뤳Ȥ餫Ǥ롥Sonntag (2003) ϡΤ褦ˡŪˤΰ֤ŤϡꥫΥ٥̱ĤޤꥸåŪˤƤϡ줬ǥƥƥλɸǤϤʤߥ˥ΤŪƻǤȹͤƤ뤳Ȥͳ褹̤뤳ȤŦƤ롥
ҲؼԤ Peter Trudgill ⡤ͼʤ¿ƤǤκ̤äƤʤǡϺǸκǸޤǺ̤εȤƺĤäƤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ǰʤ顤⤳ΰոƱʤμҲɸŪǽˤĤ⤷Ƥۤʤ
ˡ7ϡҲסؼҲءٰ ʼԡˡīҽŹ2017ǯ125--45ǡ
ؤ蘆Ȥϲ٤ɤҲؤΥߥ˥ǥΩ줫Ρ蘆 (rumor) ʬϤҲŪʴؿäɤߥ˥صŪˡƻŪ (instrumental) ʤΤȼŪŪ (consummatory) ʤΤʬȡ蘆ϸԤΤۤܶᤷƤ롥Ŀͤ˴ؤ뤦蘆Ǥ르åפͤȡƤ˾ȤƤβͤ⤢ˤϤ뤬¿ξ硤åפ뤳ȼΤŪǤ롥͡ϥåפΤˤ虜虜ޤäꡤ磻ɥ硼ꤹΤǤ롥
(109--10) ǽҤ٤Ƥ뤬蘆ˤϡ֤äɡפȤ줬ĤȤ¿ϻͿԤδ֤˿̩ʿʹִطʤ solidarity ФŪʤǤꡤºݤˤ蘆Ƥ̩⤱Сsolidarity Ϥ˹ޤ롥
ޤ蘆γϡͿԤΡֵζͭפȤطʾġp. 110ˡҳˤ蘆ǥޤޤ䤹Τϡ͡Ʊ褦˴Ūʾˤ뤫Ǥꡤξ褹뤿ξͭȤ⤢뤬ʾˡ¤ä뤿ˤߤʤȰˤȤ롥蘆߽Ф solidarity ޤȤϸߤ˽Ĺ礦طˤ롥
(113--14) ϡåפ3Ĥεǽ˸ڤƤ롥ޤ־ǽפ롥åפΤΤͤˤĤƤξǤȤȤǤϤʤΥåפ鲿餫ζФˤϡŪʾȤˤʤ롥ˡֽĵϤηǧǽפ롥ͤϤ르åפ¾ͤȶͭ뤳ȤǿĤФꡤ«ꤹΤǤʤ accommodation_theory ȤϢ롥#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) ȡˡǸˡ֥ƥȤεǽפǤ롥ͤϲä¥ʺޤȤơñ˳ڤΤȤƥåפ롥
ʤ顤蘆䥴åפϸѤ (discourse) 1ĤǤ롥äơ嵭ΥåפεǽϡεǽΰǤ⤢Ϥοʹִط۵ǽȤȤǤСϢơ#1771. ܼŪʵǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ([2014-03-03-1])#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) εȡ
ؤ蘆Ȥϲ١ҡӡ2014ǯ
ε#2699. Źؤȸء ([2016-09-16-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡϥåȤߵȤȤȯãƤȹͤˤ⤫餺ǿϥåƿȤߵŹ浻ѤȯãƤϡˤ륳ߥ˥˴ؤ̷ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ褯ͤƤߤȡŹϸ쥳ߥ˥̷ܼ⤹Ȥ⡤षΤ¦̤ˤ˿䤷ʤΤȤߤʤΤǤϤʤȤΤϡŹ楳ߥ˥ˤƤϡˤȤϤΤΡषåȤߵϤȤ˶Ǥ롥
ºݡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) οޤˤơΡ֤Ȥ (message)פְŹפɤؤƤ⡤οޤϤΤޤѤǤ롥ۤʤȤ⤢롥Ź楳ߥ˥ǤäʹľܤĤʤܿ (contact)פβϩտŪ˶ꤵƤꡤ¾ŪǤ뤳Ȥˡ̾θ쥳ߥ˥ˤƤ⡤٤¾ꤵ뵡Ϥ롥㤨СҤҤä修ʤɤǤϡʪŪˡܿ¤Ƥ롥ȤŹ楳ߥ˥ǤϡʪŪˡܿ¤뤳ȤޤߤϤ뤬ʾ˽פˡȤơָη (code) פˤҤͤäȤʤѤ롥äʹˤͭʤ¾ŪʥɤѤ뤳ȤˤꡤŪ¾ԤܿǤʤФƤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡ̾θ쥳ߥ˥椹ȡŹ楳ߥ˥ܼ⤭Ħˤʤ롥äʹ꤬¾Ūʥɤˤ¾Ūܿδط夲¾Ūʥߥ˥ϩȤΤŹ楳ߥ˥Τ褦ֻפФơפȤ礤դϡŪʰŹΰϰŹ楳ߥ˥ˤ phatic_communion θΤǤ (see #1771. ܼŪʵǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ([2014-03-03-1])#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1])) ŹŪƤߤΤ⤪⤷
ɸ ethnomethodology ʥΥɥˤϡ1967ǯ˥ꥫμҲؼ Harold Garfinkel κФѸǤꡤ쥳ߥ˥˴ؤҲŪʥץؤäδäȤʤ뵬ϡꡤQõ뤳ȤŪȤ롥 (anthropological linguistics)Ҳ (sociolinguistics)ʬ (conversation analysis)٤̱² (ethnography_of_speaking) ʤɤΰȽŤʤʬꡤغŪʬǤ롥Trudgill μҲѸ켭ŵꡤϢ4ĤѸβͿ
ethnomethodology A branch of sociology which has links with certain sorts of sociolinguistics such as conversation analysis because of its use of recorded conversational material as data. Most ethnomethodologists, however, are generally not interested in the language of conversation as such but rather in the content of what is said. They study not language or speech, but talk. In particular, they are interested in what is not said. They focus on the shared common-sense knowledge speakers have of their society which they can leave unstated in conversation because it is taken for granted by all participants.
ethnography of speaking A branch of sociolinguistics or anthropological linguistics particularly associated with the American scholar Dell Hymes. The ethnography of speaking studies the norms and rules for using language in social situations in different cultures and is thus clearly important for cross-cultural communication. The concept of communicative competence is a central one in the ethnography of speaking. Crucial topics include the study of who is allowed to speak to who --- and when; what types of language are to be used in different contexts; how to do things with language, such as make requests or tell jokes; how much indirectness it is normal to employ; how often it is usual to speak, and how much one should say; how long it is permitted to remain silent; and the use of formulaic language such as expressions used for greeting, leave-taking and thanking.
ethnography of communication A term identical in reference to ethnography of speaking, except that nonverbal communication is also included. For example, proxemics --- the study of factors such as how physically close to each other speakers may be, in different cultures, when communicating with one another --- could be discussed under this heading.
conversation analysis An area of sociolinguistics with links to ethnomethodology which analyses the structure and norms of conversation in face-to-face interaction. Conversation analysts look at aspects of conversation such as the relationship between questions and answers, or summonses and responses. They are also concerned with rules for conversational discourse, such as those involving turn-taking; with conversational devices such as discourse markers; and with norms for participating in conversation, such as the rules for interruption, for changing topic, for overlapping between one speaker and another, for remaining silent, for closing a conversation, and so on. In so far as norms for conversational interaction may vary from society to society, conversation analysis may also have links with cross-cultural communication and the ethnography of speaking. By some writers it is opposed to discourse analysis.
ethnomethodology ϡεǽ (function_of_language) Ȥˤ⵿ꤲ롥ȤΤϡethnomethodology ϡߥ˥ƻȤƤǤϤʤŤƻȤƤȤ館뤫Wardhaugh (272) ۩"people use language not only to communicate in a variety of ways, but also to create a sense of order in everyday life."
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ΰ̣Ѳͽ¬ԲǽǤ뤳Ȥϡ¾θѲƱͤǤ롥Ǥ˵ạ̈Ѳ椹뤳ȤϽפ狼뤳Ȥϰ̣ѲΰŪʷǤꡤΰ̣Ѳͽ¬ۤɤηϤϤʤ#1756. ̣Ѳˡ§餷Ρ ([2014-02-16-1]) ǡˡ§פ̾ͤ뤫⤷ʤ̣Ѳ⤷줬¤ȤƤ㳰㳰ȤۤȤɤϡ#473. ̣ѲŵŪʥѥ ([2010-08-13-1]) #1109. ̣Ѳθʬ ([2012-05-10-1])#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1])#1953. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ (2) ([2014-09-01-1]) Ǽ褦ʰ̣ѲΰŪʷǤ롥
Brinton and Arnovick (87) ϡΤ褦ʷŦƤ롥
롥Τ˼ؤϿɤĤʤȤ⤢롥ex. desultory (slow, aimlessly, despondently), peruse (to skim or read casually)
Ūʰ̣Ūʰ̣ءex. understand
ΩŪʰ̣ΩŪʰ̣ءex. esteem (cf. #1099. Ҥηƻɾηƻ ([2012-04-30-1])#1100. Farsi ηƻʬ̻Ūʰ̣礤 ([2012-05-01-1])#1400. relational adjective qualitative adjective ؤΰ̣Ѳθưϡ ([2013-02-25-1]))
Ūʰ̣ޤ뷹ex. awful
Ūʸưʪ䲼ο͡ɽ魯ɽ顥ex. rat, villain
ŪɽŪʷи˴Ťex. mouth of a river
ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ΰ
Ե§Ѳϡ쳰Ūװˤ餵䤹̾ˤȤ櫓Ǥ
⤦1ġ̣ѲΰŪʷȤϡ켫ΤüȸƤ֤٤ˤựѲ餫ηǤȤˤȤȤƤ褤¤ǻȤ Brinton and Arnovick ⡤"Of all the components of language, lexical meaning is most susceptible to change. Semantics is not rule-governed in the same way that grammar is because the connection between sound and meaning is arbitrary and conventional." (76) ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ޤ̣ѲˤĤơ (106) ϰʲΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Ȥ졦¯Ǥϰ̣ѲȯǤ롥٤ȡʸˡѲϤʤޤǡ餯ΤǤȵŤΤϤ鷺ѲϡܸΡ֤ȴȤСפΤ褦ˡ⤦Ť䤹Ǥ̣Ѳ˭٤٤ΩʤǤϡʤ̣Ѳ (semantic change) Ϥۤˤ˵Τϡ餯̣Ѳǥ (discourse) ˤŪĤߤľΤǤ롥
Ǹʸơ (130) ϡְ̣ãθưǤǥˤ륳ߥ˥ưŪľܷӤĤƤ뤫ǤפȷƤ롥
Brinton, Laurel J. and Leslie K. Arnovick. The English Language: A Linguistic History. Oxford: OUP, 2006.
ְ̣Ѳסذ̣١ԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ106--33ǡ
shortening ûˤȤϡˤƽפˤˤߤˡ1ĤǤ롥ѸˤǤߤƤ⡤Ȥ櫓Ѹ shortening ˤʤäƤƤ뤳Ȥϡ#875. Bauer ˤ븽ѸοΥΤޤȤ ([2011-09-19-1]) dzǧϢơ#893. shortening ʬ (1) ([2011-10-07-1])#894. shortening ʬ (2) ([2011-10-08-1]) Ǥûˤ͡ʼब뤳Ȥǧ#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1])#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1])#1102. Zipf's law ȸοա ([2012-05-03-1]) ǤϾãθΨȤûͻ
嵭Τ褦ˡûϼȤƷȤơ뤤ϾȤδϢǸΤ̤Stern ϵǽỤ̄ŪʴûβܤƤ롥Stern ϡ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) Ǽ褦ˡụ̂ѲʬΤʤ˴ޤƤ롥٤Ƥụ̂Ѳȼ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ʤ㤨 private soldier ʼ´ˤ private ûȤ¸θʷƻˤǤ private Ͽʡ̾Ρ˸Ȥˤʤꡤδߤа̣ѲȤˤʤ롥
private soldier Τ褦ˡṳ̂θ¸θƱȤʤ뤿˰̣ѲȤȤ̤ˡrhinoceros rhino, advertisement ad ʤɤ clipping ڳˤΤ褦ˡ̤θùܤȤʤ륱롥Ǥΰ̣ǤΡְ̣ѲפϤʤ̣Ū˸٤ΤϤʤ褦ˤפ뤬rhinoceros rhino ΰ̣κadvertisement ad ΰ̣κ⤷ȤСûϰ̣ŪʴްդȤȤˤʤ롥
Stern (256) ϡûŪʲǤȤȤˡǽŪʴפʲǤȤߤƤ롥ºݡûθΤʤǺǽפΤΤϡǽŪװǤȤޤǽҤ٤Ƥ롥Stern (256) μĥѤ롥
Starting with the communicative and symbolic functions, I have already pointed out above . . . that brevity may conduce to a better understanding, and too many words confuse the point at issue; the picking out of a few salient items may give a better idea of the topic than prolonged wallowing in details; the hearer may understand the shortened expression quicker and better.
The expressive function is partly covered by signals, but a shortened expression by itself may, owing to its unusual and perhaps ungrammatical, form, reflect better the speaker's emotional state and make the hearer aware of it. Clippings are very often intended to make the words express sympathy or endearment towards the persons addressed; nursery speech abounds in nighties, tootsies, etc., and clippings of proper names, transforming them into pet names, are often due to a similar desire for emotive effects . . . . The numerous shortenings (clippings) in slang and cant often aim at a humourous effect.
Conciseness and brevity increase vivacity, and thus also the effectiveness of speech; brevity is the soul of wit; the purposive function may consequently be better served by shortened phrases.
ΤеŪʴûߤˤȤɤޤ餺ѤŪɽϡʸΤȤäǽŪ¦̤ûȤ館ƶϡStern ǡȤǤ롥֤û뤳ȤǤषǽղä⤬̣
ѤʸϤǸڤƤնɽ nighties ȴϢơ#908. bra, panties, nightie ([2011-10-22-1]) ڤӡ#469. euphemism κ ([2010-08-09-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
4֤εǡưˤʹ꤬äƱ餤뤤Ϥʾ˱ƶϤĤȤƤʡ#1932. Ѳ monitoring (1) ([2014-08-11-1])#1933. Ѳ monitoring (2) ([2014-08-12-1])#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1])#1935. accommodation theory ([2014-08-14-1])ˡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])ޤεǽ˴ؤ뤽¾ε (function_of_language) Ǹ褦ˡʹϸưԲķǤ1ĤǤ뤫顤ͤƤߤΤȤǤ롥 (139) Τ褦ˡθѲθˤơʹˤ줬ɤΤ褦ʹ뤫Ȥ˷ƤפȤϤ褽ǧʤФʤʤ³ơäŪϡ뤿ᡤ뤿Ǥ뤫顤äȤڤʤΤϡäΰտޤȤʹ뤳ȤǤ롥ϡʹ꤬Τʹ褦äȤǤפȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
ʹΤθѲ¸ߤ̵뤵Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤѲΤʤˤϡʬ (metanalysis) ˤꤦޤΤ⤢СƱ۵ (homonymic_clash) ⤢뤳ȤϻŦƤ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ǤϡʹδͿ̣Ѳˤ줿ʹδͿϤ褽뤵ƤȤϤ
(118--38) ϡܸΥϹԻҲηϤꤵŪʥϹԻҲʹΰ˵Ƥ롥ΥϹԻҲϡ11 [ɸ] [w] Ѳʡ#1271. ܸಽȤθ ([2012-10-19-1]) ȡˡ㤨СβѲ˽äơ [ɸawa] [ɸiwi]ˤ [ɸowo] ȤʤäΤޤȯã뤲ƤʤСƬ [ɸ] [h] Ȥʤꡤϡ֥ϥסϡ֥ҥסˤϡ֥ۥסʼºݤˡ֥ۥۡפ¤ǡ֥ۥפ⤢ˤȤʤäƤΥϹԻҲμ夵䶯٤ޤҲνƱˤꡤĻŵŪƱ˽ʣ (reduplication) ޤä2ܤΥϹԻҲ褷ߤϡ֥ϥϡס֥ҥҡס֥ۥۡפȤʤäƤ롥ϹԻҲĴϢѲ뤲ƤȤϡľܤˤäˤ˰㤤ʤŪˤŪϹԻҲʹΰŪʼ夵˵ȹͤ롥ʹΰȤʹΩΩäɸǤ롥ҤλҲˤĤ [h] > [ç] ȤѲΤ⡤[h] ʹΰ䶯ȤƤ롥
ܸΥϹԻҲȴϢơѸ [h] Ȥμդβ˴ؤˤʣˡ§ (grimms_law)#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) h γƵ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) ʤɤ꤬ط롥 (132) ܸȱѸˤݤŦƤꡤ<gh> ˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ġıѸ light, tight ʤɤ gh ɤޤʤ«ˤʤäƤ뤬 h ϡʹæڥˤ줬ĤäΤǤ뤷rough, tough ʤɤ gh [f] ˤʤäƤΤϡʹΰ [h] [f] ֤줿̤Ǥ롥[ɸ] [f] Ȥΰ㤤Ϥ뤬ܸΤ뿰ಽȵäƤ뤳Ȥܤ
ȤСrough tough [f] ϡ#1195. <gh> = /f/ б ([2012-08-04-1]) Ǽ褦äΤβѲη ([x] > [xw] > f) ȤƤǤϤʤ[x] 뤤 [h] ʹΰˤʤʤʹΤΡ [f] ǤִȤȤˤʤ롥줬˵äȤ¾ڤ뤳Ȥ
ͺܸˡĿϤʤʤΤ١ֽ2001ǯ
Stern (21) ϡ#1776. Ogden and Richards ˤ5Ĥεǽ ([2014-03-08-1]) ʬŪȽʤ⡤ŪʼĥˤƱĴĤġκǤפʵǽϡṲ̄ã뤳ȤǤȹͤƤ롥Stern ϡνǽ֤ߴطˤĤƤ̤ܤȤʤ⡤ "effective function" ̤ϰ̤ͿƤ롥
The effective function must, I think, be the most important of the primary functions, for if, for instance, the words I am writing here are to have the intended effect on the readers, they must (1) symbolize certain referents, i. e., the topic which I am discussing; (2) express my views of it, and (3) communicate this to the readers; only if these three functions are filled, can speech (4) perform its effective function, which is thus founded on the others. (Stern 20--21)
[2014-03-08-1]ε˼ Ogden and Richards νǽʬǤС褽 (i) Stern (1) (ii), (iii) (2) (iv) (3), (4) ȤȤˤʤˤ衤ؼо (referent)ä (addresser)ʹ (addressee) θư˴ؤ3Ԥ줾Ư3ǽȤޤȤƤ褤Ϣơ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) ӡ#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) εȤ줿
33ǽȤȤǤСStern (21) ǻȤƤ뿴ؼ Karl Bühler ⡤嵭ˤ褽б3ǽƤ롥Bühler ˤС3ĤȤ Kundgabe "expression", Auslösung (release), Darstellung (description) Ǥ롥줾졤Stern "expressive", "purposive", "symbolic" ǽ롥
Stern ˤ Ogden and Richards ˤ Bühler ˤ衤Ȥϡֻؼоݤʣ¤١˼λפʤưפƻȤȤˤʤ롥ɤʸʬϤ⤢θѤ˴ŤƤȤʤСεǽɤͤ뤫Ȥϡ٤ƤθʬϼԤˤȤäƺǽפβȤ
ŪΤƤνǽˤĤƤϡ#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) #523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1]) Ȥ줿ޤJakobson ؤȽӸνǽʬؤΰŪȿȤƤϡ#1259. Jakobson ˤ6ĤεǽפؤȽ ([2012-10-07-1]) ɤ
Stern, Gustaf. Meaning and Change of Meaning. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1931.
εǽˤĤƤϡ#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1]) #1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) ۤfunction_of_language ˤϡOgden and Richards εƤ5ǽҲ𤹤 (226--27)
(i) Symbolization of reference;
(ii) The expression of attitude to listener;
(iii) The expression of attitude to referent;
(iv) The promotion of effects intended;
(v) Support of reference;
#1259. Jakobson ˤ6ĤεǽפؤȽ ([2012-10-07-1]) #1326. 礤7Ĥǡ ([2012-12-13-1]) ǤȤꡤָ͡νǽפϡºݤˤϡɽˤƸ̤˼¸櫓ǤϤʤԲʬͻ礷֤Ǽ¸ȹͤ롥ǤϡOgden and Richards 5ǽ⡤ݲλʪˤʤˤƤ⡤5ǽϡʤȤơˤüŪɽƤȤ̣ˤơȤ٤⤤褦˸롥ϡOgden and Richards #1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1]) Ǽ semiotic triangle εˤƤ뤫
(i) εǽϴ symbolic function(ii) (iii) εǽ emotive function ȸƤǤ褤(iv) Ϥ2ĤŪʵǽƯ뵡ǽ(v) ϡJakobson Τ쵡ǽΤȹͤ롥Ogden and Richards ϡ5ǽǸνǽۤ夷ƤȽҤ٤Ƥ (227)
ʤOgden and Richards ϡ̤βս (46fn) ǡA. Ingraham, Swain School Lectures (1903), pp. 121--182 Τʤ "Nine Uses of Language" ȤƸڤƤΤƤ롥ϸνǽΤ⤦1ĤΥСȤäƤ褤桼饹Ǥ롥
(i) to dissipate superfluous and obstructive nerve-force.
(ii) for the direction of motion in others, both men and animals.
(iii) for the communication of ideas.
(vi) as a means of expression.
(v) for purposes of record.
(vi) to set matter in motion (magic).
(vii) as an instrument of thinking.
(viii) to give delight merely as sound.
(ix) to provide an occupation for philologists.
Ogden, C. K. and I. A. Richards. The Meaning of Meaning. 1923. San Diego, New York, and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989.
2֤ε#1769. Ogden and Richards semiotic triangle ([2014-03-01-1]) ȡ#1770. semiotic triangle դľܤˤĤʤäƤȤθ ([2014-03-02-1]) ǡOgden and Richards The Meaning of Meaning äƱ˱ƶȤơݡޤƹμҲؼ Malinowski ʤ櫓ϤˤʤMalinowski ϡphatic communion ȤѸߤοƤǤ롥
εǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ˤĤƤϡ#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1]) #1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) ǿ줿٤Malinowski ˤСεǽϸνǽΤʤǤǤ⸶ŪܼŪʤΤǤ롥̤˸ "an instrument of thought" Ȥߤʤ줬ष켫ΤҲŪʹ٤ǤȤ "a mode of action" ǤȡMalinowski ϼĥ롥phatic communion ϸԤɽǤꡤȤ櫓ϼҲˤ쵡ǽʬ롥ζɽʸҲǤϡphatic communion ϡ "an instrument of thought" ȤƤεǽαŪΩʤʤäƤ褦˻פ뤬ºݤˤϰŤ̵äʤɤη֤̮³Ƥ롥
Malinowski (315) ˤ롤phatic communion Υꥸʥ
There can be no doubt that we have here a new type of linguistic use---phatic communion I am tempted to call it, actuated by the demon of terminological invention---a type of speech in which ties of union are created by a mere exchange of words. Let us look at it from the special point of view with which we are here concerned; let us ask what light it throws on the function or nature of language. Are words in Phatic Communion used primarily to convey meaning, the meaning which is symbolically theirs? Certainly not! They fulfil a social function and that is their principal aim, but they are neither the result of intellectual reflection, nor do they necessarily arouse reflection in the listener. Once again we may say that language does not function here as a means of transmission of thought.
But can we regard it as a mode of action? And in what relation does it stand to our crucial conception of context of situation? It is obvious that the outer situation does not enter directly into the technique of speaking. But what can be considered as situation when a number of people aimlessly gossip together? It consists in just this atmosphere of sociability and in the fact of the personal communion of these people. But this is in fact achieved by exchange of words, by the specific feelings which form convivial gregariousness, by the give and take of utterances which make up ordinary gossip. The whole situation consists in what happens linguistically. Each utterance is an act serving the direct aim of binding hearer to speaker by a tie of some social sentiment or other. Once more language appears to us in this function not as an instrument of reflection but as a mode of action.
̣Ǥ phatic communion ϡüԤİԤδ֤ˡˤ̿βϩƤ뤫ɤǧǧ뤿θѤȤ롥㤨СޥƥȤǤΡŷʤꡤŷʤפ䡤ȾΰäǤΡ֤ʹ뤫פ phatic communion ȸMalinowski ǰƬˤ phatic communion ϡƤǤϤʤѤ켫ΤҲŪʰ̣ĥˤ쵡ǽؤƤ롥Ť̵äʤɤϡˤäƼ¸Ȥü𤬤ǡͤȿͤȤθ˻ȤǤϡ߲ǡȡĤåפʤɤι٤ƱŪäƤΤǤ롥
Malinowski, Bronislaw. "The Problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages." Supplement 1. The Meaning of Meaning. C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards. San Diego, New York, and London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989. 296--336.
#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1]) ȡ#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1]) ǡethnography of speaking Ȥʬ˿줿ءҲءʸؤˤΰǡԤ͡ʸʸǤʤեɥȵҤ礿̤ȤʤäƤ롥εǡۤʤ ethnography of speaking ĸҲĤҲ𤷤Ϥʬ˷Ȥեɥ並ԤʹƤߤ褦εǿ줿Τ¿⡤Hudson ¹롥ޤϡɤ Puliya βۤˤĤơ
Peter Gardener (1966) did some fieldwork . . . in southern India, among a tribal people called the Puliya, describing their socialization patterns. There is no agriculture and no industry, and the society is neither particularly cooperative nor particularly competitive; so children are led neither to be particularly interdependent nor to be aggressively competitive with each other, but simply to busy themselves with their own concerns in reasonable spatial proximity. He observed that, by the time a man was forty, he practically stopped speaking altogether. He had no reason to speak. People there, in fact, just didn't talk much and seldom seemed to find anything much to talk about, and he saw this as a consequence of the particular kind of socialization pattern. (116)
ˡɥͥ Roti Τ٤깥ʸҲˤĤơ
For a Rotinese the pleasure of life is talk --- not simply an idle chatter that passes time, but the more formal taking of sides in endless dispute, argument and repartee or the rivalling of one another in eloquent and balanced phrases on ceremonial occasions . . . Lack of talk is an indication of distress. Rotinese repeatedly explain that if their 'hearts' are confused or dejected, they keep silent. Contrarily, to be involved with someone requires active verbal encounter. (117)
ʥꥫͤȲۤʥǥޡͤвäȤΡԤ㤤ˤĤơ
An . . . enthnographer (sic) describes staying with in-laws in Denmark and being joined by an American friend who, despite warnings, insisted on talking with American intensity until 'at 9 o'clock my in-laws retired to bed; they just couldn't stand it any more'. (117)
ˤ٤Τ1ͤǤȤQäƤԤˤȤäơAntigua θưϰͤ˱Ǥ
Antiguan conventions appear, on the surface, almost anarchic. Fundamentally, there is no regular requirement for two or more voices not to be going at the same time. The start of a new voice is not in itself a signal for the voice speaking either to stop or to institute a process which will decide who is to have the floor. When someone enters a casual group, for example, no opening is necessarily made for him; nor is there any pause or other formal signal that he is being included. No one appears to pay any attention. When he feels ready he will simply begin speaking. He may be heard, he may not. That is, the other voices may eventually stop and listen, or some of them may; eyes may or may not turn to him. If he is not heard the first time he will try again, and yet again (often with the same remark). Eventually he will be heard or give up. (117)
Ʊ Antigua ǤϡäǤβ˴ؤ봷¾¿θҲȤϰۤʤäƤ롥
In a brief conversation with me, about three minutes, a girl called to someone on the street, made a remark to a small boy, sang a little, told a child to go to school, sang some more, told a child to go buy bread, etc., all the while continuing the thread of her conversation about her sister. (118)
äƤԤ̤ͥΩĤΤξξФˤ뤳Ȥ̤ȤʤäƤҲTuvalu ˤ롥
[G]ossips on Nukulaelae Atoll frequently withhold important pieces of information, such as the identity of a person, from their gossip narratives, thus manipulating their audiences into asking for the missing information, sometimes over the space of several turns, as information is revealed in small doses, requiring further questioning . . . .
Madagascar ǤϡäƤۣˤơΤʤȤ롥
[I]f A asks B 'Where is your mother?' and B responds 'She is either in the house or at the market', B's utterance is not usually taken to imply that B is unable to provide more specific information needed by the hearer. The implicature is not made, because the expectation that speakers will satisfy informational needs is not a basic norm.
Ǹ2ǤϡδŪʵǽȰ̤˹ͤƤ־ΡפȤƤ䤬̤Ƥʤεǽ⡤ҲŪʴΤۤȤȤ
ǸƤ褦˳ƸҲˤȯäʤȼε§롥ε§ (rule) ϡˤäȤƤäȳʤ櫓ǤϤʤŪ˼٤ưȤƹǧƤȤ̣ǡ (norm) ȸƤ֤ΤŬڤȯäνϤΤäƤ뤳ȤθʼҲˤ communicative competence ͭƤ뤳Ȥˤۤʤʤ嵭ϡҲˤä͡ȯäεϤȤȡεϤŪʤΤǤȤȤƤ롥
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
Ǥ2Ǥ졤üԤŬڤʸưʤˤϡʸˡäΤäƤǤԽʬǤ롥㤨СΤʸˡμäƤȤƤ⡤ɤΤ褦ʥߥäƤ褤Τۤ٤ĤɤΤ褦ʰ٤ɤٷĥäѤ٤ɤľŪ˸äƤ褤ΤʤɡŪʸ챿Ѥ˴ؤμäƤʤȡߥ˥߳˿ʤ뤳ȤϤǤʤι̣Ǥθ챿ѤˤμǽϤϡꥫοؼ Dell Hymes ˤäơ"communicative competence" ̾դƤ롥ϡʸˡäʤɤθŪμǽϤؤ Chomsky Ѹ "linguistic competence" ռѸȤ櫓2ؤ֤ˤäƤ linguistic competence ̤դʧcommunicative competence νˤⵤŤƤɬפ롥GumperzJ. J. ("Sociolinguistics and Communication in Small Groups." Sociolinguistics: Selected Readings. J. B. Pride and J. Holmes. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1972. p. 205.) ϼΤ褦˸äƤ롥
'Whereas linguistic competence covers the speaker's ability to produce grammatically correct sentences, communicative competence describes his ability to select, from the totality of grammatically correct expressions available to him, forms which appropriately reflect the social norms governing behavior in specific encounters.' (Wardhaugh 264)
Ǥϡcommunicative competence ϶ŪˤϤɤΤ褦ǽϤޤΤSaville-Troike, M. ("The Ethnography of Communication." Sociolinguistics and language Teaching. Ed. S. L. McKay and N. H. Hornberger. Cambridge: CUP, 1996. p. 363) ܤƤ롥
Communicative competence extends to both knowledge and expectation of who may or may not speak in certain settings, when to speak and when to remain silent, whom one may speak to, how one may talk to persons of different statuses and roles, what nonverbal behaviors are appropriate in various contexts, what the routines for turn-taking are in conversation, how to ask for and give information, how to request, how to offer or decline assistance or cooperation, how to give commands, how to enforce discipline, and the like --- in short, everything involving the use of language and other communicative dimensions in particular social settings. (Wardhaugh 264--65)
ɤΤȤcommunicative competence ǽϤϲȤϡDzǤΤεǽϲȤȤؤäƤ롥εǽˤĤƤϡ#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1]) #1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) ȡ
ʸˤꡤüԤ˵ communicative competence 礭ۤʤ롥̱²Ū˰İĵҤӤС communicative competence Τ褦ʤΤܻؤʬҲؤ1ʬǤ ethnography of speaking Ǥ롥
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
νפʵǽ1Ĥˡphatic communion ʸŪѡˤ롥ȤϡȤδطۡݻ뤿ȯäǡĹ碌פȹͤȤ狼䤹ŵǤꡤѤϤƤŪŪȤϵΤΤȹͤۤŬڤ⤷ʤǤϡʤȤɬפʤΤ㤨Св̤ΰˤơǤդȤɬܤǤ롥ʤ͡ϵ餸ɬפΤ
¿̾Υߥ˥Ǥϡޤвΰ蘆졤ߥ˥Τ³̤ΰ蘆ƽλ롥̡в̤ΰϤνǥåȤȤƤ뤬ȯۤžơޤ̤ΰ蘆졤ߥ˥Ժߤ³вΰ蘆롤ȹͤƤߤ褦̯ʽΤ褦˻פ뤬Ǥ⤷ƶ롥ߥ˥ԺߤûͽۤȤ㤨ˤƲϤȤ̤ξ̤Ǥϡ֤㤢͡ס֥ХХפȷڤѤޤ뤳Ȥ¿ĹֲȤϤʤͽۤȤ㤨гǤǸ3ǯֲʤ⤷ʤȤ̤ǤϡڤѤޤˡդԤ̤ΰҤ٤롥դǽҤ٤ǤʤϤʤऱʤѰդꡤ̤ꤹʤɤϫ뤳Ȥ餢롥ʱ̤ʻ̡ˤ˻äƤϡĤ줿ԤϡˤƤ٤ˤƤ⡤Ȥθ¤ԤΤǤ롥
̤ˡ³Ժߴ֤Ĺ㤷ơ̤ΰ䵷ĹƱͤˡ֤Ƽ˺ƲȤԺߴ֤Ĺ㤷ơвΰ䵷ĹȤȤ⡤ïиΤäƤ롥face-work Goffman ϡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
Greetings provide a way of showing that a relationship is still what it was at the termination of the previous coparticipation, and, typically, that this relationship involves sufficient suppression of hostility for the participants temporarily to drop their guards and talk. Farewells sum up the effect of the encounter upon the relationship and show what the participants may expect of one another when they next meet. The enthusiasm of greetings compensates for the weakening of the relationship caused by the absence just terminated, while the enthusiasm of farewells compensates the relationship for the harm that is about to be done to it by separation. (229)
ĹԺߴˡȤδ֤ˤޤǹۤƤҲŪطζƤ椯Ȥʤθޤ븺ʬ碌ƤȤΤ̤εǤꡤºݤθʬ夫䤪ȤΤƲεʤΤǤϤʤդˤ밧ϡ̤Ƚв˺ݤεΰʤΤ褦ʸݤϡΤľʳ䡤ʤҲŪطۡݻƳǧƤǡмҲؤ°ȤäƤ褤СμҲؤȤʬǤ롥
Goffman, Erving. "On Face-Work: An Analysis of Ritual Elements in Social Interaction." Psychiatry 18 (1955): 213--31.
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