ĤߡĴظܼ2023ǯˤ3ϡ֥Υޥȥڤϸ줫פκǽ֤ޤȤפˤơħŤ10ƤǡΥޥȥ (onomatopoeia) ⤤ȤŤƤ롥оȤƤǥϡ̸졤ūʧ㤭Ǥ롥89ڡɽ3-1̸ְ졤Υޥȥڡ첻θפѤ롥
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#5040. Ѹǡ֥ɥĤפŪɽˡ19 --- ȯù٤̣臘 ([2023-02-13-1]) Ǥˤ̤ꡤȯù (speech_act) ϸνפʥơޤ1ĤǤ롥ůؤؤȵڤƤǤꡤůؤǤȤѸ줬ŪʲǤϡȤ Senft Ѹˤ碌̣ǡָ١פѤ롥
٤Ȥϲ塼ˤСϡּҲŪ«ϡ (socially binding force) ĤΤȤ졤ŪôäƤȶĴ롥ĹSenft (46--47) Ѥ롥
塼ϡ٤˴ؤ뤳ξϤˤơָ٤μҲŪ« (socially binding force) ̤ܤסҲŪ«θ§ (PRINCIPLE OF SOCIAL BINDING) 꼰뤳ȤˤäιͤͤϤ롥Ϥθ§ֿʹ֤θǤʤʹ֤ȿʹְʳΰռŪʥߥ˥Τ٤Ƥ¾ηϤ⡤ΤǤפȹͤ (Seuren 2009: 140) θ§ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥
٤ƤܵθŪȯäϡä¦ΡʶϲѤΡ˵̳ (COMMITMENT) ʶϲѤΡʹȯ줿 (APPEAL) ΤȯáϤɽ줿̿ꡤ뤤ϸƤӤHey, you over there! ʡ֤Τסˡˤˤƾ (APPELATION (sic)) ˴ؤƹư§ (INSTITUTION OF A RULE OF BEHAVIOUR) Τ줫μΡҲŪ«δطϽФȤ (FORCE) ġ
٤οͤ˴ؤͭǤҲŪ֤ϡȯáϤϤξ (FORCE FIELD) 롥(Seuren 2009: 140)
塼ˤȤäơθ§ϰθȵ̳Ŀ͡ʤǤȸĿͤºĿ͡«롥ο͡ϡ֡Ǥꡤ٤Ƥܵθ٤ϡˤʡ뤤ϽפǤʤΤǤäƤ⡤äʹδ֤ǤطϽФ (Seuren 2009: 140) ҲŪ«θ§ָŪפǤꡤֿʹ֤θǤʤ (sign) ˤ뤤ʤΥߥ˥ˤȤäƤŪǤħŤ뤳ȤϡSeuren 2009: 158 ⻲ȡˡγؼԤˤȤäơָŪǤϽФΤƻǤꡤžΤΤΤǤʤȡפ̣ (Seuren 2009: 140) 塼ϡ٤˴ϢƤιͤȯŸΤȤĴ롥
٤Ƥθ٤ϡҲŪ«δط뤤ϻ֤ϽФȤ̣ǹٿŪǤĸδŪʵǽϡˤĤƤξΰưȤ̣ (sense) ǤΡ֥ߥ˥פǤϤʤҲŪ«Ĥޤ<!-- for reference -->ȯä뤤ϸ٤ˤäɽ̿˴ؤпʹ֤ΡҲŪ«δطϽФǤ롥μμҲŪ«ʹ֤μҲ1ĤɬܾǤҲδ쵡ˤ濴ŪǤǤ뤳Ȥ餫ˤʤǤ(Seuren 2009: 147)
塼ˤȤäơ٤ϸػˤˤƤޤ˷ڻ뤵Ƥϥߥ˥ƻǤȤͤƻȸ뤳Ȥ¿äΤΡּҲŪ«ϡפȤƤޤȤ줿ȤϤʤäȤϡƼҲλθѤȤäƤ褤
Senft, Gunter ˡк ͡Ϥ ҡˡظδä롡ǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
Seuren, Pieter A. M. Language from Within Vol. I.: Language in Cognition. Oxford: OUP, 2009.
̡ȡشڥǥɴʡ٤ڥڥäƤȤ̿Τȯã˴ؤ뵭ܤˤȤޤä (1772--73) #2931. ϸŤӽΤǤϤʤ䤹 ([2017-05-06-1]) Ǽ夲Ȥ櫓̿ΤפǤܼŪʤȤХäͤƤƴ쥳ߥ˥ΤȯŸǡƶǤ롥ʲĹ٤ưѤ롥
̿ȯãޥߤ
̿ȯã
̿ˤΤȤΰջãȤСȯãϡ礿Τˤäơޤ˸Ƭɮŵ̿ߺŪ̿λʬव롥ʸʤˤ̿μʤϡƬˤ뤫СİФ̤Ƥο桦ޡʤΤݤʤɡˤˤ뤷ʤʸĤ褦ˤʤȻȯȤȤ˼ɮ̿ΤμפʼʤȤʤä
Ѥȯޤǡפʽʪϥȥåƻν̼ǽ̤ƤʿŪʸĿͤǽʽʪοϸꤵƤꡤΨ㤫äۤμήۤȤμѤȤä
Ѥȯϡʪ̤˳衼åѤǤ1455ǯ J. ƥ٥륯 (1397--1468) ˤäƶ°ˤǰȯ줿οʵѤϽʪιϤή̣ۤ16Ⱦνױư17ꥹԥ塼̿ΥǥζɬפˤѥեåȡʹʤɤγƼʪνиߤΨϤʤ㤯ȯαƶϤ˴ʤΤǤꡤΤ褦˰ʪ罰ΤȤΤˤʤäΤϥƥ٥륯ȯ顤380ǯвᤷ1830ǯΥꥫʺǽ罰ʹϴˤˤƤǤä
1844ǯ S. F. B. ⡼ (1791--1872) ѲſϿʹμã®٤ֻΤΤȤϤᡤ̿ˤοʲſ֤ϡ®dzμ¾˻ƤԤ侦ͤˤäơ19դޤ̥ޥޡͤĥᤰ餵졤̾
ޥߤ̿
ʹҤƤüѤȤơȯ100ĶǽȤȤȤʤä1890ǯ夫ȤΤȤ饸о줹1920ǯޤǤޥߥ˥ηǤ롥ŪˤķŪڤƥӤäꡤŵ̿ϥޥǥ̿μή롥
δ֡եࡤʤɤΤ٤λŪǥŤطʤȤơŪˤϹ̱ʸŪ硤гŪˤλʸŪήۤȤΤ˿ΤǤʤŤΤư줿λŪǥãϤ٤ơҤȤ꤫¿ؤξãդޤȤŪʰ̣⤫Ӿ夬餻롥
Ȥ뺣ˤ륽ϢϤҤȤ꤫¿ؤξΤ褦θ³Ѳż롥1980ǯܳʲ̿η֤ħϡ̿Ѥáեåѥ̿ˤߤҤȤ꤫ҤȤؤ̿ߺǤ롥Ĵ֤̿ˤƤ⡤ƥӲĤäȤꡤʸ֥ƥӡͭˤƤ¾롤¿ͥξġͤμפ˱ǡΰãǤϤʤ̿ϡĹ餯ʬǤƤʤ۶ν椹Ⱦ٤줿ȤޤͤꡦƤϤưɤƤ롥
̿Τ
̿ˤϡƬɮŵ̿ߺŪ̿λ˰ʬव뤬ƬˤãϡʸȰѤȯθ⡤ߤȤƻѤ줿ɤŪŪʷưˤФȤƽפ餸饸ƥӤоȤ̤ựäƤʤʸλˤʤäƤह뤳Ȥʤʻ¸μʸβɤϺ˲Ȥºɤ뤿νפʻŻǤ롥ץʸμήȤʤäƤɮμ椬äºŤ뤳ȤФ𤵤褦ˡƬ饳ԥ塼ޤǤˤϿä˿ʤ褦ˤߤƤºݤϿϾǤ뤳ȤϤʤ
̿ΤŪΤνиϤ١ԤΤεǽѤ뤬ΤδʪȤϤʤ餺ɮŵ̿Ȥ⤤⸽ޤ³ԤƤ롥ϡ̿ˤΤѲȤȤˡ̤¿ɵᤷƤˤǤ뤳Ȥ
ϡ쥳ߥ˥ˤƾ̤ɵᤷ³βǼΤȯƤȤȤˤʤ롥μˤĤƤϤɤʤΤȹͤǤޤäϡΤȾа¸뤬ȾΩΤǤ⤢
ȴϢƽ̺ˤĤơ#2465. ̺ȤƤλˤ ([2016-01-26-1])#2456. ̺Ƚƻ (1) ([2016-01-17-1])#2457. ̺Ƚƻ (2) ([2016-01-18-1])#2933. ǯɽ ([2017-05-08-1])#3116. ʪҤءѥԥ륹ء ([2017-11-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
شڥǥɴʡ١1995ǯ
#3590. ֤Ȥͷӡפȸء ([2019-02-24-1]) ǡȤͷ word_play ؤȤоݤȤʤ뤳ȤҲ𤷤ϡͷӤ3ˤĤơ챺 (397--99) ˰͵ʤ鳵⤹롥
(1) ¨ --- ʸ̮뤳Ȥͷ
ޯѤͷӤǤ롥ƱѤơʸ̮˴Ĥʸ̮ħ롥ֲѤפΤ褦ʸ̮æ𤹤뤳Ȥ֤פ䡤夿ڤפΤ褦ʥѥǥȤƸȤоȤռϸפʤɤ⤳तǤ롥Ȥʸ̮åơ⤷ߤ롥ξξ˱¨ŪŸ뤳Ȥ¿פǤ롥
(2) --- åŲ뤳Ȥͷ
(acrostic)ʥ (anagram)ʸ (palindrome) ʤɤΤ褦ˡå餫ŲƤ륿פΤȤͷӤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#1875. acrostic ([2014-06-15-1])#1897. "futhorc" acrostic ([2014-07-07-1]) ȡʥϡSalvador Dali ʸؤ Avida Dollars ȤꡤֲϺפïפȤʤɤ롥ʸ Madam, I'm Adam ϼʤΤפʤɡ¨ǺΤǰ˺ޤħ롥
(3) --- ȤƤΤȤͷ
롼§äͷ³뤳ȤŪȤ륲ശФΤȤͷӡŵϡȤꡤɡդΤʤʤʤɤǤ롥ã٤̣ƤϤޤǤϤʤȤФϥƻȤѤƤ롥
ȤͷӤͷ1Ǥ뤫顤3פͷΰŪüƤϤǤ롥üϡ̵Ū̵̵ȤäΤߥ˥䵭δϡŹ (cryptology) ȤϢƤ֤ȤͷӡפϡɤɤäƤơޤ
챺 ֤͡Ȥͷӡסظλŵ١ ʿԡˡīҽŹ2005ǯ396--415ǡ
ȤͷӡʸͷˤϡؤθоݤȤƤϾ˥ޥʡϰ̤Ƥʬ̾ޤäƤʤ⤽֤ȤͷӡפŪ̾ΤޤäƤΤɤѸǤ word play, verbal play, speech play, play of language ʤɤ͡ʸ¸ߤ롥
ޤä椵Ƥʤä櫓ǤϤʤؤʸȤδϢǰƤаޤϤ뤷ǯǤϥߥ˥Ūͻ졤ʬȤƤȯŸǽƤǽȤδϢǤܤƤƤ褦
ԡˤΡظλŵ٤Τʤˡ챺ͤˤ֤Ȥͷӡפꤹ1Ϥꡤ̣ɤΥȥ (396) ˤȡȤͷӤδŪħȤưæȵ2Ȥ
ȤͷӤȤϡ˥ߥ˥εϤȴƤȰæŪɤʱĤߤǤ롥ȤͷӤäʸ̮æ뤤ϥåŲƱˤ餵ޤȤξãȤ¿쾯ʤڤƤ롥
ƱˡȤͷӤϡñ礤˲ŪʱĤߤǤ櫓ǤϤʤȤͷӤͤȤȤͷ֡ɤȤǤΤϡ줬˰εפȤ뤫Ǥ롥ơδפᴷ (convention) Ǥ뤬椨ˡȤͷӤϸġθʸ˸ͭη֤ࡥ
ȤͷӤΡȷɤǤ뤳ȤĶơߥ˥̤ȤʤΤϡˤƤǤ롥
ȤͷӤϡãȤ̤θ쥳ߥ˥ȤϰۤʤäƤ뤬Ǥϲɤ٤ɤΤ褦˰ۤʤäƤΤȤʤ롥ŪʴϤȤ굡ǽŪʴɬפ
ѸΤȤͷӤ˴ؤƤϡCrystal αѸ˭٤˵ĤIJ⤷ƤꡤͭѤǤ롥
챺 ֤͡Ȥͷӡסظλŵ١ ʿԡˡīҽŹ2005ǯ396--415ǡ
Crystal, David. The English Language. 2nd ed. London: Penguin, 2002.
ߥ˥ (communication) ϡؤǤ褯ȤѸŪ˹ȤѸǤ⤢롥ºݡؤǤ⤫ʤˤѤƤ롥ΤƤȻפCrystal θؼŵƤߤˤȡcommunication Ȥϼ̤Ǥ (89--90)
communication (n.) A fundamental notion in the study of behaviour, which acts as a frame of reference for linguistic and phonetic studies. Communication refers to the transmission and reception of information (as 'message') between a source and a receiver using a signalling system: in linguistic contexts, source and receiver are interpreted in human terms, the system involved is a language, and the notion of response to (or acknowledgement of) the message becomes of crucial importance. In theory, communication is said to have taken place if the information received is the same as that sent: in practice, one has to allow for all kinds of interfering factors, or 'noise', which reduce the efficiency of the transmission (e.g. unintelligibility of articulation, idiosyncratic associations of words). One has also to allow for different levels of control in the transmission of the message: speakers' purposive selection of signals will be accompanied by signals which communicate 'despite themselves', as when voice quality signals the fact that a person has a cold, is tired/old/male, etc. The scientific study of all aspects of communication is sometimes called communication science: the domain includes linguistics and phonetics, their various branches, and relevant applications of associated subjects (e.g. acoustics, anatomy).
Human communication may take place using any of the available sensory modes (hearing, sight, etc.), and the differential study of these modes, as used in communicative activity, is carried on by semiotics. A contrast which is often made, especially by psychologists, is between verbal and non-verbal communication (NVC) to refer to the linguistic v. the non-linguistic features of communication (the latter including facial expressions, gestures, etc., both in humans and animals). However, the ambiguity of the term 'verbal' here, implying that language is basically a matter of 'words', makes this term of limited value to linguistics, and it is not usually used by them in this way.
Ƥ뤬˿ʬüŪ˲᤹Сߥ˥Ȥϡ2Դ֤ˤ뿮ηϤѤΤʤȤפȤʤϡΤ褦ʥߥ˥ã뤿μʤ1ĤȤȤˤʤ롥ϥߥ˥ΤѤƤ櫓ǤϤʤϡФо嵭Υߥ˥æ褦Ѥ⤹롥νǽ (function_of_language) ˤĤƤϡʲεȤ줿#523. εǽȸѲ ([2010-10-02-1])#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1])#1862. Stern ˤ4Ĥεǽ ([2014-06-02-1])#1776. Ogden and Richards ˤ5Ĥεǽ ([2014-03-08-1])
ߥ˥˴ޤޤ־ (information) ȤϲȤ礭꤬ĤäƤ롥̤ϡ#1089. ȸ; ([2012-04-20-1])#1098. ؤͿƤ뼨2 ([2012-04-29-1]) ޤ information_theory γƵȤ줿
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
#1281. ū ([2012-10-29-1]) ˤĤƵХܸǤ5ˡūθýǺܤƤ
ǯθˤСūϰƤ¿ϰǼƤ褦ĤƤϿؼԡ붵աιԲȤˤäƸū10㤢ޤȤƤ15ǯ֤θˤꡤ70ۤɤ뤳ȤʬäƤοϤäƤǽ롥ūϡŪˤϸΡʡ (surrogate) Ȥ֤ŤǤϤ뤬Ǿİоʹ֤Υߥ˥˴ؤθƤΤȻפ롥*
ä˶̣ΤƬȤбȤȡߥ˥Υ˴ؤ¦̤ʥꥢΥѤ륷ܡȤڥĴˤѤūϡ첻ȻҲūΥԥåʲˤѲ©ǤȤɽηϤƤ롥ƬβηϤΤūǤϡūμȿȿοʤηϤȤȤؤƤ롥鷺ʶȿӰǤ⡤٤ѤȤΤä٤¤ޤĴѤūξˤϡūΥԥåϸƬˤĴбĴξȤϰۤʤηϤäƤȤפä⤺äʣʥƥबѤƤ褦
ŪˤϡūϸƬ٤ĹΥߥ˥˸Ƥ롥ŷϷʤɤιﲼǤϸūϿkmޤꡤºݤ˻Ϥ俹ӤǤαΥߥ˥ѤƤ뤳Ȥ¿ƬƱͤˡïˤ⽬ǤΤǤ롥
The World Whistles Research Association ȤΤꡤθūξƤΤǡͤޤǤˡ
J. ᥤָūסХ Scientific American ǡ١2017ǯ560--67.
ؤ蘆Ȥϲ٤ɤҲؤΥߥ˥ǥΩ줫Ρ蘆 (rumor) ʬϤҲŪʴؿäɤߥ˥صŪˡƻŪ (instrumental) ʤΤȼŪŪ (consummatory) ʤΤʬȡ蘆ϸԤΤۤܶᤷƤ롥Ŀͤ˴ؤ뤦蘆Ǥ르åפͤȡƤ˾ȤƤβͤ⤢ˤϤ뤬¿ξ硤åפ뤳ȼΤŪǤ롥͡ϥåפΤˤ虜虜ޤäꡤ磻ɥ硼ꤹΤǤ롥
(109--10) ǽҤ٤Ƥ뤬蘆ˤϡ֤äɡפȤ줬ĤȤ¿ϻͿԤδ֤˿̩ʿʹִطʤ solidarity ФŪʤǤꡤºݤˤ蘆Ƥ̩⤱Сsolidarity Ϥ˹ޤ롥
ޤ蘆γϡͿԤΡֵζͭפȤطʾġp. 110ˡҳˤ蘆ǥޤޤ䤹Τϡ͡Ʊ褦˴Ūʾˤ뤫Ǥꡤξ褹뤿ξͭȤ⤢뤬ʾˡ¤ä뤿ˤߤʤȰˤȤ롥蘆߽Ф solidarity ޤȤϸߤ˽Ĺ礦طˤ롥
(113--14) ϡåפ3Ĥεǽ˸ڤƤ롥ޤ־ǽפ롥åפΤΤͤˤĤƤξǤȤȤǤϤʤΥåפ鲿餫ζФˤϡŪʾȤˤʤ롥ˡֽĵϤηǧǽפ롥ͤϤ르åפ¾ͤȶͭ뤳ȤǿĤФꡤ«ꤹΤǤʤ accommodation_theory ȤϢ롥#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1]) ȡˡǸˡ֥ƥȤεǽפǤ롥ͤϲä¥ʺޤȤơñ˳ڤΤȤƥåפ롥
ʤ顤蘆䥴åפϸѤ (discourse) 1ĤǤ롥äơ嵭ΥåפεǽϡεǽΰǤ⤢Ϥοʹִط۵ǽȤȤǤСϢơ#1771. ܼŪʵǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ([2014-03-03-1])#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1]) εȡ
ؤ蘆Ȥϲ١ҡӡ2014ǯ
#2122. ƥȤμ ([2015-02-17-1]) ǰäˤĤƺƹͤ롥ˤƥ (context) ȰǤäƤ⡤ƤʬˡˤĤƤ͡Ω줬롥ϡCrystal (322--23) ͿƤ3ǤҲ𤷤褦
Setting: The time and place in which a communicative act occurs, such as in church, during a meeting, at a distance, or upon leave-taking.
Participants: The number of people who take part in an interaction, and the relationships between them, such as the addressee(s) and bystander(s).
Activity: The type of activity in which a participant is engaged, such as cross-examining, debating or having a conversation.
줾졤ư˴ؤ when/where, who, what ˤ褽ȹͤƤ褤3ǤȤ߹碌ˤ깭̣ǤΡʸ̮פޤꡤˤꡤüԤϸѤ˺ݤƲ餫¤ݤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ɤΤ褦ˤĤ¤뤫ȤС㤨м4ܤͤ롥
Channel: They influence the medium chosen for the communication (e.g. speaking, writing, signing, whistling, singing, drumming) and the way it is used.
Code: They influence the formal systems of communication shared by the participant, such as spoken English, written Russian, American Sign Language, or some combination of these.
Message form: They influence the structural patterns that identify the communication, both small-scale (the choice of specific sounds, words, or grammatical constructions) and large-scale (the choice of specific genres).
Subject matter: They influence the content of the communication, both what is said explicitly and what is implied.
礹ȡ㤨Хꥹȶⶵդ֤ŵŪʥƥȤϡΤ褦ʤΤȤʤ롥ⶵ (participant) ī˶ (setting) ǡ̤ν (participants) ˸äơѸȤ (code) Ȥä (channel) ǡⶵ (activity) Ԥʤκݡˤդ路ʸΤ乽 (message form) ǡŪ (subject matter) ˤĤƸդߤСΤ褦ʤ٤Ƥ郎蘆ȡˤⶵפȤƥȤǤȤ⤤롥
ʤ顤ƥȤϡѰ (register) 䥸 (genre) ȤԲʬǤʡ#839. register ([2011-08-14-1]) ȡˡޤ깭Ω줫顤#1996. ٤˴ؤ8 SPEAKING ([2014-10-14-1]) #1326. 礤7Ĥǡ ([2012-12-13-1]) Ϣ
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
#2700. Źˤ륳ߥ˥ ([2016-09-17-1]) ǡŹ̾θоȤΰŹ椬̾θȺǤۤʤäƤ¦̤1Ĥˡɤо롥ľȿ뤿ᡤ⤷Ʊ褦оäƤΤɤΤ褦ʸ쥳ߥ˥ŸΤΤ
20ȾоθŹ椬ޤޤǡѤƤŹϤ٤оθŹäоθŹǤϡȼ꤬ƱΥԡäƤ롥Ϥθʿʸ֥뤷ưŹʸäꡤϤθΥԡDzʿʸ᤹ξԤȤ˶̤θʤȥ르ꥺˤ뤫餳ǽŪ˥ߥ˥ΩĤΤǤ롥оϡˤߤŪǤ롥㤨ܸʸˡʤӥ르ꥺˤȤСܸäϤθƤ沽ʸФꡤܸʹϤθΥԡ沽Ƥ᤹沽沽βǤϡʸˡν§Ŭѽդˤʤ뤬ƱĤʸˡǤ롥Τ褦оθŹ̾θȺŪͭƤ뤿ᡤθ䤹
20ȾоθŹʤΤޤ줿оθŹˤ륳ߥ˥ǤϡȼѤ븰Ū̯ˡǴϢŤƤϤΤΡ¾ۤʤäƤΤǤ롥⡤ϱѸäƤ뤬ܸʹäƤ뤫Τ褦Τ褦ɽȱѸ줫ܸؤμưߤƤ뤫Τ褦ʥ奨ˤʹ뤬Ȥɬ⤦ޤʤȤΤϡ¦θʤǤܸʸˡˤϡ꤬ȼ˺¾ͤݴɤƤΤǤꡤˡ꤬Ȥ¦θʤǤϱѸʸˡˤ˺ꤢƤȤ뤫Ĥޤꡤϥߥ˥Ωäơʸˡ夲Ȥ2οʸˡޤǺ夲Ƥξǡ2ʸˡĤĥåͿϤʸˡѤʿʸŹ沽롥ơϡΰŹʸ2ǤϤʤ1ʸˡ˽äɤ߲ΰŹʸϡ2ʸˡ沽Ƥˤ⤫餺褷2ʸˡˤäƤ沽ǤʤȤ̯äƤΤǤ롥
̾θ쥳ߥ˥δФ˴ƤȡоθŹˤ륳ߥ˥λȤߤϼ¤˴̯ޤ̾θξQˤä餳оθȯϰŹػ˾βȤƤߤʤƤΤ
ε#2699. Źؤȸء ([2016-09-16-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡϥåȤߵȤȤȯãƤȹͤˤ⤫餺ǿϥåƿȤߵŹ浻ѤȯãƤϡˤ륳ߥ˥˴ؤ̷ȹͤ뤫⤷ʤ褯ͤƤߤȡŹϸ쥳ߥ˥̷ܼ⤹Ȥ⡤षΤ¦̤ˤ˿䤷ʤΤȤߤʤΤǤϤʤȤΤϡŹ楳ߥ˥ˤƤϡˤȤϤΤΡषåȤߵϤȤ˶Ǥ롥
ºݡ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) οޤˤơΡ֤Ȥ (message)פְŹפɤؤƤ⡤οޤϤΤޤѤǤ롥ۤʤȤ⤢롥Ź楳ߥ˥ǤäʹľܤĤʤܿ (contact)פβϩտŪ˶ꤵƤꡤ¾ŪǤ뤳Ȥˡ̾θ쥳ߥ˥ˤƤ⡤٤¾ꤵ뵡Ϥ롥㤨СҤҤä修ʤɤǤϡʪŪˡܿ¤Ƥ롥ȤŹ楳ߥ˥ǤϡʪŪˡܿ¤뤳ȤޤߤϤ뤬ʾ˽פˡȤơָη (code) פˤҤͤäȤʤѤ롥äʹˤͭʤ¾ŪʥɤѤ뤳ȤˤꡤŪ¾ԤܿǤʤФƤΤǤ롥
Τ褦ˡ̾θ쥳ߥ˥椹ȡŹ楳ߥ˥ܼ⤭Ħˤʤ롥äʹ꤬¾Ūʥɤˤ¾Ūܿδط夲¾Ūʥߥ˥ϩȤΤŹ楳ߥ˥Τ褦ֻפФơפȤ礤դϡŪʰŹΰϰŹ楳ߥ˥ˤ phatic_communion θΤǤ (see #1771. ܼŪʵǽ1ĤȤƤ phatic communion ([2014-03-03-1])#1071. Jakobson ˤ6Ĥεǽ ([2012-04-02-1])) ŹŪƤߤΤ⤪⤷
첻ϲΰǤ롥ΤȤǤꡤŵŪˤ϶ʤɤʹ˱äƱư¤Ƥ椯ʹ֤ޤ¿ưʪѤƥߥ˥äƤ롥첻˴ؤơŪʴääƤʲͤνŵϡCrystal (34) ӸͰ (26--28, 34)
ȡˤοư°ˤϡȿȲ٥뤬롥ȿȤϡ1ô֤βȤοưʤι⤵ɽ魯ñ̤ˤ Hz ʥإġˤѤ롥20Hz㤤Ķ (infrasonics) ȸƤФ졤ʹ֤ɤȤƴ뤳ȤϤ뤬Ǥϴʤޤ20000Hz⤤Ķ (supersonics) ȤϤ꼪Ǥϴ뤳ȤǤʤʹ֤ȤƴΤǤΤ20--20000HzȤȤˤʤ롥ޤϷȤȤʹ벻ϰϤʤꡤä˼ȿι⤤ʹˤʤȤ롥
ȤƤϡʹ֤ʹ뤳ιӰζޤǤȤʤƤ櫓ǤϤʤȯ¦⤢ꡤ̾ȯäǤ100--4000HzѤ롥̾ȯ90--130HzǤͽȯ250--330HzǤ롥ޤ줿Ф֤ε㤭400Hzȹ⤤NHKλ440--880Hzߵ֤Υ770--960HzǤ롥
ʤߤˡưʪʹ벻ϰϤϿʹ֤ȰۤʤäƤ롥Ļ200--8000Hz10--12000Hz̤15--50000Hzͥ60--65000Hz륫150--150000Hz1000--120000HzȤޤޤǤ롥줾줬ʹǽϤѤƼȼΥߥ˥ΩƤƤ뤳ȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥
ˡ٥˰ܤϲȤο˴ؤ°Ǥꡤ礭ɽ魯ñ̤ˤ dB ʥǥ٥ˤѤ롥ʹ֤̾βä60dBۤɤǤꡤ䤭30dBʹǤ⾮ʲ0dBǤ롥ӤȤơʹĤ70dBʹߵ֤Υ80dBɲʹ֤β100dBʹԵΥ120dBǤ롥
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
Ͱ ʡʴƽˡز縦桡䤫ճʳˡޤǡ١2016ǯ
ε#2534. (sign) μ --- Ūˤʬ ([2016-04-04-1]) ³¼ (15) 국ʥˤΡʤˤʬפοޤ

μФʤ륵μ¿Ȥ狼뤬¤˥86ѡȤȤ¼ (16--17) ˤȡ
ͳϡФΤˤƤ뤳Ȥ軰ԤϤ¾δдﴱʤᤤȤȤʤΤǤʸ®®30ˡᤤֻФǡפˡİФǡפȤ®300ȥȤäȡΤۤȤɤ٤Ƥּפ뤳Ȥˤʤޤᤵ˼Ȥ顤տޤȤ軰Ԥ褦Ȥ־פϡμʤȤơּפλİФʤ뤳ȤˤʤΤǤ
ʤֻФǡפΡַפΡֲפŪˤäƤ˲ʬहȡŪɽסݳ衤ݳ衤ݽѼ̿ˤȡּŪɽפʬ롥ԤϤˡо¨ŪפʤΡʼ̡̿Ͽޡޡˡ־ħŪפʤΡʥܥ롤ޡԥȥࡤʥˡŪפʤΡʥա䥰ࡤɽˤ˶ʬȤ¼ۡpp. 17--19ˡ
ϢơҥȤδдﴱȥߥ˥ʤδطˤĤƤιͻϡ#1063. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (1) ([2012-03-25-1])#1064. ʹ֤θϤʤ˰¸ƤΤ (2) ([2012-03-26-1]) εȡ
¼ سɽդ١̿ʹҡ2014ǯ
ε ([2016-04-01-1]) ˰³"spaghetti junction" ˤĤơϡθݤ˴ؤ Aitchison 1989ǯʸɤΤǡݡȤ롥
Aitchison ϡѥץ˥塼˥ǹä Tok Pisin λꡦˡηϤ͡ʼʤκʤäƤȤȤ˰ӤΤˤʤäƤͻҤѻ "spaghetti junction" θ̤ˤΤTok Pisin ˸뤳Τ褦ηϤѲϡϢʤ¾Υԥ䥯쥪ǤѻƤꡤΤ2ĤΩͤƤȤ1Ĥ Bickerton ʤɤؼԤĥ褦ˡʸˡ˶ŪƯƤꡤѲɬŪˤηϤ˽뤹롤ȤΤΩϡŪҥȤΰҤȤ߹ޤƤꤹ뤿ᡤ"bioprogram" ȸƤФ롥⤦1Ĥιͤϡ졤ǧΡߥ˥˴ؤ͡ʰۤʤߤ˺Ѥ̡ǽŪ˻褦ʲФȤΤΩ줬 "spaghetti junction" Ǥ롥Aitchison (152) ϡ2ܤθʲΤ褦ٻƤ롥
This second approach regards a language at any particular point in time as if it were a spaghetti junction which allows a number of possible exit routes. Given certain recurring communicative requirements, and some fairly general assumptions about language, one can sometimes see why particular options are preferred, and others passed over. In this way, one can not only map out a number of preferred pathways for language, but might also find out that some apparent 'constraints' are simply low probability outcomes. 'No way out' signs on a spaghetti junction may be rare, but only a small proportion of possible exit routes might be selected.
Aitchison (169) ϡ2ĤΩΰ㤤͡ʸɽƤ롥"innate programming" Ф "probable rediscovery" ǤȤѲ "prophylaxis" ͽɡˤФ "therapy" ʼšˤǤʡͽɡפȡּšפˤĤƤϡ#1979. ѲŪˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2014-09-27-1]) ȡˡAitchison ϡξΩȿΤȤϡŪ⤷ʤȹͤƤ褦
"spaghetti junction" ΩĤΤǤСθѲβϡФ䤹ƻڡפͽ¬뤫ȤȤˤʤAitchison (170) ϡʸΤ褦äƤ롥
A number of principles combined to account for the pathways taken, principles based jointly on general linguistic capabilities, cognitive abilities, and communicative needs. The route taken is therefore the result of the rediscovery of viable options, rather than the effect of an inevitable bioprogram. At the spaghetti junctions of language, few exits are truly closed. However, a number of converging factors lead speakers to take certain recurrent routes. An overall aim in future research, then, must be to predict and explain the preferred pathways of language evolution.
Τ褦ʸ̤ϸȯȽȯãˤ⿷ʸƤƤ뤫⤷ʤ͡褬ä˽װˤФ䤹ƻڡפѤ졤ˤĤʤηǤΤǤϤʤȡ
Aitchison, Jean. "Spaghetti Junctions and Recurrent Routes: Some Preferred Pathways in Language Evolution." Lingua 77 (1989): 151--71.
٤ (speech) ˤ͡ʼब롥ä⤢Х䥸⤢뤷ռ⤢Ф⤢롥⡤Ƥⶵ١ԥåޤ͡ǤϡμΤ٤ʬहΤˡɤΤ褦ʴब̤ͤθС饳ߥ˥νɤΤ褦ˤɸãƤΤǴͿŪǤϲҲؼ Hymes ϡƬ SPEAKING ΤȤ8ĤǤǧƤ롥Hymes Wardhaugh (259--61) εҤˤäơñ褦
(1) Setting and Scene. ԤϤ٤꤬ԤƤ֤ȾؤԤŪǿŪʴĶؤ㤨СΥꥹޥΥåΤǯƬϡͭ Setting Scene äƤ롥ܤǤСŷŲοǯΤդͭ Setting Scene äƤ롥
(2) Participants. äʹꡥäǤξԤ֤ȯäΤֵ̾Ǥϼˤ٤ϰ̹ԤǡʹʣǤ롥αäǤϡäʹȤϡåȼȤΤŬˤƤϡʹϿǤ롥
(3) Ends. Τ٤̤ƴŪ˴ԤƤŪ뤤ä꤬ĿŪܻؤƤŪ㤨ˡˤȯϡȽ濳𡤸𡤾ڿͤΤˤäƤʤ뤫ˤä礭ۤʤŪġ뺧ˤȯäϡҲŪŪͭƤƱˡϺؤθĿŪŪͭƤ롥
(4) Act sequence. Ū˻Ȥ줿ɽˤĤơ줬ɤΤ褦˻Ȥ줿ΤԤȤɤΤ褦ʴطΤȤΤ٤ǤϡɤΤ褦ɽȯäƤꡤºݤ˲ԤƤΤȤǤ롥Ǥȯù (speech_act) ι̤ͤ롥#1646. ȯù٤ʸ ([2013-10-29-1]) ȡ
(5) Key. åݤΥȡͼ䵤ʬʤɡ٤꤬ڤ狼뤤ΤʳŪŪŪŪŪʹưȿꡤʤɤȼȤ⤢롥
(6) Instrumentalities. ߥ˥βϩ补äȤФդäſʤɤˤȤɤޤ餺Ѥ졤ɡѰ⤵code-switching ϡʣ instrumentalities Ȥʬ뤪٤λȤȤˤʤ롥
(7) Norms of interaction and interpretation. ٤տ魯ιưڤӤ˴ؤ뵬Ϥ礭ۡ碌äȤΩ֤˴ؤʪŪΥʤɤˤƤεϤʤɤޤޤ롥#1633. ٤̱ۤ²ء ([2013-10-16-1])#1644. ٤̱ۤ² (2) ([2013-10-27-1]) ȡ
(8) Genre. ȯäΥ롥Ȥ虜ʤʤⶵֵʤɤΤ˶̤ȯäμ
͡Ϥ SPEAKING γǤ˾դʧʤ餪٤ꤷƤȹͤ롥Wardhaugh (261) θ褦ˡ٤϶ˤʣʱİ٤Ǥ롥
What Hymes offers us in his SPEAKING formula is a very necessary reminder that talk is a complex activity, and that any particular bit of talk is actually a piece of 'skilled work.' It is skilled in the sense that, if it is to be successful, the speaker must reveal a sensitivity to and awareness of each of the eight factors outlined above. Speakers and listeners must also work to see that nothing goes wrong. When speaking does go wrong, as it sometimes does, that going-wrong is often clearly describable in terms of some neglect of one or more of the factors. Since we acknowledge that there are 'better' speakers and 'poorer' speakers, we may also assume that individuals vary in their ability to manage and exploit the total array of factors.
ʸˡäؽǤϸޥȤϤʤˤ٤ꤹ뤿ˤϡSPEAKING ҴǤ뤳ȤɬפǤ롥Ϣơ#1632. communicative competence ([2013-10-15-1]) ȡ#1652. 2콬Ǥ "communicative competence" ([2013-11-04-1]) ȡ
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
ε ([2014-08-12-1]) κǸˡѲˤİԤδͿˤĤƿ줿Ѳ variation ΤʤΤҲΤǤªʤСˤİԤδͿȤϡѲˤƽפüԤİԤռƸդȯȤȤϥߥ˥Ū˾Ȥ餻мΤ褦˻פ뤬θѲθǤϡѲüԼΤȤ뤵ƤаޤꡤİԤϴԺߤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ŪôˤʤäǯθˤƤİԤ䤬Ū˹ޤäƤƤ롥
ؤˤʬɤ뤬㤨мҲؤǤİԤŻ뤷ͤƤƤ롥1Ĥˡaudience design ȤΤ롥Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵ˵
audience design A notion developed by Allan Bell to account for stylistic variation in language in terms of speakers' responses to audience members i.e. to people who are listening to them. Bell's model derives in part from accommodation theory. (11)
ʲ (101--09) ˤ롥Allan Bell ˤä줿 audience design ϡüԤïФ (attention) ʧĤäƤΤˤäơʸŪѰۤ褦Ȥ벾Ǥ롥βˤСä (Speaker) ϡʹ (Addressee) ˺¤դʧʳˤ˵İ (Auditor)ʹ (Overhearer)ʹ (Eavesdropper) ˤ⤳ν¿դʧΤȤäˤȤäƤοͤΤƤ뤫ǧƤ뤫äƤ뤫Ȥ3ĤΥѥʬϤȡ줾ʲΤ褦ʽȤʤ롥
| ΤƤ | ǧƤ | äƤ | |
| ʹ | + | + | + |
| ˵İ | + | + | - |
| ʹ | + | - | - |
| ʹ | - | - | - |
ǥϤդĤä꤬äΤʹ䡤мŪʤΤȻפƤ뤬¤ϤäѶŪʤΤǡǥλϻפƤϤϤ뤫礭ƶǤ롥礦ԤǴѵҤδꡤ뤤˱ƶ褦ˡǥǡäϼʬΥĴƤΤȹͤ롥
Ǹˡɽ˼ audience νŪʤΤǤϤʤȤդäƤƤΤ褦ˡƤԤƤԤʹȤäƤϤΤΡ⤷ȤʹռƤΤϡˤ˵İԤ⤷ʤΤλٻդ뤿ˡष˵İԤ˸ƵƤȻפ礬롥ΤȤäʧդ̤ϡ˵İ͡ʹפȤʤ
ʤä꤬ïˤⲿդʧ鷺äȤ̤ϤȤȤǤ̾ä꼫ȤʹꤷƤǤϡΤ褦ꤹʤȤϤꤦĤƤܤäȽФȤ䡤ռ˽Фʤʤɤᤤ⤷ʤȤˤĤơ#1070. Jakobson ˤưԲķ6Ĥιǡ ([2012-04-01-1]) ⻲ȡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ؼҲ硡ǡ١ҡ2009ǯ
ε ([2014-08-11-1]) ǰѤ monitoring ˴ؤ Smith ʸϤǡLyons ȤƤLyons (111) äƤߤȡ첻λФˤĤƤսǡüԤİԤθߤ monitoring ѤȤ뤳ȤפȤݤεˤơfeedback 뤤 monitoring ȤɽƤ롥
In the case of speech, we are not dealing with a system of sound-production and sound-reception in which the 'transmitter' (the speaker) and the 'receiver' (the hearer) are completely separate mechanisms. Every normal speaker of a language is alternately a producer and a receiver. When he is speaking, he is not only producing sound; he is also 'monitoring' what he is saying and modulating his speech, unconsciously correlating his various articulatory movements with what he hears and making continual adjustments (like a thermostat, which controls the source of heat as a result of 'feedback' from the temperature readings). And when he is listening to someone else speaking, he is not merely a passive receiver of sounds emitted by the speaker: he is registering the sounds he hears (interpreting the acoustic 'signal') in the light of his own experience as a speaker, with a 'built-in' set of contextual cues and expectancies.
ѼԤĴŪȲŪȤƤФǤʤ첻λФˤϢưƤ롤Ȥ⤬ǾƤ롥Ϣơ#1656. γФΤγФΤ ([2013-11-08-1]) Ȥ줿
Lyons ϡȤƸ첻λФˤ monitoring κѤĴƤ뤬monitoring κѤϲʳ¾θˤƱͤ˸ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
It may be pointed out here that the principle of 'feedback' is not restricted to the production and reception of physical distinctions in the substance, or medium, in which language is manifest. It operates also in the determination of phonological and grammatical structure. Intrinsically ambiguous utterances will be interpreted in one way, rather than another, because certain expectancies have been established by the general context in which the utterance is made or by the previous discourse . . . . (111)
monitoring ȴϢƴ (established)ʸ̮ (context)塼 (cue) ȤɤФƤСˤ϶ (collocation) (frequency) ʤɤȤѸ줬ФƤƤ⤪ʤѲδϡUsage-Based Grammar #1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1]) Ǥߤ "clusters of bumpy change" ιͤȤطϡüԼΤǤϤʤİԼΤθѲ¿ʹ褦ˤʤäƤmonitoring ȤͤϡˤơüԡİԡפǤ뤳ȤǧƤ륭ɤȤ뤫⤷ʤϢơʹδͿ̣ѲˤĤơ#1873. Stern ˤ̣Ѳ7ʬ ([2014-06-13-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 1968.
Smith ѲѤɽ魯ΤȤơ#1466. Smith ˤѲ3ʳ3 ([2013-05-02-1]) ȡ#1928. Smith ˤ٥γإǥưŪǥ ([2014-08-07-1]) Ҳ𤷤ϵŪʸѲθǤꡤʹԺߤΰݤͿ뤫⤷ʤSmith θѲϷ褷ƸμҲŪ¦̡üԤİԤȸδطʤˤƤ櫓ǤϤʤSmith (49) ϡѲμȤƤ variation ¸ߡ variation ΤʤθġθȤ٤ϡѼԤǤ˼Ƥ monitoring ȤѤȿؤ꤬ȽҤ٤Ƥ롥
Human beings are social creatures, and not simply transmitters (speakers) or receivers (hearers); they are both. When humans speak, they are not only producing sounds and grammar and vocabulary; they are also monitoring what they and others say by listening, and evaluating the communicative efficiency of their speech for the purposes for which it is being used: communicative purposes which are not only to do with the conveying and receiving of information, but also to do with such matters as signalling the social circumstances of the interaction taking place. And what humans hear is constantly being monitored, that is, compared with their earlier experience as speakers and hearers. . . . / This principle of monitoring, or feedback as it is sometimes called (Lyons 1968: 111), is crucial to an understanding of language-change.
üԤϼʬȯդ뤫˾դʧäƤ뤷İԤȯդΤ˾ˤθɸŪηϤȤƤ롥üԤİԤ⡤ȯ줿դƻܤ餻Ƥꡤߤ˥åäƤ롥2ͤθηϤϲʸˡäκˤƼ㴳㤷Ƥߥ˥ȼǤξȹȤ椨ˡߤ礭æ뤳ȤϤʤ2ͤθηϤϾͭƤꡤξΤΤư뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ξԤȤ˰ưƤΤǤ롥줬Ѳˤˤ monitoring Ȥ
ͤθոΤʤѲ뤳ȤˤĤơ#866. üԤΰռ̻ŪʼϤ뤫 ([2011-09-10-1]) #1890. ФȤȤ˸ոѤ ([2014-06-30-1]) ǹͻƤmonitoring ȤͤϡˤƤƤĿͤƸѤʤǡüԤȤδ֤ monitoring ǽѤ monitoring η̤ȤơηϤξİưƤ⤷ʤˤΰư¥Ƥ⤷ʤ
monitoring ϡˤ뵬ϼȤ礤˴ط롥̾üԤİԤ monitoring λϡߤθѡ뤤Ϥ⤦餬°춦ƱΤˤ̤θѤ#1929. ؤΩ줫鵬ϼŪѤɤ٤ ([2014-08-08-1]) Ǽ褦ˡϼŪѤٸ춦ƱΤΤʤ˿ƩȡʸˡΤΤ monitoring λȤʤꤦ롥Ĥޤꡤʬ꤬εϤ餷Ƥ뤫ɤå礦Ȥ̾⤺ä©줷롥ϼŪѤȯãϡmonitoring ȤߤСmonitoring μ̤ŤǤȤ⤤뤫⤷ʤ
Smith, Jeremy J. An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change. London: Routledge, 1996.
¿ͤʸؼԡؼԡǷˤ֤ȤСɤιֵϳ˼Ȥꡤפ֤Ϥ褯ɤळȤǤ
Ԥϡߥ˥ΤȤ礤פȸƤǤꡤˤȤФ϶äۤɾȽҤ٤롥³ơ礤ˤƤ7ĤǤꡤͤϤ7ĤǤƱ˻ȤʬƤΤȼĥ롥7ĤǤȤϡʲ̤ (116)
(1) ֤ȤС
(2) ͤοΤ̤ǤΡֿʪħ
(3) ɽѲưޤΤư
(4) 礤ƤʪմĶȤƤΡ־
(5) ľŪܿˤΤ鿧Ѳʤɤ˸Ūȿ
(6) ߤεΥͤƤ륹ڡΤȤλ礤Ƥɽ뤿ˤ֤ʤɤΡֶ֤Ȼ֡
(7) ͤμҲϰ̤ΩȤäֿʪμҲŪطʡ
7ĤǤ塤ԤϡϡָߤϤäƤפΤǤꡤ֤ǤΰĤΩ礤ԤʤȤϤʤפΤȶĴ롥ơ줬ʤʤ狼äƤ館ʤΤò餹롥
פʤȤϡΡּĤǡפϤäƤȤȡΰǤФ礤뤳Ȥϡ褷ƤǤʤȤȤǤϡλ͡ǯ;錄³ƤȤʤΤǤߤʤ֤狼ʤȤ餷ȤФȤǤϤʤͤŪñǼƤΤǤůؤȤȤʤȡޤäȸäƤۤɴؿƤޤۤɡοͤӤȤƬϡ줬Ūʰ֤ƤǤ͡ (118)
ˤĤƹͤƤȤˡ#1259. Jakobson ˤ6ĤεǽפؤȽ ([2012-10-07-1]) ǰѤࡼʥεפФJakobson θ6ǽ礤7ǤȤϸߤʤۤʤΤľӤǤʤ夤ĤΰҤؤʬƤߤΤΡºݤˤϤ٤Ƥͻ¤ƤꡤʬԲǽʤΤǤϤʤȤȤä
(1) ήɤθؤǰоݤȤС(2) ʲǤϡǶˤʤäȯŸƤ (pragmatics) Ҳ (sociolinguistics)ѥ (paralinguistics) ʤɤΰ°뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ϡ䤬äꡤΤ褦ʡ˵ήפǤνĥƤΤȡʤ˵ŤʬϺ˵ήǤϤʤʤäƤƤ롥״˷ɰդɽ
Ƿؿ֤ȤСפβݳȡ١ҡ2012ǯ
른塦ࡼʥƣ θء١ҡ2001ǯ
ҥȤޤưʪΥߥ˥ʤˤ͡ʤΤ뤬ҥȤθκħϡCrystal (How 9--10) ˤ (1) reproductiveness, (2) double articulation, (3) displacement Ǥ롥ĤޤǸС(1) ϤɤʤȤǤɽǤ뼫ͳ٤ι⤵(2) ϡ#767. ʬ ([2011-06-03-1]) ħ(3) Ϻ˴ͿΰʳΤȡʺΤȤ䡤̤ξǵäƤ뤳ȡˤȤ뤳ȤǤ줾ɽ魯ȿꡤȡɽʤɤϳΤ˿ƱΤΥߥ˥ʤǤϤ뤬ɽ경ƤƼͳ٤㤯ʬΤ褦ʣʹ¤ŵŪˤϺˤ뤳Ȥˤʤ
ߥ˥ʤˤäƤϡ3ĤξƤ뤫ɤ٤ˤʤȤ¦̤⤢롥륳ߥ˥ʤΰ̣ǸȸƤФƤ٤ݤ̯ʥΤ㤨Сūˤ륳ߥ˥ƤƤ²ԥ͡ȥ륳䥫ʥꥢˤơϤäդ˴Ťūˤ륳ߥ˥ʤǧƤ롥Crystal (Encyclopedia 404) ˰ѤƤ褦ᥭ Oaxaca ² Mazateco ü2ͤδ֤Ǹ蘆줿ūˤäǤ롥
Eusebio Martinez ϾΩäƤϡΥ줿Ȥƻ⤤Ƥȥˤ˸ūǸƤӤԾˤǤäΥȥϡūǤۤʤ벻Dz٤ūθꡤ줬ȥȥϡƻ֤ Eusebio ξΤȤޤǾäƤơ⤷٤餺ˡʪEusebio ϥȥʪȡ椫餪äƤơʧơȥϵäƤäʾΤȤΤͤδ֤ˤϰդˤäϤʤʤäʤμޤڤΥߥ˥θūΤȤˤäƳΤ˹ԤʤƤΤǤ롥
ͤθūǤβäϡȤʤˤȯäΡ줴ȤβĴб4ʳβˤäɽ蘆ƤʸŪŪ˲äʸ̮ŪͤȤۤΤˤ褯ͭƤΤǡͤδ֤ǤβĴΡĴΧȤɬפĴбƸȯä뤳ȤϡۤɺǤϤʤΤȤʤȯäμ̤Ǥ뤫顤θūߥ˥⡤̩ʰ̣ǤθȤߤʤȤϰΤȤǽǤ롥ŪˤȤûʸפûѤ뵡⾯ʤˤΤѤȤȤ顤¤ʤŪʡָפȤߤƤ褤ΤˤϡCrystal (How 13) Τ褦ˡʤȤ "surrogate" ȸƤǤΤ褤⤷ʤ
Ϣơħ ##1063,1064,1065 εȡ
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
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