hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ    

context - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2022-02-18 Fri

#4680. Bybee ˤѲΡ֤ʤ [language_change][causation][how_and_why][multiple_causation][cognitive_linguistics][usage-based_model][context][analogy]

ѲͼԤǤ Bybee (9) ɸˤĤ礭ͿƤ롥

A very general answer is that the words and constructions of our language change as they cycle through our minds and bodies and are passed through usage from one speaker to another.


ѲΡ֤ʤפȤ֤ɤΤ褦ˡפؤ˶ᤤΤǤϤʤȹͤ뤬ˤ褳1ʸ Bybee θѲѤȤߤĤळȤǤ롥ǤСǧδפӻѴפθѲѤǤ롥
³ Bybee ϡѲˤ3Ĥηȼĥ롥Ѥˤꡤ3ιҤ򼨤

Because language is an activity that involves both cognitive access (recalling words and constructions from memory) and the motor routines of production (articulation), and because we use the same words and constructions many times over the course of a day, week, or year, these words and constructions are subject to the kinds of processes that repeated actions undergo. (9)


Another pervasive process in the human approach to the world is the formation of patterns from our experience and application of these patterns to new experiences or ideas. (10)


The other major factor in language change is the way words or patterns of language are used in context. Very often the meaning supplied by frequently occurring contexts can lead to change. Words and constructions that are used in certain contexts become associated with those contexts. (10)


1ĤǧΡưס2ĤϹ̣Ǥ (analogy)3ĤϻѴ (usage-based_model) ȸƤ褤

Bybee, Joan. Language Change. Cambridge: CUP, 2015.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2019-08-25 Sun

#3772. Wittgenstein Ρָ쥲 (2) [function_of_language][language-game][context][speech_act][pragmatics][semantics][terminology][philosophy_of_language]

ε ([2019-08-24-1]) Wittgenstein (Sprachspiel, language-game) ˿줿Bussmann (262) Ѹ켭ŵˤȼ̤ꡥ

language game
L. Wittgenstein's term referring to complex units of communication that consist of linguistic and non-linguistic activities (e.g. the giving of and complying with commands in the course of collaborating on the building of a house). Signs, words, and sentences as 'tools of language' have in and of themselves no meaning; rather meaning is derived only from the use of these items in particular contexts of language behavior.


¾ڼ (logical positivism) ž Wittgenstein ΡΤ褦 ƥȽŻθѤ̣Ѥϡů (ordinary language philosophy) 礭ʱƶͿȯù԰ (speech_act) ޤ᤿ (pragmatics) ȯŸˤ׸"the meaning of a word is its use in the language" Ȥ̣ΤȤ館ϡʤ꤬ΤΡ1ĤθȤߤʤƤ롥
̣ΰ̣˴Ϣơ#1782. ̣ΰ̣ ([2014-03-14-1])#1990. ͡ʼΰ̣ ([2014-10-08-1])#2199. Bloomfield ˤȤäƤΰ̣ΰ̣ ([2015-05-05-1])#2794. ְ̣ ([2016-12-20-1])#2795. ְ̣ؼоݡ ([2016-12-21-1]) ʤɤƤȤӤ줿

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-08-26-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2018-03-17 Sat

#3246. ¥ɤ̩ [sociolinguistics][terminology][context][style]

ɸϡߤǤҲؤˤƤޤ˽вѸ졦ǰǤ롥¥ (restricted code) (elaborated code) ϡΩ2Ĥθѷ֤ɽ魯¥ɤϡŪʤäñʸˡ¤Ѥʸ̮¸ι⤤ոǤ롥̩ɤϡ˭٤ʸä줿ʸˡ¤Ѥʸ̮¸㤤ոǤ롥üǤϤ뤬ҶѤ륤եޥäդȡͤѤեޥʽ񤭸դΩ򥤥᡼Ф褤
Ѹ줬ӤӤΤϡѸƳԤǤ륤ꥹμҲؼ Basil Bernstein ۤʤ볬λҶθո̤ΤˤѤǤ롥ήλҶξɤȤ뤬ϫƯԳλҶ¥ɤȤʤȤäơ줬Ƴθ콬ʤΤ뤤ΤΤʤΤȤ夬ꡤȯŸߤǤȤϴطʤȤƤΤΡѸΥѥȤ϶ޤʤߤǤ롥
Crystal Ѹ콸ꡤ"restricted" "elaborated" ߤƤ

restricted (adj.) A term used by British sociologist Basil Bernstein (1924--2000) to refer to one of two varieties (or codes) of language use, introduced as part of a general theory of the nature of social systems and social roles, the other being elaborated. Restricted code was thought to be used in relatively informal situations, stressing the speaker's membership of a group, was very reliant on context for its meaningfulness (e.g. there would be several shared expectations and assumptions between the speakers), and lacked stylistic range. Linguistically, it was highly predictable, with a relatively high proportion of such features as pronouns, tag questions, and use of gestures and intonation to convey meaning. Elaborated code, by contrast, was thought to lack these features. The correlation of restricted code with certain types of social-class background, and its role in educational settings (e.g. whether children used to this code will succeed in schools where elaborated code is the norm --- and what should be done in such cases), brought this theory considerable publicity and controversy, and the distinction has since been reinterpreted in various ways.


elaborated (adj.) A term used by the sociologist Basil Bernstein (1924--2000) to refer to one of two varieties (or codes) of language use, introduced as part of a general theory of the nature of social systems and social rules, the other being restricted. Elaborated code was said to be used in relatively formal, educated situations; not to be reliant for its meaningfulness on extralinguistic context (such as gestures or shared beliefs); and to permit speakers to be individually creative in their expression, and to use a range of linguistic alternatives. It was said to be characterized linguistically by a relatively high proportion of such features as subordinate clauses, adjectives, the pronoun I and passives. Restricted code, by contrast, was said to lack these features. The correlation of elaborated code with certain types of social-class background, and its role in educational settings (e.g. whether children used to a restricted code will succeed in schools where elaborated code is the norm --- and what should be done in such cases), brought this theory considerable publicity and controversy, and the distinction has since been reinterpreted in various ways.


Ѹ˾塤¥ɤ˴ϢƼ夲ϡ#3043. ѸμΨ ([2017-08-26-1]) Ǹ褦ʼΨξɤζ̤ǰƬˡ񤭸դȤǥȼˤƸƤƤߤȤ⤷⤷ʤ

Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2017-01-28 Sat

#2833. PC Ѽȳ [political_correctness][sociolinguistics][taboo][euphemism][context]

#2827. PC ˡ ([2017-01-22-1])#2832. PC ðۤ ([2017-01-27-1]) ˴Ϣơpolitical_correctness ȤҲؾαưˤĤơϡȾۤɤФ PC ֤ΤʤǤɤΤ褦Ѽ礷ƤHughes ˽äƹͤƤߤ
3ۤɻŦǤ褦˻פ롥1ĤϡPC ĤʳФƼҲ˼ƤƤȤǤ롥PC Ϥ륤ǥä⽸ĤѤϤ᤿줬⽸Ĥγؤ⹭äƤҲŪǧΤ褦ˤʤä㤨С"political correctness" ʤɤΥɤ켫ΤΤϤ뤳ȤˤʤäˡȽŪȿȤ櫓ѥǥʤɤηΩĤ褦ˤʤäƤˡȿŪȿȤơ "politically incorrect language" Ѥ "shock jocks" "rappers" Τ褦¸ߤ⸽ƤΤ褦ˡPC ϼƤγŪȿȤʳФʤĹƤ⤷ΤŪȿΩĤ褦ˤʤäȤϤPC 켫ΤϷ褷ƼƤʤȤHughes (283) ϡ"Although discredited and mocked, it refuses to go away but appears in new guises." ȽҤ١ "the paradox of political correctness" ȸƤǤ롥
2ܤˡPC ήԤ˾ˤĤ졤Сΰ褬ȻΤǤʤʤäƤȤȤ롥俦̾ʤɤ˻ϤޤäȤǤϳưʪθĶ˴ؤޤǡ PC Ȥ񤵤褦ˤʤäHughes (284) 󤲤Ƥ PC оݤȤʤʬΥꥹȤˤС"fatness, appearance, stupidity, diet, crime, prostitution, race, homosexuality, disability, animal rights, the environment, and still others" ޤޤƤ롥̤θ򤹤С٤ưΥ֡ (taboo) ΰ褬٤Ƴ礷ƤȤȤPC Ȥϡ1ĤθˤС֡ΰγäΤǤ롪
3ܤˡPC ξPC ѸΤỊ̇ŪŪ¦̤⡤ïïФơġɤΤ褦ʾǤѤ뤫ȤƥȤƤ褦ˤʤäƤHughes (286) ۩"political correctness has increasingly become less absolute and more contextual, that is to say the emphasis is increasingly less on what is said, but more on who said it and when." 㤨СͤͤؤΤŪѸȤΤȡͤؤΤƱѸȤΤȤǤϡθ̤Ϥޤäۤʤ롥Ѹ줽ΤΤǤϤʤŪ꤬ռ褦ˤʤäƤȤȤ
Τ褦ˡPC ȤϼҲȤȤĹƤǰǤ롥

Hughes, Geoffrey. Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. Malden, ML: Wiley Blackwell, 2010.

[ | ѥڡ ]

2016-12-19 Mon

#2793. ƥȤμ (2) [context][register][pragmatics][communication]

#2122. ƥȤμ ([2015-02-17-1]) ǰäˤĤƺƹͤ롥ˤƥ (context) ȰǤäƤ⡤ƤʬˡˤĤƤ͡Ω줬롥ϡCrystal (322--23) ͿƤ3ǤҲ𤷤褦

Setting: The time and place in which a communicative act occurs, such as in church, during a meeting, at a distance, or upon leave-taking.
Participants: The number of people who take part in an interaction, and the relationships between them, such as the addressee(s) and bystander(s).
Activity: The type of activity in which a participant is engaged, such as cross-examining, debating or having a conversation.


줾졤ư˴ؤ when/where, who, what ˤ褽ȹͤƤ褤3ǤȤ߹碌ˤ깭̣ǤΡʸ̮פޤꡤˤꡤüԤϸѤ˺ݤƲ餫¤ݤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ɤΤ褦ˤĤ¤뤫ȤС㤨м4ܤͤ롥

Channel: They influence the medium chosen for the communication (e.g. speaking, writing, signing, whistling, singing, drumming) and the way it is used.
Code: They influence the formal systems of communication shared by the participant, such as spoken English, written Russian, American Sign Language, or some combination of these.
Message form: They influence the structural patterns that identify the communication, both small-scale (the choice of specific sounds, words, or grammatical constructions) and large-scale (the choice of specific genres).
Subject matter: They influence the content of the communication, both what is said explicitly and what is implied.


礹ȡ㤨Хꥹȶⶵդ֤ŵŪʥƥȤϡΤ褦ʤΤȤʤ롥ⶵ (participant) ī˶ (setting) ǡ̤ν (participants) ˸äơѸȤ (code) Ȥä (channel) ǡⶵ (activity) Ԥʤκݡˤդ路ʸΤ乽 (message form) ǡŪ (subject matter) ˤĤƸդߤСΤ褦ʤ٤Ƥ׷郎蘆ȡˤⶵפȤƥȤǤȤ⤤롥
ʤ顤ƥȤϡѰ (register) 䥸 (genre) ȤԲʬǤʡ#839. register ([2011-08-14-1]) 򻲾ȡˡޤ깭Ω줫顤#1996. ٤˴ؤ8 SPEAKING ([2014-10-14-1]) #1326. 礤7Ĥǡ ([2012-12-13-1]) Ϣ

Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-20-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

2015-02-17 Tue

#2122. ƥȤμ [context][pragmatics][terminology][deixis][cooperative_principle][discourse_marker][demonstrative]

Ѥθˤơʹäȯȯäȼ̣Ūʰ̣ξˡƥ (context) ʤɤ򻲾ȤŪʰ̣ղäơΤȤƤΰ̣İȹͤƤ롥ƥȻȤΤۤˤⶨĴθ§󡤴ްդʤɼθŪ黻˰͵򤷤ựΤȤ館ƤΤꤵ뤬ǤϥƥȤŪʤäơμʬषƤ
쿹 (13--15) ˤСȯäȼƥ (context) 뤤Ͼ (situation) ˤ4Ĥ̤Ȥ

(1) ȯþ (utterance situation) 뤤ʪŪ (physical environment) ȯäԤƤ֡ꡥüԤưۤʤɤΥΥСХ롦ߥ˥㤨СȯäƤΤīդˤ Good morning. Good evening. ǰ夨ɬפȯäƤ˱ here there λؼоݤѰۤ롥ޤʪʤ I'll pour. ȸȤʪŪ餫ʤΤǡưŪά뤳ȤǽǤ롥
(2) þ (discourse situation) ä夹ȯäϢ³ΤǤꡤήΤʤ򤵤٤ब롥ȯä򻲾Ȥ̾Ƥꡤά줿䤦褦ʤȡޤɸ (discourse marker) ä򲿤餫δطǷƯ򤹤ǡþҴǤ롥
(3) ǧξ (cognitive environment) ˤĤƤäꡤʹξ󡤤ƤξΤɤʬߤδ֤ǶͭƤ뤫ȤäȤ˴ؤǧξס쿹p. 14ˡʤɤι٤ʸŪѤǤϡФʹˤɴʻŵŪμ˭٤˵롥㤨СäΤʤǰ츫ؼоݤΤʤ she Ѥ줿硤֤Ǻ򤵤äƤؤƤǽ롥
(4) ҲŪ (social environment) ƾθ (address term) ɸޤݥ饤ȥͥ (politeness) ɽϡäʹμҲŪʴط狼äƤʤС򤹤뤳ȤǤʤ

ȯäϤǰ̣Ū򤵤ƽäƤ櫓ǤϤʤ¿ͤ˭٤ʥƥȤϤ򻲾ȤƸŪˤϤƤ롥ˤ⼨θŪϤȤ櫓ľܤ˴ͿΤľ (deixis) ɽ;λؼ줬ŵ㤨 this ȤؼƤϡȯþþǧξΤ줫򻲾ȤʤǤʤѸ thou ϡȯþҲŪθˤǤʤ

쿹 ְ̣ΥƥȰ¸סظ١翮סԡˡˡīҽŹ2012ǯ13--32ǡ

Referrer (Inside): [2016-12-20-1] [2016-12-19-1]

[ | ѥڡ ]

Powered by WinChalow1.0rc4 based on chalow