Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)Ǥϡڡ⡦ڤϢ "3Ms" ޤơ䤫̲ñʤ뤪٤ꡩˤϤƤޤʤߤ "3Ms" Ȥϡ¤ءˡ߷वʿءˡ˨ҤʷرΩءˤΤΤȤǤ¤ϽؤʾءˤϿʬŪƱʤƤޤ
Ȥ櫓⡦ڤۿϡʹ١θȤ٤ Allan Bell ˤ audience_design ƳȤʤäƤꡤƱ˳ڤäƤȤǤޤ
(1) #1061. ʹ١θ --- ߷वȥǥǥƳޤ2024ǯ426ۿ
(2) #1062. 21Υǥǥ with 3Ms & Ͻؤ2024ǯ427ۿ
ƱˤĤƤϡ hellog Ǥ#1934. audience design ([2014-08-13-1]) ǾҲ𤷤Ƥޤ֤ΤۤإͥʵְʼδѸظإͥסˤǤ߷#84. Υǥǥ˸ؤˤƳ---˸ػ̰߲ƳƤޤ⤼ҤȤ
Bell, Allan. "Language Style as Audience Design." Language in Society 13 (1984): 145--204.
#5112. ͺˡرѸܿ --- ޤȴ˾ǯ١˼Ҥӡ2023ǯˡ ([2023-04-26-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ˡƣ¼αѸŪʸΡפȾФΩƤ줿롥ʸפγΩ˹ƣ¼ζŪʸΤˤĤơѸ饤ԥ졼ɽˤĤơΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (57)
ƣ¼ϺʤʸΤ¿˭ʤΤˤ뤿ˡѸɽռŪ˰ܿȤСزȡ١ʰ졻ˤǤϱѸ find oneself ˤֽɤäơޤϼʬͤ˸ФפȤäɽȤäƤ롥κʤ William Naff ϡʬ Returning to the inn, Otane found herself all alone again. Ƥ롥ƣ¼θʸϡΤޤޱʸľǤΤǤ롥
ܸˤϤʤ̵ʪ칽ʸפ¿ѤƤ롥ȤСؽա١ʰ塻ȬˤˤϡۤϴܤڤؤγϢƹԤäס˾ԻĤʷ迴ƳפȤäѸŪʸΤо줹롥
̵ʪλѤƣ¼ˤȤɤޤʤȤйϡ¢١ʰȬȬˤǡ֤ϩ̯ʤȤƳפʤɤɽȤäƤ롥ʸΤܸɽ˭ˤܿͤδ֤˿Ʃ롥¤ȡƣȤεʡֲסʰˤɾȽȤʤꡤ廰ǯˤϱDz貽ơإͥ٤ͥDz̤˵ȥ "What made her do it?" ǡѸľǤ
̵ʪ칽ʸϡߤܸǤѸ줫ľĴǤäݤϴΤΡѸ춵ΤѸڤΤޤΤƤǤɽȤϤʤäƤȤäƤ褤
Ѹ¦ϡDZѸŪȤƤ̵ʪ칽ʸϡϤƱѸǤŤ̤ɽäɤȤȤǤ롥δѸˤįƤȤϤʤäȽȤʤʤȤݤȤƤϸѸΤ褦ˤˤ˻ȤƤʤäΤǤϤʤˡֱѸŪפɽʤΤɤդĴ٤Ƥߤ
ͺرѸܿ --- ޤȴ˾ǯ١˼Ҥӡ2023ǯ
#4952. ˤҿ (prestige) Ȥϡ ([2022-11-17-1]) ȡ#4953. ˤ (stigma) Ȥϡ ([2022-11-18-1]) ǡˤҿ (prestige) ƳѲˤʤΤǤꡤѸˤͤǤ⸰Ȥʤ복ǰѸǤ롥
üԡʽġˤϡܤͿƤΰҿꡤռŪ뤤̵ռŪˡθưƤ롥Ĥޤꡤΰҿ˶ŤȤꡤΰҿΥ֤Ȥ뤳ȤǡμҲˤΩ֤ͭˤ褦ȹưƤΤǤ롥η̤ȤƸѲ륱롥Τ褦ˤѲϡüԤռŪ˸ưƤˤ change from above ȸƤФ졤̵ռξˤ change from below ȸƤФ롥ռΡ־夫פѲʤΤֲפѲʤΤȤȤǤ롥
־夫פѲϼҲؤξνĤȷӤĤħָ뤳ȤꡤȿФˡֲפѲϼҲؤβνĤθħָ뤳Ȥ롥ĤޤꡤռΡ־岼פȼҲؤΡ־岼פϢư뤳Ȥ¿Labov ˤäƳ줿ꥸʥ "change from above" "change from below" ϡޤüԤΰռξ夫ȤܤǰѸǤ뤳ȤĴƤ
Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵꡤ줾Ѥ롥
change from above In terminology introduced by William Labov, linguistic changes which take place in a community above the level of conscious awareness, that is, when speakers have some awareness that they are making these changes. Very often, changes from above are made as a result of the influence of prestigious dialects with which the community is in contact, and the consequent stigmatisation of local dialect features. Changes from above therefore typically occur in the first instance in more closely monitored styles, and thus lead to style stratification. It is important to realise, however, that 'above' in this context does not refer to social class or status. It is not necessarily the case that such changes take place 'from above' socially. Change from above as a process is opposed by Labov to change from below.
change from below In terminology introduced by William Labov, linguistic changes which take place in a community below the level of conscious awareness, that is, when speakers are not consciously aware, unlike with changes from above, that such changes are taking place. Changes from below usually begin in one particular social class group, and thus lead to class stratification. While this particular social class group is very often not the highest class group in a society, it should be noted that change from below does not means change 'from below' in any social sense.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ɸθ䤹Ѹ췲ˤĤơ[2018-08-29-1]ε˰³մ֤
εǤ⻲Ȥ¼ܸɸפˡ٤DzǫѸβͿƤ (14--15) פʬѤ褦
ĤθǤäƤ⡤դäդȤϰäȤ뤫顤ƹˤϤդɬפǤ롥Ǥפϡդˤϸʸʸʸ뤳ȤǤ롥䤳ȤäդΤȤǤ롥ʸȤʸΤνդΤȤǤ롥դˤϸƬ˶ᤤΤνդ⤢롥ʸȸäƤ롥ʬहȼΤ褦ˤʤ롥
äաʸ Ρʸʸ ա ʸΡʸʸ
θؽˤϡפʤȤǡָ졤ʸפȤդڤΩƻѤƤΤ뤬Τ褦ѸϸɬοʬȤꡤָפȡʸפȤľܤˤΩʤޤָʸפȤߤ褤ξָפΡäաפؤƤ褦¾Ρʸפ̤ؤƤΤʸʸΡˤؤƤΤʬʤʤ롥ָʸספȤ䤹ѸȤȤϡʾ夫ȻפäȤָʸספϼºݤˤϡֽոΡפ̵ȤǡָΡפϽФ뤳ȤȲᤵ뤫顤ΰ̣ѸȤäƤʤ̵
ޤʬ褦ˡäդ1˿Ԥ뤬դˤ2ब̤ȤȤΤΤ䤳ä뤿ΥĥܤǤ롥ϡդäդ˽° (medium) Ǥ뤳ȤǡפʥĥܤȤ褦
¼ ˡܸɸפˡ١̼ҡ2019ǯ
ѸʳΰϤۤȤʸˡŪäƤ뤬ѸˤϤ줬ʤűѸˤϤäΤѸʹߤ˴˾üƤޤääơѸˤʸˡŪ (grammatical gender) ϤʤΤϡ˼ääŪ (natural gender) ˤʤ
ŪʸˡŪξüˤꡤѸϸ콬ΥåȤȤ뤬ˤäư䥲ޥΥץȥפ礭æѤäפȤʤäȤޤ¤Ǥ롥Ѹ줬Ū˳ħˤĤơʸˡθȤ⤤ Robert Lowth (1710--87) ν A Short Introduction to English Grammar ˤơؤ⤷Ҥ٤Ƥ롥ä괶ƤޤäΤǡ٤ưѤƤ (27--28)
The English Language, with singular propriety, following nature alone, applies the distinction of Masculine and Feminine only to the names of Animals; all the rest are Neuter: except when, by a Poetical or Rhetorical fiction, things inanimate and Qualities are exhibited as Person, and consequently become either Male or Female. And this gives the English an advantage above most other languages in the Poetical and Rhetorical Style: for when Nouns naturally Neuter are converted into Masculine and Feminine [3], the Personification is more distinctly and forcibly marked.
ѸʸˡŪʤ椨ˡޤ˵Ū̾ͿȡεˡҤȤ⤭Ωġǽ餫餹٤Ƥ̾ʸˡŪƤƤ褦ʸǤϡΤȤδؤ꤬Ūơޤ˵ˡǸ̤ФȻפäƤ⡤⤭Ω뤳ȤϡΤ褦ʸΤʸءؾμߤȤäƤ褤
ˤϻŦޤǵդʤäܤڤ褦ʻŦޤ˵žȯۡ
Lowth (27--28) ϡ˰Ѥս [3] ȤͿƤꡤǶФʤ顤ΤȤǫƤ롥
[3] "At his command th'uprooted hills retir'd
Each to his place: they heard his voice and went
(18) Obsequious: Heaven his wonted face renew'd,
And with fresh flowrets hill and valley smil'd." Milton, P. L. B. vi.
"Was I deceiv'd or did a sable cloud
Turn forth her silver lining on the Night?" Milton, Comus.
"Of Law no less can be acknowledged, than that her seat is the bosom of God; her voice, the harmony of the world. All things in heaven and earth do her homage; the very least, as feeling her care; and the greatest, as not exempted from her power." Hooker, B. i. 16. "Go to your Natural Religion: lay before her Mahomet and his disciples, arrayed in armour and in blood:---shew her the cities which he set in flames; the countries which he ravaged:---when she has viewed him in this scene, carry her into his retirements; shew her the Prophet's chamber, his concubines and his wives:---when she is tired with this prospect, then shew her the Blessed Jesus---" See the whole passage in the conclusion of Bp. Sherlock's 9th Sermon, vol. i.
Of these beautiful passages we may observe, that as in the English if you put it and its instead of his, she, her, you confound and destroy the images, and reduce, what was before highly Poetical and Rhetorical, to mere prose and common discourse; so if you render them into another language, Greek, Latin, French, Italian, or German; in which Hill, Heave, Cloud, Law, Religion, are constantly Masculine, or Feminine, or Neuter, respectively; you make the images obscure and doubtful, and in proportion diminish their beauty. This excellent remark is Mr. Harris's , HERMES, p. 58.
嵭ϡΤ Lowth ̡ɤߤʤ鵤դݥȤʤΤϤȸʸˡȤΥȤΤϡȤˤޤФ椯ԤˤʸˡŪȼŪεˡʸꤲƤ줿
Lowth, Robert. A Short Introduction to English Grammar. 1762. New ed. 1769. ʱѸʸݹ亮13Ʋ1968ǯ9--113ǡ
worser, more larger, more better, most worst, most unkindest ʤɤ2ӵ (double_comparative) 2źǾ餬ѤƤȤϡѸˤǤϤ褯ΤƤ롥#195. Shakespeare ˴ؤ Web resources ([2009-11-08-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡShakespeare ˤѤƤꡤѸ˾1ĤΥͥǤ롥
٤Ϲ⤤ΤΡºݤλ٤ȤƤϡȤϤʤ餷Kytö and Romaine (337) ˤ Helsinki Corpus Ѥ¾ŪĴˤȡ2ӵΤ1%ˤ2źǾǤ2%ˤȤɤޤȤޤ1640ǯˤϰڵʤȤ Helsinki Corpus ⤽ۤɵʥѥǤϤʤΤӳǧɬפɤϰʾ٤⤤ȤȤΤ褦
Adamson (552--53) ϡShakespeare Jonson 夲ʤ顤2ӵ顦ǾϡλǤ顤ʸṲ̄äưտŪѤतɽäΤǤϤʤȴäƤ롥
It's notable that such forms [= double comparatives and superlatives] can be found in consciously grandiloquent discourse, as with the double comparative of (16a), and that Ben Jonson explicitly claims the usage as an 'Englishe Atticisme, or eloquent Phrase of speech', perorating, as if to prove his point, on the double superlative of (16b):
(16) a) The Kings of Mede and Lyconia
With a more larger list of sceptres (Shakespeare 1623/1606--7)
b) an Englishe Atticisme, or eloquent Phrase of speech, imitating the manner of the most ancientest, and finest Grecians, who, for more emphasis, and vehemencies sake used [so] to speake. (Jonson 1640)
θ塤ˡ17Ⱦ18ˤƤαѸɾȤ䵬ʸˡȤǺᤵ졤ܤ뤳ȤϤʤʤä (cf. #2999. ɸѸ줫꤬äͳ ([2017-07-13-1])#3036. Lowth ζؤˡˡ ([2017-08-19-1])#3220. ɻ˾αѸ쥢ǥߡɤ Dryden αѸ˾ɾ ([2018-02-19-1]))
Ȥϵդ줺˸ߤޤǻȤ³Ƥ lesser nearer ʤɤϡ¤Ūˤ2ӵȤ٤ΤǤ (cf. #209. near Ρ ([2009-11-22-1]))
Kytö, Merja and Suzanne Romaine. "Competing Forms of Adjective Comparison in Modern English." To Explain the Present: Studies in the Changing English Language in Honour of Matti Rissanen. Mémoires de la Société Néophilologique de Helsinki. 52. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Leena Kahlas-Tarkka. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 329--52.
Adamson, Sylvia. "Literary Language." 1476--1776. Vol. 3 of The Cambridge History of the English Language. Ed. Roger Lass. Cambridge: CUP, 1999. 539--653.
ϢˤƤ "aureate termes" ʤ뤤 aureate_dictionˤȴϢơOED aureate, adj. ιƤߤޤ1ȤƸ˶ᤤ "Golden, gold-coloured." Ȥ졤c1450ν㤬Ƥ롥³Ƹ2ˡƤʸءؤѤŪʸǺܤƤ롥
2. fig. Brilliant or splendid as gold, esp. in literary or rhetorical skill; spec. designating or characteristic of a highly ornamental literary style or diction (see quotes.).
1430 Lydgate tr. Hist. Troy Prol. And of my penne the traces to correcte Whiche barrayne is of aureat lycoure.
1508 W. Dunbar Goldyn Targe (Chepman & Myllar) in Poems (1998) I. 186 Your [Homer and Cicero's] aureate tongis both bene all to lyte For to compile that paradise complete.
1625 S. Purchas Pilgrimes ii. 1847 If I erre, I will beg indulgence of the Pope's aureat magnificence.
1819 T. Campbell Specimens Brit. Poets I. ii. 93 The prevailing fault of English diction, in the fifteenth century, is redundant ornament, and an affectation of anglicising Latin words. In this pedantry and use of 'aureate terms', the Scottish versifiers went even beyond their brethren of the south.
1908 G. G. Smith in Cambr. Hist. Eng. Lit. II. iv. 93 The chief effort was to transform the simpler word and phrase into 'aureate' mannerism, to 'illumine' the vernacular.
1919 J. C. Mendenhall Aureate Terms i. 7 Such long and supposedly elegant words have been dubbed ???aureate terms???, because..they represent a kind of verbal gilding of literary style. The phrase may be traced back..in the sense of long Latinical words of learned aspect, used to express a comparatively simple idea.
1936 C. S. Lewis Allegory of Love vi. 252 This peculiar brightness..is the final cause of the whole aureate style.
1819ǯ, 1908ǯɾŪʸϡareate terms ŪȤͥƥɾ롥ޤ1919ǯ Mendenhall ʸϡareate terms Τ⤦1Ĥɽ路Ƥ롥
٤Фʤ顤ñθ츻ϥƥ aureāus (decorated with gold) Ǥ롥ʤַ˴͡פɽ魯 poet laureate aureate ȵӱƧबɽ1429ǯ Lydgate ФǤʤ laureat poete ηǤϤ Chaucer ˸Ƥˡ
ε#3583. "halff chongyd Latyne" ȤƤ aureate terms ([2019-02-17-1]) ˰³Lydgate ȯŸ aureate terms ȤʸΤƱɾȤˤɤΤ褦˼ƤͤƤߤ̩ˤ Lydgate μλ°뤬Henry VII ˻Ťɻ Stephen Hawes (fl. 1502--21) The Pastime of Pleasure (1506ǯ˴1509ǯ˽ǡˤΤʤǡaureate terms ΤȤΤ褦Ƥ (Cap. xi, st. 2; ʲNichols 521fn ư)
So that Elocucyon doth ryght well claryfy
The dulcet speche from the language rude,
Tellynge the tale in termes eloquent:
The barbry tongue it doth ferre exclude,
Electynge words which are expedyent,
In Latin or in Englyshe, after the entente,
Encensyng out the aromatyke fume,
Our langage rude to exyle and consume.
Hawes ˤС "The dulcet speche" Ǥꡤ"the aromatyke fume" Ǥꡤ"the language rude" жˤˤΤäΤǤ롥
ϥƥѸФ16ƬɾǯƱθȾˤʤȡܳŪʥƥѸή --- Ϥ֥ƥ줫֤פȤۤɤǮ --- Ϥޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ʸλŪˤѸŪˤ⡤Chaucer ³1Ĥ礭ήǧʤ櫓ˤϤʤ
Ϣơ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1])#1463. euphuism ([2013-04-29-1]) ȡ
Nichols, Pierrepont H. "Lydgate's Influence on the Aureate Terms of the Scottish Chaucerians." PMLA 47 (1932): 516--22.
ɸ "aureate diction" ȤΤ롤15 Lydgate ʤɤȯŸƥñˡ¿ѤֶԤʡʸΤǤ롥θˡ John Lydgate (1370?--1450?) ιˤĤƤϡ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1])#2657. Ѹ˾ Lydgate ([2016-08-05-1]) Ǽ夲Ȥä "aureate terms" ȡФƱȿˤĤƸƤߤ
J. C. Mendenhall ϡAreate Terms: A Study in the Literary Diction of the Fifteenth Century (Thesis, U of Pennsylvania, 1919) Τʤǡ"those new words, chiefly Romance or Latinical in origin, continually sought under authority of criticism and the best writers, for a rich and expressive style in English, from about 1350 to about 1530" (12) Ƥ롥Mendenhall ϡChaucer οˡȤߤʤƤ뤬15 Chaucer ɿԡȤ櫓åȥɤ Robert Henryson William Dunbar ѤȯŸȤƤ롥
Nichols 餫ˤ褦ˡaureate terms θϫԤ Lydgate ȤäƤ褤⤽ aureat(e) ȤƻѸƳʪ Lydgate Ǥ뤷ηƻ켫Τ1Ĥ aureate term ʤΤǤ롥ˡMED aurēāt (adj.) ȡäȤˡƤ20㤹٤Ƥ Lydgate νʤƤ롥
θˡ Lydgate ȶӤĤƤȤϡƱλ John Metham ɾ狼롥Metham ϡ1448--49ǯ Romance of Amoryus and Cleopes ΥԥΤʤǡͤȤƤ Chaucer Lydgate Τ褦ɾƤʰʲNichols 520 ưѡˡ
(314)
And yff I the trwthe schuld here wryght,
As gret a style I schuld make in euery degre
As Chauncerys off qwene Eleyne, or Cresseyd, doth endyght;
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(316)
For thei that greyheryd be, affter folkys estymacion,
Nedys must be more cunne, be kendly nature,
Than he that late begynnyth, as be demonstration,
My mastyr Chauncerys, I mene, that long dyd endure
In practyk off rymyng;---qwerffore proffoundely
With many prouerbys hys bokys rymyd naturally.
(317)
Eke Ion Lydgate, sumtyme monke off Byry,
Hys bokys endyted with termys off retoryk
And halff chongyd Latyne, with conseytys fantastyk,
But eke hys qwyght her schewyd, and hys late werk,
How that hys contynwaunz made hym both a poyet and a clerk.
üŪˤСMetham Chaucer ϵӱλͤLydgate aureate terms λͤɾƤΤǤ롥ơѤνˤƤβս "termys off retoryk / And halff chongyd Latyne, with conseytys fantastyk" Ȥ뤬Ϥޤ areate terms ƱŪȤäƤ褤ˤƤ "halff chongyd Latyne" Ȥϸ̯Ǥ롥#3071. Pig Latin ([2017-09-23-1]) ۵ˤʤ
Nichols, Pierrepont H. "Lydgate's Influence on the Aureate Terms of the Scottish Chaucerians." PMLA 47 (1932): 516--22.
ѸŪӤȤդ˴ؤξϰճ礭ۤʤ롥ܸΤۤͰŪʴͿäȤħ롥ֽաפǤ뤫顤Ūˤäơäաפ٤аռŪǤꡤäƿͰŪʴͿߤΤʤΤθƤܸˤΤۤѸˤͿٹ礤Ȥ櫓ʹߡĤޤḽˤηǡ¤Ǥ롥ϡܸ˳ѡפǡ2˿Ƥ롥
θȾˤϡޤɮ٤롥¤ڤˤäʸȤȤ뤵줿ȤǤ롥θռˤ֤ȤФʸפȤ⤤٤θʸפδϡάܸˤˤƺǤͥ줿פȤ褦ˤäƿʸɽ뤳ȤȤʤä(14)
2ʹߡܤ礭ƤŪװˤäƼҲŪѳפԤǤ롥ˤäܸ礭ѲޤǹԤƤŪ̾岾̾ؤѹ줿ΤǤ롥ϤιǤ롥ܸ˾塤ϤιŪװˤäƤʤ줿ȤΰյϤ礭Ȥ虜ʤפȤ礭ϤäʤСϼưʤΤǤ롥Ūʶ˴Ťꤵ줿δθ岾̾λܹԤϡܸ˾夭礭ʽȤܤ (14--15)
ѸˤˤơΤ褦ʸΤ䥹ڥιû֤ȤϡΥޥˤ뵬ŪդδȤŪʷСۤȤɤʤȤäƤ褤դˤơּΤѲפȤΤϸ̩ˤ̷⤷ǤϤ뤬ܸˤ٤бѸˤǤѲϡּΡפäȤϤײȤǰѸϡƱѸˤܸˤΤۤˤդ路
ˡ1ϡܸ˳ѡ ԡˡ˸ءīоȸإȯŸԡ3īҽŹ2018ǯ1--21ǡ
ɸϡճȺ䤹Ѹ췲Ǥ롥Ǥˡ¼˴Ťơ#3314. Ѹˤˤָʸױưס ([2018-05-24-1]) Ǥ夲Ƥ
ޤäաפȡֽաפΩˤĤơˤĤƤ¿פʤȤФɽ魯ʡʤ (medium) ΰ㤤ܤƤѸǤꡤѤƸƬǤʤΤäաפǤꡤʸѤƽǤʤΤֽաפǤ롥줾Τͭλ𤬤ꡤˤĤƤϡʲγƵǰäƤ
#230. äȤФȽȤФΩŪ ([2009-12-13-1])
#748. äդȽա ([2011-05-15-1])
#849. äդȽ (2) ([2011-08-24-1])
#1001. äȤФȽȤ (3) ([2012-01-23-1])
#1665. äȤФȽȤ (4) ([2013-11-17-1])
#1829. եƥȤ3Ĥεǽ ([2014-04-30-1])
#2301. äդȽդĤʤڥȥ ([2015-08-15-1])
#3274. äդȽ (5) ([2018-04-14-1])
䤹ΤϡָΡפȡʸΡפΩǤ롥줾Ρפάơָסʸפȸ뤳Ȥ¿ޤμȤʤꤦ롥ָסäաפȤˡʤǤϤʤŪˤϡָΡˡפʸΡˡפդ°복ǰǤ롥դˤƺѤ2ĤΰۤʤʸΤΤ褤ָΡˡפϡָŪʸΤνաסʸΡˡפϡʸŪʸΤνաפȤȤǤ롥
ǤϡָŪʸΤνաסʸŪʸΤνաפȤϲԤϡʸˡøäʤδؤˤĤơŪäդѤƤΤ˴Ťƽ줿դǤʴؤˤĤƤϡ#3312. ˤؤɽء ([2018-05-22-1]) ȡˡ䤿ϸߡŪ˸ܸʸˡøä˴ŤäƤ롥Ʊʸˡøä˴ŤܸɽСϡָŪʸΤνաפȤʤ롥ΤȤʤäաפȤʤ˶ᤤΤˤϤʤ뤬ƱΤǤϤʤäաפȡֽաפϺŪۤʤΤǤꡤƱؤ˾äƤȤϤƱνϤȤϤʤʤä褦˽פֽ褦äפʤɤȤϤޤŪʸǤꡤξԤδ֤ˤϤʤΥåפΤǤ롥
ʸŪʸΤνաפȤϡʸˡøäʤɤδؤȤơ߾ѤƤΤǤϤʤĤƾѤƤǤȤҿΤ¾ǤȤΤѤƽ줿ΤǤ롥ܸνϡʹߡ˻ޤǡʿ»ܸδؤ˴ŤʸϤƤ줬ʸŪʸΤνաפǤ롥νǤϡ¿ϡҿ롤ǤƥʸϤ줬ǤȤΡʸŪʸΤνաפǤ롥
ʾޤȤмΤ褦ˤʤ롥
(1) ä ա (3) Ρ (2) ա (4) ʸΡ
դϡΤδ礭äաפȡֽաפʬ롥դϤˡեޥƥδָΡפȡʸΡפʬ롥¼ (5) Ȥƿȼ̤ꡥ
ä
ա
ա
ʸ
ɸϡߤǤҲؤˤƤޤ˽вѸ졦ǰǤ롥¥ (restricted code) (elaborated code) ϡΩ2Ĥθѷ֤ɽ魯¥ɤϡŪʤäñʸˡ¤Ѥʸ̮¸ι⤤ոǤ롥̩ɤϡ˭٤ʸä줿ʸˡ¤Ѥʸ̮¸㤤ոǤ롥üǤϤ뤬ҶѤ륤եޥäդȡͤѤեޥʽդΩФ褤
Ѹ줬ӤӤΤϡѸƳԤǤ륤ꥹμҲؼ Basil Bernstein ۤʤ볬λҶθո̤ΤˤѤǤ롥ήλҶξɤȤ뤬ϫƯԳλҶ¥ɤȤʤȤäơ줬Ƴθ콬ʤΤ뤤ΤΤʤΤȤ夬ꡤȯŸߤǤȤϴطʤȤƤΤΡѸΥѥȤ϶ޤʤߤǤ롥
Crystal Ѹ콸ꡤ"restricted" "elaborated" ߤƤ
restricted (adj.) A term used by British sociologist Basil Bernstein (1924--2000) to refer to one of two varieties (or codes) of language use, introduced as part of a general theory of the nature of social systems and social roles, the other being elaborated. Restricted code was thought to be used in relatively informal situations, stressing the speaker's membership of a group, was very reliant on context for its meaningfulness (e.g. there would be several shared expectations and assumptions between the speakers), and lacked stylistic range. Linguistically, it was highly predictable, with a relatively high proportion of such features as pronouns, tag questions, and use of gestures and intonation to convey meaning. Elaborated code, by contrast, was thought to lack these features. The correlation of restricted code with certain types of social-class background, and its role in educational settings (e.g. whether children used to this code will succeed in schools where elaborated code is the norm --- and what should be done in such cases), brought this theory considerable publicity and controversy, and the distinction has since been reinterpreted in various ways.
elaborated (adj.) A term used by the sociologist Basil Bernstein (1924--2000) to refer to one of two varieties (or codes) of language use, introduced as part of a general theory of the nature of social systems and social rules, the other being restricted. Elaborated code was said to be used in relatively formal, educated situations; not to be reliant for its meaningfulness on extralinguistic context (such as gestures or shared beliefs); and to permit speakers to be individually creative in their expression, and to use a range of linguistic alternatives. It was said to be characterized linguistically by a relatively high proportion of such features as subordinate clauses, adjectives, the pronoun I and passives. Restricted code, by contrast, was said to lack these features. The correlation of elaborated code with certain types of social-class background, and its role in educational settings (e.g. whether children used to a restricted code will succeed in schools where elaborated code is the norm --- and what should be done in such cases), brought this theory considerable publicity and controversy, and the distinction has since been reinterpreted in various ways.
Ѹ˾塤¥ɤ˴ϢƼ夲ϡ#3043. ѸμΨ ([2017-08-26-1]) Ǹ褦ʼΨξɤζ̤ǰƬˡդȤǥȼˤƸƤƤߤȤ⤷⤷ʤ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ҥȥ顼ŷͤäȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ǥڥμˤȯˡλƳޤǼƤȤ顤˱ŪͤƼäƤȤ狼롥ҥȥ顼αȤȤƤΥꥢγʳˤĤơŪӥѥŪʬϤˡإҥȥ顼٤롥ŪʬϤ˴ؤƤϡҥȥ顼150줫ʤ뼫ѥѤĴܤȤʤäƤꡤƻˤĤƶ̣ʬϷ̤Ƥ롥
Ȥ櫓䤬ؿäΤϡʥȾħŪ˸̾ Ausdruck ɽˡBekenntnis ʸˡVerständnis ˤȴϢ̾칽ʸ¿Ѥ˴ؤʬϤǤʹġp. 161--62ˡư줫̾Ǥꡤ̾ŪʸΡ̾칽ʸˡפ˹ƤȤ̾칽ʸȤϡ֤٤줿ȡפ֤ζٱפ̾濴ȤɽΤǡѸǤ (the fact) that the train was terribly delayed the terrible delay of the train ΰ㤤Ǥ롥
פĤȤ̾칽ʸħС(1) ̩٤ǻʤ뤤ϥѥȡˡ(2) Ūǽդ餷ʤդ롤(3) β (hypostasis) κѤˤ̣Ƥ¤Ȥ䤹ȤȤʡ#1300. hypostasis ([2012-11-17-1]) ⻲ȡˡϡɥĸ졤Ѹ졤ܸʤɤˤⶦ̤ħȻפ롥
̾칽ʸˤƤϡбư칽ʸǤϤƤ;Ρꡤ֡ˡʤɤʸˡƤɸʤȤ¿ʬ̤ʤȤȤϡ٤˥奢ξݤ줿ۣΤޤޤ֤ȤȤȤƤϹ̩٤ǥѥȡijʼĥäͭΤǡƤȷδ֤ʥåפޤ롥ϤäꤷƤȤۣ桤ȤĤ߽ΤʤץȲѼԤϡְѡפ뤳ȤǤȤ櫓Ȥͤ̾칽ʸȥåȤƹǻȤʤǤ롥
ĤʬϤˤСҥȥ顼ξˤϡ֤Τ褦ʷȤФ餷ϡʥȾˤƤޤޤʹŪԻˤʰݤͿ뤿ΤΤǤä (161--63) Ȥ
ԡإҥȥ顼١ҡӡ2014ǯ
[2016-10-29-1]ε˰³ɸಽ (standardisation) βǧ4ʳˤĤơHaugen Ȥ롥ɸಽϡ (1) Selection, (2) Codification, (3) Elaboration, (4) Acceptance νǿʹԤȤ뤬4ĤβȽϡҲȸ졤ӷȵǽȤ2Ĥμ뤳ȤǤ (ޤ Haugen 933 Ȥ˺ˡ
| Form | Function | ||
| Society | (1) Selection | (4) Acceptance | |
| Language | (2) Codification | (3) Elaboration |
ʸػŪˤϡJohn Lydgate (c1370--1449) Chaucer ɿԤˤȤǤϸ꤬Τɾ뤳Ȥ¿ʡ#2503. Ѹʸء ([2016-03-04-1]) ȡˡ15ɤεΥѥȥȤŪʻͤȤ졤Ĺϡ֤ƤĶˤäơȤϽ줿Ȥ⤤ΤǤ롥ʸŪˤϡ#292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡƥФˡλȤȤƤΤƤ롥
Pearsall ϡ"Lydgate as Innovator" ȤճΤȤͤ路Lydgate αʸػ˾κɾߤƤ롥ȤƤϡLydgate Chaucer ߽Фκο路Ĵ礹뤳Ȥˤäơ줬ȤƼѤƤäۤȤȤǤ롥Pearsall μĥĤȴФ
. . . Lydgate's career, poem by poem, was a determined effort not just to emulate Chaucer but to surpass him in each of the major poetic genres he had attempted. (7)
. . . Lydgate's ambitious attempt to build an English poetic tradition by "fortifying" (in Dryden's sense) preliminary structures thrown up by Chaucer . . . . (7)
. . . Lydgate did on a large scale what Chaucer had first hinted at on a small scale and in so doing introduced change by sheer reiteration. (8)
. . . Lydgate found himself extending the outbuildings of the mansion of English poetry that Chaucer had established. All he knew was how to lay one line beside another, but somehow, accidentally, he invented the English poetic tradition. (22)
ǤϡLydgate αѸ˾˲̤ϲPearsall ˤȡLydgate ϡѸ줬ƥե渪ʸظȤƵǽ뤳Ȥ Chaucer ϩŪˤ˳ĥȤ̤ΤȤȤ櫓ƳˡLydgate 礭褦Pearsall (8--9) ۩"Someone . . . had to do the work of introducing the many new words that English needed to cope with the vast new range of responsibilities it was taking over from Latin and French, and in an extraordinarily large number of cases it was Lydgate."
OED ˤȡLydgate ȤʤäƤñϾʤʤ㤨 abuse (vb.), adjacent, capacity, circumspect, combine (vb.), credulity, delude, depend, disappear, equivalent, excel ʤɤñ줬ޤޤ롥Lydgate ϤññƳǤϤʤ֤Ѥ˹Ȥ⸫ƨƤϤʤʤƱͤˡLydgate ȤƳԤǤϤʤȤ⡤㤨 Chaucer ƳΤ1٤Ѥʤä褦ñ֤͡ܤ˿褦ˤӤDzǤʤMED ˤĴǤϡcasual, circular, continuation, credible, dishonest, examination, existence, femininity, finally, foundation, ignorant, influence, intelligence, introduction, modify, onward, opposition, perverse, refuge, remorse, rigour, seriously ʤɤΤ褦ñȤƵ롥դˤСλ䤿 Chaucer θ˲餫οƤߤȤС Lydgate ֤äƷӤĤƤƤ뤫ȤΤǤ (Pearsall 9)
ҤȤ Lydgate αѸ˾СˡƳ뤳ȤǡָҤѸѼȤϤΤȤפȸŪHenry V ɮƬȤ¦Ϥ路 Lollard ʤɤѤ¾ѼȤκ̲ޤäȤȤ¦ΡѼηǤ롥Pearsall (20) ϡLydgate aureate diction Τ褦˰֤ŤƤ롥
[T]he writing that [Henry V] encouraged, and the writing that Lydgate did . . . in the aureate and Latinate style, demonstrates, one may assume, a policy of reasserting a kind of English as remote as possible from the vernacular promulgated in Lollard writings and biblical translation. English had replaced French as the literary language of England and was increasingly taking over roles traditionally reserved for Latin, but there were kinds of English more appropriate than the language of the people to the preservation of the clerical monopoly and its state sponsors. "Aureation" in Lydgate may be seen in this light as a political choice as well as a stylistic one.
ϢơLydgate ʸؼԤˤĤơ#298. Chaucer Ѹ˾˲̤Ȥϡ (2) ([2010-02-19-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Pearsall, Derek. "Lydgate as Innovator." Modern Language Quarterly 53 (1992): 5--22.
ʸػˡʸˤǤϡ17꤫18 Augustan Period ˤơäˤȾϡǤʸΤޤ줿Ȥ롥18Ⱦ顤̣ʸΤ˰ꤺɼ깥ߤʸΤĩ魯ʸɮȤƤƥβ̥ϤѤ줺ɼꤵ꤬줿ΤοˤΤäʸ1ͤ Samuels Johnson Ǥ롥ळ18ȾФβߤνɽԤȤʤäȤȤ顤ʸΤĬήѲ "Johnson's Latinate Revival" Ȥ⤤롥

18ʸΤѤѲäȤϡ餫Ǥ롥Knowles (137) ˤС
The typical prose style of the period following the Restoration of the monarchy . . . was essentially unadorned. This plainness of style was a reaction to the taste of the preceding period. Early in the eighteenth century taste began to change again, and there are suggestions that ordinary language is not really sufficient for high literature. Addison in the Spectator (no. 285) argues: 'many an elegant phrase becomes improper for a poet or an orator, when it has been debased by common use.' By the middle of the century, Lord Chesterfield argues for a style raised from the ordinary; in a letter to his son he writes: 'Style is the dress of thoughts, and let them be ever so just, if your style is homely, coarse, and vulgar, they will appear to as much disadvantage, and be as ill-received as your person, though ever so well proportioned, would, if dressed in rags, dirt and tatters.' At this time, Johnson's dictionary appeared, followed by Lowth's grammar and Sheridan's lectures on elocution. By the 1760s, at the beginning of the reign of George III, the elevated style was back in fashion.
The new style is associated among others with Samuel Johnson. Johnson echoes Addison and Chesterfield: 'Language is the dress of thought . . . and the most splendid ideas drop their magnificence, if they are conveyed by words used commonly upon low and trivial occasions, debased by vulgar mouths, and contaminated by inelegant applications' . . . . This gives rise to the belief that the language of important texts must be elevated above normal language use. Whereas in the medieval period Latin was used as the language of record, in the late eighteenth century Latinate English was used for much the same purpose.
ǽҤ٤Ƥ褦ˡAugustan Period ȾϼҲݼŪǤꡤ;ȤϸŪˤ餫Ǥ롥㤨СOED Ǥ¾λ٤ƿ줬ޤ긽Ƥʤcf. #1226. Ѹˤäǯʬۡ ([2012-09-04-1])#203. 1500--1900ǯˤѸäá ([2009-11-16-1])ˡAugustan periods θȾ18Ⱦˤ夫ȿưǡJohnson ɽʸˡήԤȤʤ˻롥2 "aureate diction" (cf. #292. aureate diction ([2010-02-13-1])) äΤƱͤˡ⤦1ƱήԤϤӤäΤǤ롥
ʸΤüѤ˴ؤ¤ꡤѸˤˤƤη֤ϲ٤ȤʤäƤ롥ϡ㤨ܤˤŻ뤹뷹ΥХХʤɤȻ褦ʻǤʤʤ
Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.
ҲؤǤ variety ѼˤȤѸ褯Ѥ뤬Ȥ˻褦ʻȤ lect ȤѸʹ롥 dialect sociolect lect ФΤѸλȤʬΤ˻פTrudgill Ѹ콸äƤߤ줾ιܤѤ롥
variety A neutral term used to refer to any kind of language --- a dialect, accent, sociolect, style or register --- that a linguist happens to want to discuss as a separate entity for some particular purpose. Such a variety can be very general, such as 'American English', or very specific, such as 'the lower working-class dialect of the Lower East Side of New York City'. See also lect
lect Another term for variety or 'kind of language' which is neutral with respect to whether the variety is a sociolect or a (geographical) dialect. The term was coined by the American linguist Charles-James Bailey who, as part of his work in variation theory, has been particularly interested in the arrangement of lects in implicational tables, and the diffusion of linguistic changes from one linguistic environment to another and one lect to another. He has also been particularly concerned to define lects in terms of their linguistic characteristics rather than their geographical or social origins.
ƤꡤξȤ "a kind of language" ۤɤǤۤƱΤ褦variety ΤۤŪѤȤϤäƤ褤lect ϸѲˤƤब lect A lect B ؤʬۤƤʤɤݤ˻Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿褦Ĥޤꡤlect ϸóȻ (lexical_diffusion) 褤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ʤ lect ιǻȤƤ Charles-James Bailey ϡ#1906. ѲΥ塼ϸŪĶȤ˰ۤʤ뤫 ([2014-07-16-1]) ǰѤ褦ˡΤ˸óȻѲΥ塼 (schedule_of_language_change) ˤĤŪ˰äƤҲؼԤǤ롥
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Ѹθäʬ줫μѸ줫äƤ뤳ȡĤޤŪ (cosmopolitan) Ǥ뤳ȤϡĤȤ˻ŦƤ顤ѸϸŪˤϤϤѸȤϤʤ뤳Ȥ⽽ʬ˲ǽǤ褦˻פ롥ѸϡϤѸäʤǤϽʬ˵ǽʤΤǤϤʤȡ
Algeo and Pyles (293--94) ϡѸˤüѤŬڤڤǡʤ "English remains English" 뤳Ȥȼ˼ĥƤ롥Ḷ́ʸϤʤΤǤΤޤްѤ롥
Enough has been written to indicate the cosmopolitanism of the present English vocabulary. Yet English remains English in every essential respect: the words that all of us use over and over again, the grammatical structures in which we couch our observations upon practically everything under the sun remain as distinctively English as they were in the days of Alfred the Great. What has been acquired from other languages has not always been particularly worth gaining: no one could prove by any set of objective standards that army is a "better" word than dright or here., which it displaced, or that advice is any better than the similarly displaced rede, or that to contend is any better than to flite. Those who think that manual is a better, or more beautiful, or more intellectual word than English handbook are, of course, entitled to their opinion. But such esthetic preferences are purely matters of style and have nothing to do with the subtle patternings that make one language different from another. The words we choose are nonetheless of tremendous interest in themselves, and they throw a good deal of light upon our cultural history.
But with all its manifold new words from other tongues, English could never have become anything but English. And as such it has sent out to the world, among many other things, some of the best books the world has ever known. It is not unlikely, in the light of writings by English speakers in earlier times, that this could have been so even if we had never taken any words from outside the word hoard that has come down to us from those times. It is true that what we have borrowed has brought greater wealth to our word stock, but the true Englishness of our mother tongue has in no way been lessened by such loans, as those who speak and write it lovingly will always keep in mind.
It is highly unlikely that many readers will have noted that the preceding paragraph contains not a single word of foreign origin. It was perhaps not worth the slight effort involved to write it so; it does show, however, that English would not be quite so impoverished as some commentators suppose it would be without its many accretions from other languages.
ѸƱ̤ͤμѸ줫ʤܸθäˤĤƤ⡤ۤƱȤΤǤϤʤ䥫ʸ줬դƤƤ⡤ܸϤ椨ܸƤ櫓ǤϤʤܸǤ뤳ȤϷ褷ƤƤʤΤȡ
ߡܤǤ¸դäȤ֡Ǥ롥ϡ1Ĥˤܤ餷ȯ褦ȤĬήθŪʸȤäƤ褤ˤϡöŪˤ륫ʸؤȿȯѶŪˤХʸȤƤ¸κɾȤ̣礤ޤޤƤޤߥ˥δҲˤơդ礤߳˿ʤȤ¸줫ʤɽɾäƤƤȤ⤤롥ˤ衤ܸˤóؤäʸŪŪʻ롤ޤȤʤȤʤäƤ롥εȤ館ܸΤߤʤ餺ѸθäˤĤƲȤ⤷ΤǤ롥
Ϣơʲε⻲Ȥ줿
#153. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset ([2009-09-27-1])
#334. Ѹäλع¤ ([2010-03-27-1])
#335. ܸäλع¤ ([2010-03-28-1])
#1296. ع¤ɲá ([2012-11-13-1])
#1960. ѸäΥԥߥåɹ¤ ([2014-09-08-1])
#2072. Ѹäλع¤ ([2014-12-29-1])
#756. μѸ ([2011-05-23-1])
#390. Cosmopolitan Vocabulary Asset (2) ([2010-05-22-1])
#2359. Ѹ줬̱ŪʸȸƤФͳ (3) ([2015-10-12-1])
Algeo, John, and Thomas Pyles. The Origins and Development of the English Language. 5th ed. Thomson Wadsworth, 2005.
ťΥɸȥե줬ѸͿƤƶϡѸˤǤϤФоȤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#111. ѸˤˤťΥɸȸťեαƶӤ ([2009-08-16-1]) #126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1]) Ǥ夲ƤεǤ⼨褦ˡξαƶ͡оŪǤ롥ɤδߤ뤫ܰܤꤹۤɤDenison and Hogg (15) ϡȤ櫓ҲŪʴ顤ξαƶ˴ؤפΩ夲Ƥ롥ˤȡťΥɸ줬ϰδްդĤΤФե줬ʸ (style) Ѱ (register) δްդĤȤǤ롥
. . . Scandinavian influence was originally predominant in the Danelaw. . . . [E]ventually many Scandinavian elements entered southern dialects as well, but this is a two-stage process. There is the original contact between the two language which brought Scandinavian features into the English of the Danelaw. Then, later, there is spread within English by means of interdialectal contact. Contact between French and English, on the other hand, shows a much lesser geographical variation. The key here is register. That is to say, the variables which affect English in respect of French are far more to do with a contrast between types of social language than geography. Thus, if a text is concerned with, say, religion or science, or it is a formal piece, then it is probably that it will contain a higher proportion of French loanwords than a text which is purely secular or colloquial, whichever part of the country the text comes from. In this respect we should also note that Scandinavian loans are more likely to be colloquial (or everyday).
СťΥɸαƶʤȤΡ1ʳפˤƤϰʿʿѼˤκۤ⤿餷ΤФեαƶϡȤʸΤѰʿľѼˤκ߽ۤФȤȤǤ롥ϡξαƶ˴ؤ͡Ω⤤Ȥơ̯Ǥ롥
Denison, David and Richard Hogg. "Overview." Chapter 1 of A History of the English Language. Ed. Richard Hogg and David Denison. Cambridge: CUP, 2006. 1--42.
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