¤ءˤˡƱؤdz֤ƤҲμȤˤޤ꤬Ȥޤ˼ֳγʤɤνǡ֤ܥΥå (senbonknock) Ԥޤꤵ2ͤǤΥ饤Τ褦ܥΥåȤʤޤ䤬ӽФ80ʬۤɤΥƥʥåȤʤޤ
μȤΰϽ Voicy heldio ǼϿޤΤȾȸȾʬơۿޤʲ˳Ƽ䤪бץʬäޤ
Ⱦ48ʬ #1284. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥå at --- Part 1
(1) Chapter 2, 03:55 --- ȯΥȤʤΤǤĤϤޤʸˤ륢Ȥ¸߰յϡ
(2) Chapter 3, 04:58 --- ʤܸˤϡֻס͡סֲפʤ1;Τ¿θΤǤ
(3) Chapter 4, 00:03 --- ܸˤ褦ϱѸˤ¸ߤΤǤʡּפء
(4) Chapter 4, 04:40 --- ʤ you ˤϡ֤ʤפȡ֤ʤפξΰ̣ΤǤ
(5) Chapter 5, 02:57 --- ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤǤ
(6) Chapter 5, 01:26 --- 㤦²ʤΤ˻ƤϤޤʸζ̡θοء
ڸȾ35ʬ #1287. ؤܥΥå with (2)
(7) Chapter 2, 00:05 --- ǽ2Ĥθʹ֤ïǤ
(8) Chapter 2, 02:57 --- ζ̸뤳Ȥϼ¸ǽǤ
(9) Chapter 3, 03:35 --- ǽ˱Ѹ줬ܤäƤȤɤΤ褦ǤΤǤ
(10) Chapter 3, 02:51 --- ѸΤ褦ʤΤ¾ˤ⤢ΤǤ
(11) Chapter 4, 00:46 --- ܸΥХȷɸΤ褦ʤΤϱѸˤ⤢ޤ
(12) Chapter 5, 00:00 --- ʤѸˤ say, speak, tell ʤɡָפ̣ñ줬¿ΤǤ
ȤȤ⡤ꤵȤ heldio ۿ٥ȤȤʤޤ꤬Ȥޤ
dialect ȤѸˤĤơī Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פǼ夲#740. dialect פθ츻İ
ѸᤰäƤ hellog Ǥ#2752. dialect ȤѸˤĤơ ([2016-11-08-1]) #2753. dialect Ф language ȤѸˤĤơ ([2016-11-09-1]) ǹͤƤ
Ѹˤδ餪⤷Τϡ1Ĥθ͡ʸǤפγǰΤΤΤ褦ΤƤΤΡб dialect ȤѸϡ16ȾФˤʤäƤ褦䤯졤⤽줬ʵŪˤϥꥷ̤뤬˥ե졦ƥ줫μѸǤȤ¸ΤΤȻפŪʳǰФơŪijäѸݤ dialect Ƥ줿ȤΤ̣
16ȾФȤСѹͥΤޤäʤǤ롥դˤĤƤ⡤ƥ䥮ꥷʤɤθŵϤȤƶĤƤǤ롥ƱȾˤơռޤꡤʥ顼ǤѸŵιߤؾǤŤȤפƤѸɸಽ (standardisation) ϺǤ롥
ҿ (prestige) ΤѸɸ߽ФȤˤƤϡŪ˿ΰҿΤʤɸŪʱѸФƽ (stigma) Υåƥ뤬դ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ƥ䤬ơְΤɸפȡܤפȤΩŪʹޤƤ롥
¤ϤιΤϡ߿äְΤƥ졦ꥷСܤʥ顼פǤ롥ȤѸեʤɤγƥʥ顼Ȥƻ夲졤ɸ줬Ƥ˵ڤӡΩޤϡְΤɸСܤפؤȥ饤ɤΤǤ롥ǡΩޤθϤΤޤޤǤ뤳ȤդơΩθԡܤפƤ줿Ѹ줬 dialect(s) äȤȤǤϤʤΩ˿ѸƤäΤ⤷ʤ
פ餢ä dialect Ȥ̾Ϳ褦ȤưŤΤϡޤǥʥ顼ιռιޤäˤʤäƤ顤ȤȤǤϤʤȹͤƤ롥
Ϣơ#2580. Ѹιռʳ ([2016-05-20-1]) vernacular γƵȡ
衤2 (double_negative) ޤ¿ϡ18εϼλ stigma դ졤ζϤʱƶޤ³ƤȸƤǯθοŸˤꡤºݤˤϤäᤤʳɸŪˤʤäƤꡤ18εʸˡϤǤ˹ԤϤäƤ촷ˤդͿˤʤȲᤵ褦ˤʤäƤˤĤƤϡ#2999. ɸѸ줫꤬äͳ ([2017-07-13-1]) ǿ줿
¿깽ʸ̣ȤˤʤΤˤʤΤۣȤʤΤǤСߥ˥پ褿ºݤäˤƤʸ̮䱤Χν⤢ꡤۤɸ櫓Ǥʤʤ٤ۣ椵ӽäξפǡġֽաפä顤ɤŵˡΧʸǤ롥Rissanen (125) Ѥ롥
In the development of negative expressions legal texts may have offered an early model that resulted in the avoidance of multiple or universal negation in Late Middle and Early Modern English.
In Late Middle English, multiple negation was still accepted and universal negation was only gradually becoming obsolete, possibly with the loss of ne. In the fifteenth century, the not . . . no construction . . . was still the rule . . . , but in the Helsinki Corpus samples of legal texts this combination does not occur even once, while the combination not . . . any . . . , can be found no less than eight times. In other contexts . . . multiple negation occurs even in the statutes, but the user of any is more common than in the other genres.
. . . .
The same trend can be seen in sixteenth-century texts: the not . . . no type is avoided in the statutes while it is still an accepted minority variant in other text types. This is not surprising, since the tendency towards disambiguation and clarity of expression probably resulted in the avoidance of double negation in legal texts well before the normative grammarians started arguing about two negatives making one affirmative.
ۣ椵ӽ٤ˡΧʸˤƿ侩줿ˡ˰̤Υ쥸ˤĥȤŸϡʬˤꤽǤ롥⤷ָդˡפȤ٤ĬήѸʹߤθոħŤƤΤȤСҲͿƶϻפΤۤ礭ȤȤˤʤꤽ
Rissanen Ʊʸ#1276. hereby, hereof, thereto, therewith, etc. ([2012-10-24-1]) ⻲ȡ
Rissanen, Matti. "Standardisation and the Language of Early Statutes." The Development of Standard English, 1300--1800. Ed. Laura Wright. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. 117--30.
#301. ѤȤѸθˡ Top 10 ([2010-02-22-1]) Ǥڤ褦ʬΥ (split_infinitive) ϵʸˡΤʤǤ١ʰ̾ˤι⤤ˡǤ롥ϡto boldly go Τ褦ˡto to ưθȤδ֤ʤ¾Ǥǡ줬ʬΥפƤޤˡΤȤ"cleft infinitive" Ȥ̾⤢롥
Ūˤϡ#2992. Ѹˤʸȯã ([2017-07-06-1]) Ǥߤ褦Ѹ㤬ߤ졤̾ʸϵҤˤäƻѤƤаޤ뤬εʸˡ (prescriptive_grammar) ˤѤȤ졤ߤ˻ޤԤȤưƤ롥OED ˤȡʬΥλѤˤ infinitive-splitting Ȥ̾դƤꡤκͤ infinitive-splitter ȤƸؤؤ뤳ȤˤʤäƤʾСˡ
infinitive-splitting n.
1926 H. W. Fowler Dict. Mod. Eng. Usage 447/1 They were obsessed by fear of infinitive-splitting.
infinitive-splitter n.
1927 Glasgow Herald 1 Nov. 8/7 A competition..to discover the most distinguished infinitive-splitters.
ʤʸˡȤФΤȤȡƥʸˡȤΤƥǤ϶ޤˤ īre (to go) Τ褦1ɽ蘆롥äơѸΤ褦 to ưθ2줫ʤ櫓ǤϤʤˡʬΥ褦ʤΤ褦ˤ⤽ʬΥʤƥʸˡϤȤơʬΥƤϤʤʤȤ§ѸȤۤʤƤϤ褦ȤƤΤ顤ȤƤäˤʤʤ˻ޤǥƥʸˡΰҿäˡʸˡϤ鼫Ω뤳ȤʤʤǤˤΤǤ롥ơ;Ȥϸˤ³Ƥ롥
ǤϡʬΥѤȤ뵬ϼŪʰϤϤɤɤޤäƤƤ롥äβս뤳ȤʸդΤˤΤͭפʾˤϡʤƤ褦ˤʤäƤƤ롥2--3ΤʬΥդƤ (stigma) ĤȤƤΤ䤿ܤˤƤΤǤ롥ޤ˱Ѹˤΰ롥
ʬΥˤĤƤϡAmerican Heritage Dictionary Usage Notes split infinitive ɤߤΤ⤬Τǡ⻲ȡ
줿 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥκǿȤʤ81Ƥoften t ȯͤ÷ʤoften ꤷ often t ˤĤƹͻƤޤ
ȯ䤵줿إ˥¼ŵ6ˡ䤬ɮƤֱѸQ&AפȤबߤƤꡤ often ˤĤƤΥޤޤƤΤǡ YouTube ǤϤꤷ褦ȻפΩäǤcf. #4892. ͽΡإ˥¼ŵ6ǤοߥֱѸQ&AפξҲ ([2022-09-18-1])ˡYouTube μϿͤ˥塼뤷ϪܤβȤȤ⤢ޤơҤİƤФȡ
ǯ often /t/ spelling_pronunciation θ˽äƶȯƤƤȤäǤˤĤƤ hellog Ǥľܡܤ¿夲ƤޤʲȤ
#4146. ʤ often ϡ֥եȥפȯ뤳ȤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-09-02-1])
#379. often spelling pronunciation ([2010-05-11-1])
#211. spelling pronunciation ([2009-11-24-1])
#2121. Ѹˤˤ /t/ æ ([2015-02-16-1])
#380. often <t> ǤϤʤ <n> ⤷ ([2010-05-12-1])
#381. oft often ʬ̻ۤŪѲ ([2010-05-13-1])
#3662. "Recency Illusion" "Frequency Illusion" ([2019-05-07-1])
ͤޤǤ American Heritage Dictionary 5th ed. ˤ often Usage Note ѤƤޤŪʷаޤƤޤ
Usage Note: The pronunciation of often with a (t) is a classic example of what is known as a spelling pronunciation. During the 1500s and 1600s, English experienced a widespread loss of certain consonant sounds within consonant clusters, as the (d) in handsome and handkerchief, the (p) in consumption and raspberry, and the (t) in chestnut and often. In this way the consonant clusters were simplified and made easier to articulate. But with the rise of public education and literacy in the 1800s, people became more aware of spelling, and sounds that had become silent were sometimes restored. This is the case with the (t) in often, which is acceptably pronounced with or without the (t). In similar words, such as soften and listen, the t has generally remained silent.
ߤǤ¿αѸüԤ often ˤĤ /t/ ζʤŪȯȶŪȯξäƤ褦ǡä˸Ԥܤ (stigma) դƤ櫓ǤʤǤԤǰҿ (prestige) ΤȯȤռϤޤ¿ĤäƤ뤫⤷ޤŪȯ̱ˤϡ¿֤ΤǤ
Ǥ⤷Τϡ16--17ˤϤष /t/ ʤȯŪäȤǤơDobson (§405) θˤСºݤ˰ҿ㤫ä餷ΤǤ
§405. Loss of [t] after [f] is common only in often, where assimilation to the following [n̩] assists the loss, but occurs in other cases (see Wyld, p. 302, on Toft's and Shaftesbury). In often [t] is kept by Hart, Bullokar, Robinson, Gil, Hodges, and the shorthand-writer Hopkins (as often in PresE; Wyld, loc. cit., is surely wide of the mark in calling this 'a new-fangled innovation'), but shown as lost by the 'phonetically spelt' lists of Coles and his successors (Strong, Young, and Brown); despite its use by Queen Elizabeth, the pronunciation without [t] seems to have been avoided in careful speech in the seventeenth century, for record in these 'phonetically spelt' lists and nowhere else generally indicates a vulgarism.
ʤ18εȯηǤȤ#1456. John Walker A Critical Pronouncing Dictionary (1791) ([2013-04-22-1]) ˤС/t/ ʤȯΤߤǺܤƤޤ
Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500--1700. 2nd ed. 2 vols. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
#4952. ˤҿ (prestige) Ȥϡ ([2022-11-17-1]) ȡ#4953. ˤ (stigma) Ȥϡ ([2022-11-18-1]) ǡˤҿ (prestige) ƳѲˤʤΤǤꡤѸˤͤǤ⸰Ȥʤ복ǰѸǤ롥
üԡʽġˤϡܤͿƤΰҿꡤռŪ뤤̵ռŪˡθưƤ롥Ĥޤꡤΰҿ˶ŤȤꡤΰҿΥ֤Ȥ뤳ȤǡμҲˤΩ֤ͭˤ褦ȹưƤΤǤ롥η̤ȤƸѲ륱롥Τ褦ˤѲϡüԤռŪ˸ưƤˤ change from above ȸƤФ졤̵ռξˤ change from below ȸƤФ롥ռΡ־夫פѲʤΤֲפѲʤΤȤȤǤ롥
־夫פѲϼҲؤξνĤȷӤĤħָ뤳ȤꡤȿФˡֲפѲϼҲؤβνĤθħָ뤳Ȥ롥ĤޤꡤռΡ־岼פȼҲؤΡ־岼פϢư뤳Ȥ¿Labov ˤäƳ줿ꥸʥ "change from above" "change from below" ϡޤüԤΰռξ夫ȤܤǰѸǤ뤳ȤĴƤ
Trudgill Ѹ켭ŵꡤ줾Ѥ롥
change from above In terminology introduced by William Labov, linguistic changes which take place in a community above the level of conscious awareness, that is, when speakers have some awareness that they are making these changes. Very often, changes from above are made as a result of the influence of prestigious dialects with which the community is in contact, and the consequent stigmatisation of local dialect features. Changes from above therefore typically occur in the first instance in more closely monitored styles, and thus lead to style stratification. It is important to realise, however, that 'above' in this context does not refer to social class or status. It is not necessarily the case that such changes take place 'from above' socially. Change from above as a process is opposed by Labov to change from below.
change from below In terminology introduced by William Labov, linguistic changes which take place in a community below the level of conscious awareness, that is, when speakers are not consciously aware, unlike with changes from above, that such changes are taking place. Changes from below usually begin in one particular social class group, and thus lead to class stratification. While this particular social class group is very often not the highest class group in a society, it should be noted that change from below does not means change 'from below' in any social sense.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ε#4952. ˤҿ (prestige) Ȥϡ ([2022-11-17-1]) ³ơprestige ȿгǰȤʤ stigma ˤĤơɤʤΤǤȤꤢֽפȤƤ뤬֥ƥޡפȸƤǤΤ褤Τ⤷ʤΰҿΤȤǤ롥
prestige βΤ˻ȡѤ A Glossary of Historical Linguistics ǤСʤ stigma ⸫ФȤΩƤƤƧǤȤΤ stigma, stigmatization ȤƸФΩäƤΤ covert prestige, overt prestige, prestige ιܤФ졤˹ԤäƤߤ stigma stigmatization ƤʤȤפˡΰҿǤ뤳Ȥ碌ΤѶŪ˸ڤƤʤΤǤ롥
̤Ĵ٤ A Glossary of Sociolinguistics ˤ stigmatisation θФΩäƤѤ褦
stigmatisation Negative evaluation of linguistic forms. Work carried out in secular linguistics has shown that a linguistic change occurring in one of the lower sociolects in a speech community will often be negatively evaluated, because of its lack of association with higher status groups in the community, and the form resulting from the change will therefore come to be regarded as 'bad' or 'not correct'. Stigmatisation may subsequently lead to change from above, and the development of the form into a marker and possibly, eventually, into a stereotype.
ܤ stigma դ졤줬춦ƱΤ˹Τ褦ˤʤȡ͡ϤλѤռŪ褦ˤʤꡤȤ³Ƥͤ佸Ĥλ뤹褦ˤʤ롥̤λˤʤΤ stigma Ǥꡤstigma դǧΤƤ stigmatisation ȤȤˤʤ롥
Campbell, Lyle and Mauricio J. Mixco, eds. A Glossary of Historical Linguistics. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2007.
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ɸϡ#1245. ʣŪβȤƤνȤɸѸȯŸ ([2012-09-23-1])#1246. Ѹɸಽȵϼδط ([2012-09-24-1]) ǤƤǤ롥Ѹξ˴ؤǯͤɤǤȡεϲȤΤϡɸಽٿʤǤʤ¤ϤޤʤΤǤϤʤȤ¿ʤäƤƤ롥Ĥޤꡤϼθ̤ϴ¸ɸಽη˰첡äۤɤΤΤǤꡤɾƤϤʤȤǶɤ Percy (449) ƱݤεŸƤ롥
With increasing precision, scholars have independently established that mid-eighteenth-century prescription more often "reinforced" than "triggered" the stigmatization of specific grammatical variants. Studies of spelling have revealed similar trends. In general, such popular lexicographers as Samuel Johnson . . . and Noah Webster followed rather than established norms: in Anson's words, though "usage and authority work mutually ... no authority---even Webster---can hope to change a firmly entrenched spelling habit" (1990: 48)
In the case of double negation, it seems clear that "natural" standardization preceded explicit prescription. Sociohistorical corpus studies of late medieval English documented that double negation receded from educated usage long before eighteenth-century grammarians condemned it. Key contexts seem to be writing generally and professional language specifically . . . .
ʤƶϤΤĿͤ佸ĤǤ⡤λѼԤΤǤҲ߽ФήܼŪѤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ뤤ϾʤȤƶˤϡƱդ롥
ΰѤǿƤ롤"double negation" ¤ϵϼषƤȤŪʻŦˤĤƤϡ#2999. ɸѸ줫꤬äͳ ([2017-07-13-1]) ȡ
Percy, Carol. "Attitudes, Prescriptivism, and Standardization." Chapter 34 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Oxford: OUP, 2012. 446--56.
Anson, Chris M. "Errours and Endeavors: A Case Study in American Orthography." International Journal of Lexicography 3 (1990): 35--63.
Cockney ȯȤΤ h-dropping ˤϡŪطʤ롥ѲȯֻδطüѡҲŪɾʤ͡ʴͻɬפꡤѸ˸ˤƺǤä1ĤȤäƤ褤ܥ֥Ǥ h γƵǰäƤȤ櫓#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1899. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (3) ([2014-07-09-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1]) Ȥ줿
h-dropping ؤ (stigmatisation) ޤäΤ17ʹߡä˵ϼǤ18ΤȤǤ롥ֻɸಽˤäƸ츻Ū <h> 경ȯˤƤб /h/ ¸٤ǤȤϤ줿h ϡɸŪֻ츻μʡᶵܡˤ̵ͭ¬롤ҲŪʥȥޥȤƤεǽΤǤ롥
Minkova ˤСλΩĥͥˡΤȯ h ޤ८ꥷ줫μѸ줬̤ήƤȤ⡤h-dropping ̵ܤϢ뤳Ȥ˹Ȥ#114. ѸμѸεȳ ([2009-08-19-1])#516. ľܤΥꥷѤ15 ([2010-09-25-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡΤ15--17ˤϥꥷγؽѸ줬¿ѸήθäϹ⤤ܤȶӤĤƤꡤֻȯ h ޤޤƤ뤫ɤΤäƤ뤳ȤϡοͤζܤХȤʤꥷѸ¸ߤϡ17ʹߤ h-dropping ȽΤΩƤȤ櫓ѸŪդ줿ƶ٤ŦȻפMinkova (107) Ѥ롥
Orthographic standardisation, especially through printing after the end of the 1470s, was an important factor shaping the later fate of ME /h-/. Until the beginning of the sixteenth century there was no evidence of association between h-dropping and social and educational status, but the attitudes began to shift in the seventeenth century, and by the eighteenth century [h-]-lessness was stigmatised in both native and borrowed words. . . . In spelling, most of the borrowed words kept initial <h->; the expanding community of literate speakers must have considered spelling authoritative enough for the reinstatement of an initial [h-] in words with an etymological and orthographic <h->. New Greek loanwords in <h->, unassimilated when passing through Renaissance Latin, flooded the language; learned words in hept(a)-, hemato-, hemi-, hex(a)-, hagio-, hypo-, hydro-, hyper-, hetero-, hysto- and words like helix, harmony, halo kept the initial aspirate in pronunciation, increasing the pool of lexical items for which h-dropping would be associated with lack of education. The combined and mutually reinforcing pressure from orthography and negative social attitudes towards h-dropping worked against the codification of h-less forms. By the end of the eighteenth century, only a set of frequently used Romance loans in which the <h-> spelling was preserved were considered legitimate without initial [h-].
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
#3672. ȥꥢ50ɥ뻥 responsibility Υڥߥ (2) ([2019-05-17-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡڥϤȤθˤޤȤĤҿ (prestige) (stigma) ϡǽ餫餽¸ߤΤǤϤʤȤ˼ҲˤäͿ줿ΤǤ롥ɾϤäΩƤޤȡθ϶ʤѤƤȤ¿˴ؤɤγǤ롥ϸĿĿͤɬռƤʤȤƤץǤꡤ椨˶ʿ (77) ϡѸؤγˤƱѸθѤˤˤĤƵǡηˤĤƼΤ褦ˤޤȤƤ롥
κۤϸŪˤͥȤ̵ǤΤǤ͡ϼҲǤޤޤ˲դԤҿͿƤޤĤޤꡤѸȤȤФμˤäơμҲλŪǥƤΤȤޤȤФҲĿͤ˿Ƥ뤳ȤïǧǤñ˼Ҳ¤ȿǤƤȤǤʤդˤȤФμˤäƼҲ¤ιۤƯƤ⤤ΤȤȤǧ٤Ǥ礦
ѤκǸΤϡԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ˴ϢפǤ롥ȼҲδطݥȤǤ롥ͤŤμΤϼҲǤꡤĤǤꡤŪˤϸġüԤǤȤȤõƤ
ʿ ҡإ١åѸس١ҤĤ˼2016ǯ
ε ([2019-05-16-1]) ˰³ɸꡥresponsibility responsibilty ֤äȤǡθϤʤȤ֤ϲǤΤȤ⤢ˤʤŪˤαѸʸľܡܤ˴Ϳ¿οܿͤ͡αѸؽԤޤˤˤȤäơ<i> ޤֻפˤϰҿ (prestige) ꡤ<i> ȴƤָäֻפˤϽ (stigma) դƤȤɾͭƤ롥ΥڥߥˤĤƤɤѶŪ뤫̤ȤơʤȤ֥ȥꥢääʡפȥȤǤפäƤ褦ǤСϡֻפΰҿƤ뤳ȤξںǤ롥
Τ褦˴Ƥ͡ʻޤˤϡʤ <i> 1ʸ̵ͭ˺ֻפ˰ҿǧƤΤΡֻפѶŪöŪ˰ҿǧȤ٤ΤΤˤäơresponsibility ȤֻΰҿϤޤ˹ޤꡤresponsibilty ޤʤֻϤޤޤΥåƥŽ褦ˤʤ롥ϱѸˡ̤ˤ⥤ѥȤͿޤޤֻפΰҿᡤָäֻפνذϤä뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ҿγǤ롥
βðμΤϡѸȤҲΤǤ롥ҲȤϽĤΤȤĤȤϸĿͤνޤǤ롥ŪˤϡΰϤäƤΤϡ줾ռϤȤͰͤθĿͤǤ롥ѸȤƳؤǤ䤿γơ⡤νĤΡʤϤ줫⤷ʤ˰Ǥʾ塤0.00000001%ʲι٤ǤϤ뤬̵ռŪˤβðμΤȤʤäƤΤǤ롥ѸüԤǤʤΤˤʸϥХХȻפ뤫⤷ʤϻ¤Ǥ롥ȤֻˤȤ鼫˰ҿȤȤƤϤʤҲƵŪˤϸĿͤʡᤢʤ䤬ˡֻ˰ҿդƤΤǤ롥
ȯʸˡáֻʤɤθऽ켫ΤˡΤץ饹ޥʥϤ櫓ϤʤȤʹ֤˥ץ饹ޥʥμҲŪͤդƤǤ롥responsibility responsibilty ȤֻΤΤŪϤȤϹͤʤֻ˥ץ饹Ϥ¾˥ޥʥϤդƤΤϡͰͤοʹ֤ʤΤǤ롥ߤʤ1ΰ㤤Τϥۤ餷ȤոǰפС˥塼ˤ⥹ˤʤʤߤʤ1ΰ㤤פȻפäƤ뤫餳˥塼ˤʤꥹˤʤäƤΤǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ餫˱Ѹ˴Ϳ뤹٤Ƥο͡ƱǺ夲˥塼ǤꡤʤΤ
轵ä˥塼ȥꥢκǿѤȤ50ɥ뻥3Ĥ <i> ȴ responsibilty responsibilityˤȤڥߥΤ뤳ȤȯФѸˡ祹롤"spelling blunder" ƤBBC News ε Australia's A$50 note misspells responsibility ʤɤȡˡ
Reserved Bank of Australia ǯȯԤ50ɥʾˤϡȥꥢIJνİ Edith Cowan ξ褬Ƥ뤬κ٤ˤߤγʬϡ¤˾ʸʤäƤꡤ Cowan εIJǤν⤫ΰѤƤ롥Ūˤ "It is a great responsibility to be the only woman here, and I want to emphasise the necessity which exists for other women being here." Ȥʸ٤֤ⷫƤΤʸˤƤ responsibility responsibilty <i> ȴ֤ƤǤʤɤʤʸǽƤΤǡȯԤȾǯΤïˤⵤդ줺ˤ餷Ǥ4600ƤޤäƤԲǽʤΤǡRBA ϡּΰޤפȤΤȡ

ȥꥢͤϤȤ¿ο͡RBA 䥪ȥꥢФˤȤ֤äƤޤäʤפ⿴Ĥ֤䤤Ƥ뤳Ȥľ˴ۤҤ٤С֥إޤ餫ƤޤäʤפǤ롥Τ褦ʥ˥塼֤ǤΤߤơ<i> ȴ٤Ǥñ줬뤳ȤϤʤΤȤ⤢Τ˰ջ̤Ȥ餤Сä responsibilty responsibility Ʊ褦˽ʬѤ
Τ¾ǤƱͤˡڥˤϸڻؼŪǽ (referential function) ȼҲɸŪǽ (socio-indexical function) 2Ĥεǽ (cf. #2922. ¾μҲṲ̄Τ꤫ȤƤθ캹̡ ([2017-04-27-1])) ΥߥڥϡǤפ̣θڻؼŪǽ»ͤΤǤϤʤڥμҲɸŪǽˤĤƺƹͤ¥ΤǤϤ롥ŪˤС<i> ߤ responsibility ˤϰҿ (prestige) ꡤ<i> ȴ responsibilty ˤϽ (stigma) 夷ƤȤȤ줾Υڥˡץ饹ȥޥʥμҲŪʲͤŤʤƤΤǤ롥
ǤϡʤΤ褦ʲͤŤʤƤΤïͤŤƤơ䤿ϤʤƤΤˡҲؾǤ롥
ˤСŪǤ⤢롥ȤΤϡ1500ǯĶѸˤΤʤǡڥεϤޤืʤˡŪʰ̣dzΩ餵褦ˤʤäΤϡǶ250ǯۤɤΤȤ¾λˤϡڥФ봲ƤäȤäʤʹߡΤ褦ʴƤѸҲ鼺졤<i> 1ʸΩƤۤɥƤΤ
responsibilty ϡѸηϤΤΤФؿƤӵƤФ꤫ˡˤ䡤ؤμҲŪͤŤȤؤƤ롥֤μȤǻȤäƤʰΥȥԥåܥ֥Ǥ⡤³ԵƤĤǤ롥
Ūͭ̾¾ "spelling blunder" ȤƤϡꥫ Dan Quayle Ρpotato פ롥ˤĤƤϡHorobin (2--3) 뤤Ϥ (16--17) ȡ1ʸ1ʸʤΤǤ롥
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
ۥӥˡ δˡإڥαѸˡ١˼2017ǯ
ѸˤϡʹߤϢʤ³ "the complaint tradition" ʿˤꡤ"the complaint literature" ʿʸˤѤƤ㤨С#301. ѤȤѸθˡ Top 10 ([2010-02-22-1]) ǼतΡ֤ʱѸϼʤפȤӤΤȤǤ롥ŵŪ˿ʹʤɤ˴Ƥ
ϡɸѸ줬ۤܳΩǡϼŪĬ褦ˤʤäƤŤλ̤롥̾ͤǤСJohn Dryden (1631--1700) 䡤 Jonathan Swift (1667--1745) κǽôȤcf. #3220. ɻ˾αѸ쥢ǥߡɤ Dryden αѸ˾ɾ ([2018-02-19-1])#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ([2014-08-26-1])ˡ
Milroy and Milroy ˤСˤ2ĤΥפȤξԤϽŤʤ⤢뤬ŪۤʤäƤꡤŪˤʪȹͤɬפ롥ޤ Type 1 顥
Type 1 complaints, which are implicitly legalistic and which are concerned with correctness, attack 'mis-use' of specific parts of the phonology, grammar, vocabulary of English (and in the case of written English 'errors' of spelling, punctuation, etc.). . . . The correctness tradition (Type 1) is wholly dedicated to the maintenance of the norms of Standard English in preference to other varieties: sometimes writers in this tradition attempt to justify the usages they favour and condemn those they dislike by appeals to logic, etymology and so forth. Very often, however, they make no attempt whatever to explain why one usage is correct and another incorrect: they simply take it for granted that the proscribed form is obviously unacceptable and illegitimate; in short, they believe in a transcendental norm of correct English. / . . . . Type 1 complaints (on correctness) may be directed against 'errors' in either spoken or written language, and they frequently do not make a very clear distinction between the two. (30--31)
Type 1 ϡǤŵŪʥפǤꡤȤñƤʿǤ롥ָȽפȤäƤ褤ΥפɸѸݻ (maintenance) 뵡ǽôäƤȤŦ⤪⤷
˵ Type 2 Type 1 ۤΤƤʤϤ Swift ˤޤ̤롥
Type 2 complaints, which we may call 'moralistic', recommend clarity in writing and attack what appear to be abuses of language that may mislead and confuse the public. . . . / Type 2 complaints do not devote themselves to stigmatising specific errors in grammar, phonology, and so on. They accept the fact of standardisation in the written channel, and they are concerned with clarity, effectiveness, morality and honesty in the public use of the standard language. Sometimes elements of Type 1 can enter into Type 2 complaints, in that the writers may sometimes condemn non-standard usage in the belief that it is careless or in some way reprehensible; yet the two types of complaints can in general be sharply distinguished. The most important modern author in this second tradition is George Orwell . . . (30)
Type 1 "the correctness tradition" ȸƤ֤ʤСType 2 "the moralistic tradition" ȸƤǤ褤Ѥˤ褦ˡGeorge Orwell (1903--50) Ǥ̾ʼ羧ԤǤ롥Type 2 ɽǯưȤƤϡ1979ǯ˻Ϥ줿 "Plain English Campaign" 롥ŪʾˤïˤǤʬʸո٤ȼĥȿǤꡤʱѸǽ줿ʸ "Crystal Mark" դưԤʤäƤۤǯʱѸФƾޤ£äƤ롥
Milroy, Lesley and James Milroy. Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation. 4th ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2012.
ѸˤˤҲ /h/ ˤĤơ#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) #459. ʻҲ /h/ (2) ([2010-07-30-1]) #494. hypercorrection ˤ h ([2010-09-03-1])#1292. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť ([2012-11-09-1])#1675. Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤Ť (2) ([2013-11-27-1])#1677. Ƭ <h> ˤˤĤƤν ([2013-11-29-1]) ۤh h-dropping ʤɤε¿夲Ƥ
Ѹʸ塤ҲŪʴؿŪȤʤäƤѸѼ h-dropping εˤĤƤϽ⤢뤬Ѹˡ<h> ֻΤη褷 /h/ ȤȯʤեѸ줬̤˱ѸήǤȤľܡܤαƶͿƤȤȤϡǧƤ褤եΤߤʤ餺ڥ䥤ꥢʤɤΥޥ /h/ ȯʤΤϡƥʳƱæǤ롥äơѸ h-dropping ʥϡȸĶơǽŪˤϥƥ1ĤβѲ˵뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
⤷ȤˡƥǤ /h/ æ褦ˤʤäƤȡޤζܿͤϡæ¯ŪȯȤ褦ˤʤäΤȤϡˡȤ <h> ֤٤ǤϤʤȤ <h> Ƥ뤳ȤФĤäƤ뤳ȤΤ롥λ h-dropping Ф꽤 (hypercorrection) äΤǤꡤۤɤޤǤ h-dropping ŪäȤڵȤߤʤȤǤ롥λϡޤٳ Gaius Valerius Catullus (84?--54? B.C.) ˤΤǤ롥ʲCatullus Poem 84 ±Ǥ롥
1 CHOMMODA dicebat, si quando commoda uellet ARRIUS, if he wanted to say "winnings " used to say "whinnings", 2 dicere, et insidias Arrius hinsidias, and for "ambush" "hambush"; 3 et tum mirifice sperabat se esse locutum, and thought he had spoken marvellous well, 4 cum quantum poterat dixerat hinsidias. whenever he said "hambush" with as much emphasis as possible. 5 credo, sic mater, sic liber auunculus eius. So, no doubt, his mother had said, so his uncle the freedman, 6 sic maternus auus dixerat atque auia. so his grandfather and grandmother on the mother's side. 7 hoc misso in Syriam requierant omnibus aures When he was sent into Syria, all our ears had a holiday; 8 audibant eadem haec leniter et leuiter, they heard the same syllables pronounced quietly and lightly, 9 nec sibi postilla metuebant talia uerba, and had no fear of such words for the future: 10 cum subito affertur nuntius horribilis, when on a sudden a dreadful message arrives, 11 Ionios fluctus, postquam illuc Arrius isset, that the Ionian waves, ever since Arrius went there, 12 iam non Ionios esse sed Hionios are henceforth not "Ionian," but "Hionian."
Ȥʤսϡ1ܤ <commoda> vs <chommoda>2ܤ <insidias> vs <hinsidias>, 12ܤ <Ionios> vs <Hionios> Ǥ롥<h> ɬפΤʤȤ <h> ֤Ƥ꽤ȤޤäƤ롥θǤ뤫ˤϡοǤ롥λ˴ؤ Harrison ɾˤС12ܤ <Inoios> <Hionios> ȡʵϼŪʴ鸫ơ˸äֻǽȤˤꡤˤߤɽФƤȤHarrison ". . . the last word of the poem should be χιoνέoυς. When Arrius crossed, his aspirates blew up a blizzard, and the sea has been snow-swept ever since." (198--99) ȽҤ٤Ƥꡤä <Hionios> ꥷ χιoνέoυς (snowy) ȰäƤΤȲᤷƤ롥ơ10ܤ nuntius horribilis ͽ𤷤ƤȤ⤤Arrius β꽤ˤ /h/ 7ܤ nuntius horribilis ͽ𤵤Ƥ褦ˡ٤Ȥ硼
Harrison (199) ϡϤޤơCatullus Τ褦ʥޤζܿͤˤ h ˴ؤκϡ¿ Venetic ¤Фиʤظαƶ (substratum_theory) ˤ뼪ʥƥѼФŪɾˤΤǤʤȤƱͤ Etruscan ¤ФиȤԤ⤤褦θϤˤ speculation ΰФΤǤϤʤḽѸ h-dropping ؤ stigmatisation ȽŤ碌ƹͤȶ̣
Horobin, Simon. Does Spelling Matter? Oxford: OUP, 2013.
Harrison, E. "Catullus, LXXXIV." The Classical Review 29.7 (1915): 198--99.
Ѹ (-ing) 2ĤѰ۷ˤĤơ#1370. Norwich ˤ -in(g) ʸŪѰۤĴ ([2013-01-26-1]) ӡ#1508. ѸˤɡβDz ([2013-06-13-1]) ǰäƬ (h) Ѱۤȹ碌ơѸˤŪ˺Ǥ褯Τ줿ҲŪѰۤȤߤǤϡ[ɪŋ] ȯɸŪǡ[ɪn] ȯɸŪǤ롥ε ([2013-06-13-1]) Ǥ줿Ȥꡤ1ۤˤξѰ۷μҲŪʲͤϵդǤä[ɪn] ҿΤȯǤꡤ[ɪŋ] ɸŪäΤǤ롥ɾˤĤƾܤŵõƤΤCrystal (309--10) ؤγǸڤƤΤĤΤǡȤꤢѤ롥
Everyone has developed a sense of values that make some accents seem 'posh' and others 'low', some features of vocabulary and grammar 'refined' and others 'uneducated'. The distinctive features have been a long-standing source of comment, as this conversation illustrates. It is between Clare and Dinny Cherrel, in John Galsworthy's Maid in Waiting (1931, Ch. 31), and it illustrates a famous linguistic signal of social class in Britain --- the two pronunciations of final ng in such words as running, [n] and [ŋ].
'Where on earth did Aunt Em learn to drop her g's?'
'Father told me once that she was at a school where an undropped "g" was worse than a dropped "h". They were bringin' in a country fashion then, huntin' people, you know.'
This example illustrates very well the arbitrary way in which linguistic class markers work. The [n] variant is typical of much working-class speech today, but a century ago this pronunciation was a desirable feature of speech in the upper middle class and above --- and may still occasionally be heard there. The change to [ŋ] came about under the influence of the written form: there was a g in the spelling, and it was felt (in the late 19th century) that it was more 'correct' to pronounce it. As a result, 'dropping the g' in due course became stigmatized.
(-ing) 뤳ˤϡѰ۷ȯΤΤͥȤäͤտ路Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤȤ餫ˤƤ롥#1535. non-prevocalic /r/ μҲŪʲ͡ ([2013-07-10-1]) Ǥ褦ˡܤʣѰ۷δ֤ˡͤͥ褦˸ȤƤ⡤βͤϼҲŪʥƥ쥪פˤƱΤ˱ѰۤήưŪʲͤˤʤȤȤǤ롥
ܸѲʹΡ֤ȴȤСפ֤줳ȤСפμҲŪͤʤɤ⻲ȤƤߤȤ⤷
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ε#1741. ȤƤȳ (1) ([2014-02-01-1]) ³εǤϡ٤ϡˤߤ줿ȳ٤1ǤȽҤ٤ºݤˤۤˤ奤ꥹˤ㤬ϿƤ롥륺ȥåȥɤDZѸ줬ƩƤäˤϡ#1718. Wales ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-09-1]) ȡ#1719. Scotland ˤѸˡ ([2014-01-10-1]) εǸȤ櫓19ȾˤϡϤˤѸζްä
륺㤫ߤ褦1846ǯܤϥ륺ζ𡤤Ȥ櫓ϫƯԳαѸ콬μ֤ĴѰΩ夲ǯ3ˡФ줿ɽ椬ĤäΤǡ̾ Blue Books ȸƤФ뤳Ȥˤʤä륺ͤˤȤäƶŪƤ¿ޤǤ The Betrayal (or Infamous, Treason) of Blue Books ȤƾΤ줿¼ (79) ¹뤬Blue Books (462) ˡWelsh not (or Welsh stick or Welsh) ȸƤФȳεҤ롥
The Welsh stick, or Welsh, as it is sometimes called, is given to any pupil who is overheard speaking Welsh, and may be transferred by him to any schoolfellow whom he hears committing a similar offence. It is thus passed from one to another until the close of the week, when the pupil in whose possession the Welsh is found is punished by flogging. Among other injurious effects, this custom has been found to lead children to visit stealthily the houses of their schoolfellows for the purpose of detecting those who speak Welsh to their parents, and transferring to them the punishment due to themselves.
¼ (80) ϡƱȤåȥɤΥåˤŬѤƤȽҤ٤Ƥʰʲ¼ˤ M. Stephens, Linguistic Minorities in Western Europe, Gomer, 1978. p. 63. ΰѡˡ
From the end of the nineteenth century Gaelic faced its most serious challenge --- the use of the States schools to eradicate what one Inspector called 'the Gaelic nuisance' ... The 'maide-crochaich'', a stick on a cord, was used by English-speaking teachers to stigmatise and punish children speaking Gaelic in Class --- a device which was to survive in Lewis as late as the 1930s.
ޤ¼ (80) ϡϼ긵ˤʤȤʤ⡤ꥫ1960ǯ溢ޤǥڥػäȤȤˤڤƤ롥
ްΤȳ٤ϡΤ褦ʣϰˤäȤ狼뤬19ȾʹߤΤΤǤȤ̣Ωȯ٤ǤϤʤ路Ƴ줿٤Ǥȹͤʤ褦ǯǤϤ롥
¼ ɡرѸϤɤʸ줫ѸμҲŪ١Ʋ1989ǯ
Ѹʹߡh ϾȯǤꡤֻȯȤδطˤƲ褷褷Ƥh ˤĤƤϡ#214. ʻҲ /h/ ([2009-11-27-1]) #459. ʻҲ /h/ (2) ([2010-07-30-1]) #494. hypercorrection ˤ h ([2010-09-03-1]) ϤȤ h γƵǼ夲Ƥ̤Ǥ롥Ѹ줫ѸˤƤ h ΰ֤ŤˤĤƤϡäȤΤƤ뤬ܺ٤Ϥ狼äƤʤξڵȤˡ¬Ƥ椯ʤѸʹߤˤ h ȯֻδطˤĤơSchmitt and Marsden (140) εҤ˱ä褦
űѸǤ h ϵ§ŪȯƤΥޥʹߡեѸ줬̤ήˤä h 礭ѲAnglo-Norman ΥեǤ /h/ ϤǤæƤꡤֻǤ erbe (= herbe) ost (= host) Τ褦 <h> 뤳Ȥä츻Ȥʤƥη herba, hostem h ޤޤƤȤ <h> ֤뤳ȤȤʤä˽Ѹˤʤ etymological_respelling Ǥ롥θ̤Ū h ĥեѸΤ˵ڤӡ/h/ ȯʤ <h> ֤¿αñ줬߽Ф줿ºݤˤϡȯˤ /h/ Υȥդθؤɤ٤γǵäƤΤΤΤϺæˤäȤڵϤȤ㤨С18ˡ⤽ h ʸȤߤʤƤ褤ΤȤɾ餢äȤ (Marsden 140--41)
ʾϡϼӤ줿18˵Ÿ롥/h/ æϡ㤤̵üԤħǤȤơҲŪ (stigmatisation) 줿ΤǤ롥 Thomas Sheridan (1719--88) Course of Lectures on Elocution (1762) ǡh-dropping "defect" ȸƤƤɾԤäʤۤɤޤǤ˵® stigmatisation ΤϤ狼äƤʤʹߡɸѸˤƤ <h> = /h/ δطΤȤ夷ɤ櫓 heir, honest, honour, hour 4ʥꥫѸǤ herb ä5ˤˤƤϡ/h/ ζʤѸȯѤ줿ɸѼä˥ꥹѸνѼǤϡߤ˻ޤ h 뺮Ϣʤ³Ƥ롥üȤơHi'm hextremely 'appy to be'ere. Ƥ
Schmitt and Marsden εҤɤǤȡh ˤĤ椬ޤФȯȤƤϤľǤƤ⤪ʤä /h/ ɸѸˤƤϡֻȵϼϤǤܴ̤ۤȤȤˤʤ롥h Τɤäˤϡ̣ǤϱѸ˾絬ϤηŪ etymological respelling Ǥꡤspelling pronunciation Ǥ⤢롥Hope μĥ#1247. ɸѸϸŪˤꤽˤʤѼǤ ([2012-09-25-1]) ⤦ʤơɸѸϼθѲǤʤ褦ʸѲФѼǤפȤ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
1986ǯBBC Radio 4 English Now ǻİԥȤԤ줿äȤʸˡְ㤤ƤȤΤפη̡ʲΥȥå10줿 ( Crystal 194 )
(1) between you and I : ֻθʤΤ I Ǥʤ me Ȥ٤
(2) split infinitives : ʬΥסto suddenly go ʤɡto ưδ֤ߤ٤餺
(3) placement of only : I saw only Jane ΰ̣ I only saw Jane Ȥ٤餺
(4) none + plural verb : None of the books are Ǥʤ is Ǽ٤
(5) different to : different from Ȥ٤
(6) preposition stranding : ֻ֡סThat was the clerk I gave the money to Τ褦ֻǸ˻Ĥ٤餺
(7) first person shall / will : ̤ɽˤϡI shall, you will, he will Τ褦˿;ΤˤäƽưȤʬ٤
(8) hopefully : ʸȤƤˡ˾餯ϡפ٤
(9) who / whom : ŪʤѤThat is the man whom you saw Ȥ٤
(10) double negation : They haven't done nothing Τ褦꼭Ѥ٤餺
20ǯʾΥȤߤǤۤܤΤޤƤϤޤȹͤƤ褤ʤʤС嵭ιܤ¿19ˤäƤ18Ϣʤ³Ƥ롤©Ĺ stigmatisation Ǥ롥(8) ʤɤŪ褦¾ݤĹ餯ʸˡǡָפȤΥåƥŽƤΤФǤ롥Ȥ̤ؤʤɤϤäȤƤ⡤20ǯ䤽ǡ10ܤȥåץ饹ä뤳ȤϤʤʸˡɸѸθˡ礭ʱƶͿƤȤϻ¤Ǥ鶺褦ȤƤˤ錄äƱ꤬˸³Ƥ¤ߤȡεϤȤΤϤʤʤޤʤΤʤȲƹͤ롥
Though the grammarians indisputably had an effect on the language, their influence has been overrated, since many complaints today about incorrect usage refer to the same features as those that were criticised in eighteenth-century grammars. This evident lack of effect is only now beginning to draw the attention of scholars. (Tieken-Boon van Ostade 6)
ϢȤƤϡ[2009-08-29-1], [2009-09-15-1]⻲ȡ
Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1997.
Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid. An Introduction to Late Modern English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2009.
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