Ѽ郎ʤΤʤΤȤϡʼҲ˸ؤθŤƿǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ language_or_dialect γƵǵƤ夲#6215. Scots Scottish English ζ̤ˤĤơ ([2026-05-03-1]) ˤĤƤС1Ĥ Scots Ȥ櫓ȴؤäƤ롥Scots English Ȥϰۤʤ1ĤθȤߤʤ٤ʤΤ뤤 English 1ʤΤ
ˤϸŪʹθʾˡҲŪǡȤ櫓ŪǤؤ롥Ѥ McClure (23--24) ϡ³Ǥ˿ĤġƱ˽餫Ƥ롥ʲäɤǤ
Uniquely among Old English-derived speech forms other than standard literary English, Scots has a claim to be regarded as a distinct language rather than a dialect, or latterly a group of dialects, of English. This claim has been, and continues to be, the subject of serious, reasoned and at times heated debate, at both popular and scholarly level . . . : a debate which embraces historical, political, social and literary as well as linguistic issues and has important implications in the field of education. However, it is beyond the scope of the present chapter, for the purposes of which it is sufficient to note that Scots, being descended from Old English and sharing in the general history of West Germanic speech in the British Isles, is appropriately considered as part of 'English' in the purely linguistic sense of the term. That Scottish English, as opposed to Scots, is a form of English is of course non-controversial. The distinction between Scots and Scottish English, which though not always clear in practice is soundly based on historical facts, should be borne in mind throughout the chapter.
Scots "purely linguistic" ʴ English ֤ȤΤŬڤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥֤С"historical, political, social and literary" ʴϽפǤ³Ƥ롤ȤȤ
McClure, J. Derrick. "English in Scotland." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 5. Ed. Burchfield R. Cambridge: CUP, 1994. 23--93.
¤ءˤˡƱؤdz֤ƤҲμȤˤޤ꤬Ȥޤ˼ֳγʤɤνǡ֤ܥΥå (senbonknock) Ԥޤꤵ2ͤǤΥ饤Τ褦ܥΥåȤʤޤ䤬ӽФ80ʬۤɤΥƥʥåȤʤޤ
μȤΰϽ Voicy heldio ǼϿޤΤȾȸȾʬơۿޤʲ˳Ƽ䤪бץʬäޤ
Ⱦ48ʬ #1284. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥå at --- Part 1
(1) Chapter 2, 03:55 --- ȯΥȤʤΤǤĤϤޤʸˤ륢Ȥ¸߰յϡ
(2) Chapter 3, 04:58 --- ʤܸˤϡֻס͡סֲפʤ1;Τ¿θΤǤ
(3) Chapter 4, 00:03 --- ܸˤ褦ϱѸˤ¸ߤΤǤʡּפء
(4) Chapter 4, 04:40 --- ʤ you ˤϡ֤ʤפȡ֤ʤפξΰ̣ΤǤ
(5) Chapter 5, 02:57 --- ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤǤ
(6) Chapter 5, 01:26 --- 㤦²ʤΤ˻ƤϤޤʸζ̡θοء
ڸȾ35ʬ #1287. ؤܥΥå with (2)
(7) Chapter 2, 00:05 --- ǽ2Ĥθʹ֤ïǤ
(8) Chapter 2, 02:57 --- ζ̸뤳Ȥϼ¸ǽǤ
(9) Chapter 3, 03:35 --- ǽ˱Ѹ줬ܤäƤȤɤΤ褦ǤΤǤ
(10) Chapter 3, 02:51 --- ѸΤ褦ʤΤ¾ˤ⤢ΤǤ
(11) Chapter 4, 00:46 --- ܸΥХȷɸΤ褦ʤΤϱѸˤ⤢ޤ
(12) Chapter 5, 00:00 --- ʤѸˤ say, speak, tell ʤɡָפ̣ñ줬¿ΤǤ
ȤȤ⡤ꤵȤ heldio ۿ٥ȤȤʤޤ꤬Ȥޤ
轵αѸءʼҲءˤΥ饤ȤǼҲؤθŵŪǤָ줫פˤĤƵѼ (variety) "language" ʤΤ "dialect" ʤΤϲˤäƷޤΤȤˤĤ hellog åȤޤȤƤߤ
ָ줫פεå
ΰθդΰʤΤΰʤΤԤǤܸȤϡʴϢ뤬Ω1ĤθȤƤȤ館Ƥ뤳ȤˤʤꡤԤǤܸΤʤ1Ȥ֤ŤȤʤ롥̤ˤΰȤƲᤵƤȻפ뤬κϤä
ԡ˲ǽȤबޤפ⤫֡ߤǽɤϡġͤθǽϤ촷Ǥ롥ʹƥĤĤǤ褦ˤʤäƤȤ¦̤⤢롥ĤޤꡤҴŪʴȤƤʤ褦˻פ롥ιڤäƤνѼϡߤˤۤȤԲǽʤۤɤΥƤΤ⤢뤬ȤưƤ롥Υ륦ȥǥϸߤˤ褽̤Ȥ뤬̲ΥΥ륦ǥʤɤȸƤФ뤳ȤϤʤޤǥΥ륦ǤꥹǥǤ롥
Ūʹ¤ΰ㤤ȤƤС̡θȤ뤳ȤӤѼϡԡ˲ǽϤˤ衤ߤӸŪƱ²Ǥꡤ칽¤Ϥʤ٥ѥǤ롥ܸȥ̸ʤɤ٤ȡ칽¤ŪˤޤˤΥƤ뤳Ȥ餫ǤꡤȤиԤԤȰ֤Ťˤ̵롥äơ칽¤δϴְ㤤ʤ¸ߤ롥
ޤΥ륦ȥǥ㤫ϡѼ郎줫ϡȤȤҲХåˤĤƤ뤫ɤǷޤȤȤʬäƤӥȥߤ̤칽¤̤äƤ뤬ۤʤȤХåˤĤƤ뤬椨ˡۤʤǤϤʤˤȸƤФΤǤ롥ҲؤζȤΤƤ褦ˡ"Language is a dialect with an army and a navy" ʤΤǤ롥
ꥹѸȥꥫѸۤ100%ߤ̤칽¤ۤƱȤäƤ褤Ǥϡ2ƱϤ̤ϥꥹ䥢ꥫȤϸƤФʤޤDZѸȤ1ĤθΤʤ2ĤȤ֤ŤǤȤ館Ƥ롥
̱ۤ²佡ʤɤδ˵Ȥո⤢ɸ¸ߤ濴˿⤢ˤ衤ͤϤȡָ줫פ꤬¤Ǥ뤳ȤʬäƤ롥
εåȤȰŤʤ뤬language_or_dialect γƵɤ
Ebonics פȤϡ1996ǯ˥ե˥ Oakland ζѰηĤüȯ롤ͱѸΰ֤ŤǤ롥λǹͱѸؤ Ebonics ȤѸ줬ͭ̾ȤʤäؤǤϹͱѸΤȤ AAVE (= African American Vernacular English) ȸƤ֤Ȥ¿aave γƵȡˡʤߤˡEbonics ebony ʹɡ phonics ʲˤκ (blend) Ȥ롥
1996ǯ1218ե˥ΥɶѰ Ebonics ǧΤݻѤ뤳ȤꤷͤλҶǽŪɸѸή礦˻Ȥʤ褦ˤʤ뤿ˤϡ塤Ǥ Ebonics βߤ礫ʤȤȽǤѰϤ Ebonics ϱѸȡְŪطˤפѸȤϰۤʤǤȷĤΤǤ롥ηĤ1997ǯ17˥ꥫ춨פλٻդ٤ϡƱ Ebonics ɸѸȤΡְŪʴطפˤĤơ餫ŪʸҤ٤櫓ǤϤʤȤˡȽĤˤŪȽǤȽӤ뤳Ȥˤʤä
ζѰηĤˤ鶯ȿаոФ줿Ʊ1997ǯ1ˡꥫ屡ξѰθİǤϡͤͤȽäθˤꡤζѰ1997ǯ4ƽ Ebonics ȤѸ뤳Ȥ;ʤ줿ۤɤǤ롥
2ĤθѼ郎2ĤΰۤʤʤΤ뤤1ĤθΰۤʤˤʤΤlanguage_or_dialect ȤҲؤθŤ꤬¤μҲȤʤäȤõ٤
ʾ塤Wardhaugh (371) ȤƼɮWardhaugh ϡϢʸʣɤ롥
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
̤ if ʲΡˤꡥҲؤǤ "Language is a dialect with an army and a navy." ȤƤ褦ˡζ̤ϤФХХå˹ȤĤƤ뤫ݤǷޤ뤳Ȥ¿ź1ˤʤäѼ郎ŪΩˤä1ؤȡ־ʡפȤȤäεդޤä (cf. #2006. ḽ衼åѤǼΧƤ ([2014-10-24-1])) ⤤ĤܹΩȤʤ뤳ȤȤС餿줬θѸȤʤ
ΥͥϻҲؤιֵʤɤǤ褯夲ΤΩ˺ݤƺѤȸޤײ (language_planning) ˤĤơŪĤޤȤϤʤäۤǥ֥饦Ƥ夬⤷ܤΩ٤ȤܤߤĤ p. 58 ˡ̱θؤɽפθѸޤΥߥ졼⤵Ƥ⤷ΤǰѤ褦
ꥸʥλܺȤơѸפȤݤȯۤޤϰˤäƤϤޤäۤʤȤʤ뤳Ȥ顤ĤƤΡ쥳ȥСפäˤɸȤʤƤޤŷȾΤ줿夫顤٤ƤȥꥢǡﮡʤΤˤ뾦Τı߳˿ʤʤ顤¡פ»ʤȤΤʤߥ˥ġȤƵǽ³Ƥ쥳ȥФħ̱ѤȤǤ
ѸˤܹɸѡΩμҲưࡼ˷³̤ؤθդޤƽϸǿƤޤƤ졦Ÿ졦ʤɤϡƽ֤Υߥ˥ǸͤʤǥåȤθơѸ˽ऺ밷ǧ٥ˤȤɤ뤳Ȥˤޤ
ʤߤˡס쥳ȥСסܹɸפˤդƤ롥
ܸ²Ͻܸɤΰɤ2ʬɤʬƤθԤ¿ϡܤʬۤɡܤʬۤ¸ɡ彣ʬۤɤȲΰɤ4ʬɤʬΩȤäƤ롥פ¸ɤΤʤˤ췲ΤƤ̾Ρ쥳ȥС졤ʤɤ롥 (58)
쥳ȥͻϺ桤ṾξͤޤäܺξԡDZ߳˾ԤˡǫۣʸȤȯãΤ쥳ȥСפȤƤ롥˭Ҥ̾ؤܤ٤̾ȤʤäͷӤˤĹǥ徦ͤɽ֤ܤפʤɤΤ롥(58)
ܹɸܹɸϡȺäޤ줿ϰäˤʤäƤ롥NHKˤڤ(59)
ʤ7ĤνޤȤΤϥϥȻȤȤˤʤäƤ2010ǯνǤȤݥȡˡ
Ωͤԡˡ夬⤷ܤΩ١ޥϥ2010ǯ
ε#2752. dialect ȤѸˤĤơ ([2016-11-08-1]) ˰³ Haugen (923) Ȥʤ顤dialect ȤѸ椷Ĥ language ȤѸˤĤƹͤ롥ξѸ줬褹Τϡ줬ŪŪѸǤƱˡŪ̻ŪѸǤ⤢뤫Haugen (923) ۩
In a descriptive, synchronic sense "language" can refer either to a single linguistic norm, or to a group of related norms. In a historical, diachronic sense "language" can either be a common language on its way to dissolution, or a common language resulting from unification. A "dialect" is then any one of the related norms comprised under the general name "language," historically the result of either divergence or convergence.
Ūˤϡ"language" Ȥϡ1ĤεϤäѼΤ⤢СϢ뵬ϤäʣѼνΤŽĤ줿٥Ǥ⤢롥̻Ūˤϡ"language" Ȥϡ줫¤ʬƤȤ븵ζĸˤĤ줿̾Ǥ⤢Сդ˽Ѽ郎礷ƤȤɸѼθƾΤǤ⤢롥
̻Ūñ˿Сlanguage dialects language dialects . . . פȤʤ뤬"language" ʳڤˤƶŪˤߤСˤ "language" ĺȤơ۲ "dialects" ֤ŤΩƤ"language" ʳǤϡ"language" ͣɹ¸ߤǤꡤ۲ "dialects" ʤΤ¸ߤʤ顤"language" ˤ¿ΤǤ롥Haugen (923) ϡѸ츯ʣΤ褦ɽƤ롥
"Language" as the superordinate term can be used without reference to dialects, but "dialect" is meaningless unless it is implied that there are other dialects and a language to which they can be said to "belong." Hence every dialect is a language, but not every language is a dialect.
ǸΡ֤٤Ƥϸ٤Ƥθ줬ȤϤʤפȤϡ̯Ǥ롥
Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.
Haugen (922--23) ˤСdialect Ȥñϡͥ˥ꥷ줫ؽѸȤƼѤ줿Ǥ롥OED ΡפθǤν1566ǯȤʤäƤꡤǤϱѸޤΡפɽ魯ȤѤƤ롥եؤϤΩ16ǯۤä褦ǡǤϥꥷɾ abondante en dialectes ɽƤ롥1577ǯαѸǤϡ"Certeyne Hebrue dialectes" ȸŵ˴ؤΤǤꡤ1614ǯ Sir Walter Raleigh The History of the World Ǥϡꥷ "Æeolic Dialect" ڤƤ롥ѸǤλȤȤƤϡΤ褦˸ŵΡפؤ dialect ȤѸ줬Ȥ뤳Ȥ¿ä褦顤ˤбѼñ̤ˤѤ褦ˤʤäΤ
ꥷä᤹ȡŵˤ줷ɸ८ꥷʤΤϤʤɸŪʽפνΤΤߤäդ٤ϡΡפϡäդȤƤФƤǤϤʤդȤƤФͿ줿̾äȤǤ롥Τˤ̾̾ˤ䤫äΤǤϤäºݾϡˤäƻȤʬդζʬɽ魯Τä㤨С˽ˤ Ionicβλˤ Doricˤ Attic ʤɤȤäǤ (see #1454. ꥷɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-04-20-1]))
Υꥷνդνϡϡäդν˴פäƤ˰㤤ʤԤϡӸŪ˺ƷǤŤʳ "Common Greek" ʬ줷̤νǤ롥ŵȡäդνϾäꡤܼŪ˥ƥͤǤꡤ٤ä koiné ˤä֤Ƥä (= koinéization; see #1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1])) ơ줬ꥷ줽Τ (the Greek language) ǧ褦ˤʤä
ĤޤꡤŵˤޤȤȡ"several Greek dialects" "the Greek language" ȿܤȤˤʤ롥פΰ㤤äơƸŪ줷Ρ줬ָפʤΤǤ롥褳Ūʰ̣٤ dialect ʤ languageˤȤѸ줬˱ѤڤӡѸ츯ʣ⤿餹ȤˤʤäʣˤĤƤϡεǡ
Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.
ε#2741. ascertaining, refining, fixing ([2016-10-28-1]) ǡ17ޤǤαѸɸಽ18ˤƤαѸ쵬ϲؤ³ή
ǡɸಽ (standardisation) ȤäƤ⡤βˤϤĤζ̤ǧ롥Haugen αƶϤζʸˤСѼ郎ɸಽȤŵŪˤ4ĤʳФȤ롥Hudson (33) ˤҲؤζʽΰѤ̤ơ4ʳ褦
(1) Selection --- somehow or other a particular variety must have been selected as the one to be developed into a standard language. It may be an existing variety, such as the one used in an important political or commercial centre, but it could be an amalgam of various varieties. The choice is a matter of great social and political importance, as the chosen variety necessarily gains prestige and so the people who already speak it share in this prestige. However, in some cases the chosen variety has been one with no native speakers at all --- for instance, Classical Hebrew in Israel and the two modern standards for Norwegian . . . .
(2) Codification --- some agency such as an academy must have written dictionaries and grammar books to 'fix' the variety, so that everyone agrees on what is correct. Once codification has taken place, it becomes necessary for any ambitious citizen to learn the correct forms and not to use in writing any 'incorrect' forms that may exist in their native variety.
(3) Elaboration of function --- it must be possible to use the selected variety in all the functions associated with central government and with writing: for example, in parliament and law courts, in bureaucratic, educational and scientific documents of all kinds and, of course, in various forms of literature. This may require extra linguistic items to be added to the variety, especially technical words, but it is also necessary to develop new conventions for using existing forms --- how to formulate examination questions, how to write formal letters and so on.
(4) Acceptance --- the variety has to be accepted by the relevant population as the variety of the community --- usually, in fact, as the national language. Once this has happened, the standard language serves as a strong unifying force for the state, as a symbol of its independence of other states (assuming that its standard is unique and not shared with others), and as a marker of its difference from other states. It is precisely this symbolic function that makes states go to some lengths to develop one.
ʤ顤ʳˤƤ⡤¿쾯ʤ졤ҲˤտŪǰռŪʴͿޤޤ롥ɸνϤƼҲŪǤꡤ˿ŪŪޤȤĤƤ롥ּҲˤտŪʲפη̤ȤƤɸȤˤĤƤϡΰѤΩʬˡΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ (Hudson 32)
Whereas one thinks of normal language development as taking place in a rather haphazard way, largely below the threshold of consciousness of the speakers, standard languages are the result of a direct and deliberate intervention by society. This intervention, called 'standardisation', produces a standard language where before there were just 'dialects' . . . .
Ϣơ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ȡ
Haugen, Einar. "Dialect, Language, Nation." American Anthropologist. 68 (1966): 922--35.
Hudson, R. A. Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.
#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) 褦ˡΩѼ autonomy ʼΧˤȤ졤˰¸Ѽ heteronomous ¾ΧŪˤȸ롥Ѽ郎ΧŪ뤤¾ΧŪǤȤȤ϶ŪˤϤɤȤʤΤζ̤ϼҲŪʴްդäƤĤΤ̤Ū¦̤ϤΤ
Χ¾ΧͤݤˤϤɸϰǰƬ֤Τ̤ǤϤɸŪʸոȱ (argot) Ȥ줾켫ΧŪʥɤ¾ΧŪʥɤȹͤƤߤ褦argot ȤȺԤ֤ѤŹŪʸոǤꡤŸĭȤƤФ롥slang jargon νĤѤոǤꡤǤϻƤ뤬argot ϤȤ櫓Ⱥƿʤ argot Τ褦ʸո¸ߤΤˤϡ2ħŦǤԽʬǤ롥argot θ̣ιϡ֤ɸŪʸոθΰդΰæäƤΤǤꡤΰ̣ˤƤäɸФ¾ΧŪ¸ŪǤȤ⤬Ƥ뤳ȤפǤ롥˴ؤơIrvine (253) Τ褦˻ŦƤ롥
. . . the codes' origin in counter-societies is reflected in many aspects of their linguistic form, for instance in their elaboration of lexicon and metaphor relevant to their special activities and their attitudes toward the normative society, and in their frequent use of formal inversions and reversals, such as metathesis. Also significant is their conspicuous avoidance and violation of forms recognized as "standard" . . . . These anti-languages are clearly not autonomous codes, then, although the normative codes on which they depend may be. The anti-language is not, and has never been, anyone's native tongue, nor are all its formal characteristics simply arbitrary. Both functionally and formally it is derived from the normative code, just as its speakers define their social role in opposition to the normative society.
Ѥˤ "anti-language" ϡHalliday ѸǤꡤargot ʤɤΥɤؤΤȤȤ館Ƥ褤Τ褦ŪʥɤѤüԤŪʥɤŪ˴˲뤿ˤϡषԤ̤Ƥɬפ롥ϤŪˤȤС褯ƤʤФʤʤΰ̣ˤơargot ޤ "anti-language" ¾ΧŪǤ롥
ܸαߤСžη̤ȤƤΡ֥ͥפʤ鵬ŪʡּפȤʤäƤꡤ¾ΧŪǤ롥֤ΰפϡֽפδ˴Ť뤫顤ֽפФ¾ΧŪǤ롤
Τ褦ˡΧ (autonomy) ¾Χ (heteronomy) ζ̤ϡҲŪ¦̤Ʊ˸Ū¦̤į뤳ȤǤ롥
Irvine, Judith T. "When Talk Isn't Cheap: Language and Political Economy." American Ethnologist 16 (1989): 248--67.
ˤʤ뤬俷ʹ2013ǯ1213ī4̤ˡ֤ΰΩפȤäǤϡΩꡤơפؤθڤʤƤ
#1031. ܸʬ ([2012-02-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̤ˤϡΰäѼܸ1ѼȤơʤܸΤʤΰȤƤߤʤƤ롥ŪŪΩˤäƤϡܸȤΩΰǤȤ븫⤢롥ŪΩȸȤϸʪǤϤ뤬ӤĤΤǤȤäƤ褤ΰΰ줫Ȥϡ#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ǿ줿ƼҲŪǤ롥
ä뤳ѼϡŪްƤˤġξħ˿줿פǤ롥ʤޤǤˡγعǤϡ̤ѼˤȡϤȤʤΤˤ줿ɴʻŵ٤ΡΰסΰǤϤʤˤιˤϡʸϤߤ롥
ʹߡ¼ߡعߤɸԱưϤˤ졤ʸϸȤƤäȤФȤƤ⡤ɸνϹ٤ɬפʤȤȤʤäλ뤵찵عäҤɤؤȳȤƤΡ(դ)Ӥͭ̾ǡäҤɤϼȤҤɤ⤬ޤǡΤˤˤƤʤФʤʤäȳ2ˤԤƤơȤ٤ƤθŪʾ̤ǤɸΤߤȤ褦ˤʤꡤߤ˻äƤ롥Ͽषɸαƶʤɤˤä礭ƤĤĤ롥̱ۤڤʸεȤޤäơưΤºŤ졤⤿褦ˤʤꡤ饸ƥӤˤо줹褦ˤʤä¤ˤӤᡤϷͤβáϫƯԤΥ̱ؤβλȲǵΤդʤɤ˻Ѥ¤졤ȤƤäޤޤǤ롥Ȥ˰ۤʤäƤ硹¼ŪϷͤ¾ȤȤ˼ȾǤĤĤꡤؼԤϤεϿޤƤ롥
ϡްˤޤȤɤळȤǤ롥ȳ٤ʤƻŪʻܺϡΤߤʤ餺νϰǹԤƤɸѼȤüԤްϡ褷ƤޤǤϤʤΤǤ롥ȳ٤ˤĤƤϡ (118--21) Τ褦˲ɾͿƤ롥Ĺ٤ưѤ褦ʸʸηϡǤˤƤˡ
եΩäƳΩҤ줿ˤȤʤԸưΥƥϡܤǤܤζŪʾǤ⡤ޤޤǤʤäƳ줿Τȹͤդ롥
餯ܤ¾ϰǤ⤳हʤѤ줿⤷ʤΰΤФϡФз㤷ƻפ뤳Ȥ¿ΰпȼԤ̾⤤ȳˤĤƤäǤ뤬ФǤ롥ֲڻפѰդơïˤ̤Сˤλˤ롥줿̤ϡ¾֤ΤïƱޤȤԤФΤԤȿͤĤޤƤϤơʬμ顤֤ȿͤμؤȻܤߤȳƨ뤳ȤǤ롥⡤ϥȤʤ顤ȳϡΤޤӤȿǤȤΤǤ롥
ζΤ뤷ǤڻϡȳפȸƤФ줿ΰпȼԤǤΤˡפīʤϡ虜ȰȿŤͤȳᡤ褷פФ褯äȳϰĤζ˲⤢äΤ
ΰζˤߤȡȳо줷Τ͡ʰ塻ǯΤȤǡϡפȸƤФƤ줬ä줿Τϰ졻ǯϻʰ켷ǯǤ롥ΩؤǤǷĹϡפȯơȳѤäȸʿξ½ޡʰ͡ǯˤ⡤Ƥˬ줿̱ݶԤפȤäȤꤷޤȽȤϿΤǡȳϡΰ˵̳餬ڤϤƱƳ졤餯˻ޤǡȾۤĤŤΤȻפ롥
ȤȳȤȸΤεˤĤƤϡïϰƤΤǤϤʤסֺμȯŪʹαѤȸפȤҤ٤Ƥơ路ȤϤ狼ʤʾȬϺֲΡפˤĤơסˡǤϤäּȯŪʹפȤϤʤˤĹˤϹˤĤƼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
ˤΤȤͤäơΰȿԤŦȯˤäơȤǤƤդȤաȿػߤξˤѤƵȤϾ𤱤ʤäǤ롥γعʤɤǤϡ٤ȤռԤݤ̵ʤĤϤȤСȿˤʤ뤫Ǥ롥ʾ°ǯ
ĤƥեåġޥȥʡϡֳعȤܤǤäФǤפȽҤ٤Ǥϡˡֳعϡ٤ƤäȺԤˤ̩ԤƤǤפȸʤФʤʤǤ٤ϡʰȿԤĤФơκΤȤȤˤˡÿ뤫
ɤऴ̯̩١ߴƻ٤äɤȯŪΤȤΤǯεǤäܿͤϤ餤μοʹִ˴ؤƤϤɤ餫ȤۤϤǤäơ̤ͥʵѤϤƤǤϤʤȻפäΤǤ롥ȤǶᡤǥåưʤäƤͤƱͤηиäƤ뤳ȤҤ٤ƤսˤĤäϡ륪åпȼԤβۤǤ롥
ޤޥåñ줬ˤΤܤ뤳Ȥȡκͤϡ vergonha ѡˤܤˤ餹뤷Ȥơsenhal ˤ롥ϤΤ褦˴Ĥ̤Ƽ餫롥κͤϡ줫ͧΤ˥åˤۤơĤ˼ؤƤʤΤʹƤƤ롥μȤȤ̴褦̤踸ۤˤĤΤΡ̩δڤ٤Ǥ롥ʥ֥륶衼åο̱ϡס
֥ȥưˤμ㤤ԡˤȡȳϡե¾ϰ衤ʤ֥륿˥塤˥ˤ⡤ȤˤäƤϰϻǯäƤ⤪ʤƤեʳˤץ۲Υݡɡ˥եޥϰ䥦륺ˤƤ溢Ⱦˤư̲ȤȳѤϡĤϤäȸŤޤǤΤܤ롥ǤϵդˡեäԤμˤơƥ춵ǽΨϤäιפǤäȤޤ䡤ƥϰ̤ˤĤ¯줬Ѥ뤳ȤˤʤäΤǤ롥
ȳˡϡȯŪȼΤΤȤϡǤˤƤϤ뤫ŪʡϤ뤫ȿŪײŪǤäե뤤Ϥ¾Υ衼åѽؤӤȤ줿ǽ
٤ζȤ͢줿Τäɤˤϰ⤢롥εͤߤ뤳Ȥϡפʲ
ɧؤȤФȹȡ١ȽŹ1981ǯ
3ǯβƤˡܥ˥إĥӥ (Bosnia and Herzegovina) ȥ (Croatia) ιλĤ륵饨 (Sarajevo) λԳ⤭줿ԥ (Zagreb) ֥ɥꥢοפȸƤФ仺˻ꤵ줿ջԻԥɥ֥֥˥ (Dubrovnik) ǿᤷѸҤˤȤäƤʿ¤˸뤳ϰϡߤ˻ޤŪ褤䤨ʤʸ̤βˤǤ³ƤȤ櫓1990ǯƬ³桼ΰ衤ˤ⡤ϰ Language is a dialect with an army and a navy. ΰ⤤Ǥ褯θ롤ҲؤˤƺǤͭ̾ϰ1ĤȤʤäƤ롥
1918ǯ˷桼餫¿̱²¿ȤäΥϥΥХ˥ޤྯ줬¿¸ߤȤäƤΤϤָ췲ʡ#1469. Хȡָɡʰ²ˡפε[2013-05-05-1]ȡˤǤꡤߤϢ³ (dialect_continuum) Ƥޥɥ˥ȥ˥Ϥϡפ2̱²̾ȤäƸˤ Serbo-Croatian ȤҤȤ˸ƤФ줿
̱²ķܻؤιϡȤ̱²Ƚδ礭3ɤʬƤΥ (Croatia) ϥȥå̤ǡɽ˥ƥʸѤкŪˤŪ˭Ǥ롥Υӥ (Serbia) ϥꥷ̤ǤꡤʸѤŪˤϺǤ̤ͥǤʡ#1546. ʬۤȽʬۡ ([2013-07-21-1]) ȡˡΥܥ˥إĥӥʤϥඵ̤¿ȼʸäƤʺǿǤϤʤϰνʬۤϿޤʲ˷ǤˡΤ褦˼ҲŪطʤϰۤʤΤΡ3ԤϤƱ Serbo-Croatian äƤʸˡȯˤĤ礭ۤʤȤʤäˤƤ줾˹ߤ뤬ǽǤ롥įС1ĤθȤߤƺ٤ʤ

1990ǯƬˡӥͤŪͥäơ¾̱²ΩΤΤ夲1991ǯ Slovenia Croatia Macedonia 1992ǯ Bosnia and Herzegovina Ωӥȥƥͥˤ뿷桼2006ǯ˥ƥͥ (Montenegro) Ωäƽᤷ2008ǯ˥ӥ饳 (Kosovo) ΩȤäʬФƤ롥
ߤΤϰθ𡤤Ȥ櫓̾ƱͤʣǤ롥桼Τʾ塤桼θθ̾Ǥ Serbia-Croatian Ѥ뤳ȤϤǤʤӥͤ Serbian ȸƤӤͤ Croatian ȸƤӤȻ¾Ʊäܥ˥ͤˤȤäƤϡθ Serbia-Croatian, Serbian, Croatian Τ̾ΤǻؤȤ⤿롥ǡBosnian ȤƾΤޤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Ĥޤꡤ桼ʬȤŪʲˤꡤŪˤ1ĤȤߤʤƤ褤ʼºݤ1ĤȤߤʤƤ˸줬̾ξ3Ĥΰۤʤ (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian) ؤʬ줿ΤǤ롥ޤˡLanguage is a dialect with an army and a navy Ǥ롥
ŪʬΥƤϡӥȥϡ#1545. "lexical cleansing" ([2013-07-20-1]) ˽ߤθ۵äʹ䶵ʽӽȤײʤƤξԤϤޤȥ륳ϸäӽʤƤ뤬ܥ˥إĥӥʤǤϤषȥ륳ϸäǻȤ褦ˤʤäƤ롥
ʾ塤Trudgill (46--48) Wardhaugh (27--28) ȤƼɮ
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 6th ed. Malden: Blackwell, 2010.
[2013-05-30-1]ε³ԡ¿Ѥξ֤ǤȤ¤ˤĤơCrystal (409--10) ˸ڤĤΤǡɲä
[M]ultilingualism is the normal human condition. It is a principle which often takes people by surprise. If you have lived your whole life in a monolingual environment, you could easily come to believe that this is the regular way of life around the world, and that people who speak more than one language are the exceptions. Exactly the reverse is the case.
Speaking two or more languages is the natural way of life for three-quarters of the human race. There are no official statistics, but with over 6,000 languages co-existing in fewer than 200 countries . . . it is obvious that an enormous amount of language contact must be taking place; and the inevitable result of languages in contact is multilingualism, which is most commonly found in an individual speaker as bilingualism.
There is no such thing as a totally monolingual country. Even in countries that have a single language used by the majority of the population, such as Britain, the USA, France, and Japan, there exist sizeable groups that use other languages. In the USA, around 10% of the population regularly speak a language other than English. In Britain, over 350 minority languages are in routine use. In Japan, one of the most monolingual of countries, there are substantial groups of Chinese and Korean speakers. In Ghana, Nigeria, and many other African countries that have a single official language, as many as 90% of the population may be regularly using more than one language. (409--10)
Ѥˤ⤢ȤꡤܤǤǤŵŪñȤȤߤʤ뤬Ȥƥ̸䡤īڹ줽¾ΰ̱졤ܼäʤɤμøԤƤ롥ޤΰʤΤΰʤΤȤ䤤ˤäƤϡüԤΤ٤ƤɸܸȤ̣ˤơ2ѼԤȸƤӤ롥ޤӥͥʤɤDZѸʤɤѤ¿ܸüԤܿͤ⡤ܹ⳰¿Ѥ˹Ƥ͡ǤȤߤʤȤǤ롥٤κ졤ܤ¾ϰƱͤ¿ϰǤȤǧϽפ
ܤ¿ѾˤĤƤϡEthnologue Japan Ȥ줿
Crystal, David. How Language Works. London: Penguin, 2005.
ε#1522. autonomy heteronomy ([2013-06-27-1]) ǡζ̤Ȥ뤿οǰѸƳϴϢơѼ郎 (heteronomous) ǤϤʤ (autonomous) ǧꤵ뤿ˡ2ĤΰۤʤबȤȤ
ɥĤμҲؼ Heinz Kloss Ƴгǰˡɸ Abstand language Ausbau language 롥Trudgill Ѹ콸ˤС줾켡Τ褦롥
Ausbau language (German /ˈausbau/) A concept due to the German sociolinguist Heinz Kloss. A variety which derives its status as a language, rather than a dialect, not so much from its linguistic characteristics, like an Abstand language, but from its social, cultural and political characteristics. These characteristics will normally involve autonomy and standardisation. Norwegian and Swedish are regarded as distinct languages, not because they are linguistically very different from one another --- there is clear mutual intelligibility --- but because they are associated with two separate, independent nation states, and because they have traditions involving different writing systems, grammar books and dictionaries. Ausbau is the German word for 'extension' or 'building up'. Note that when new Ausbau languages are being developed through language planning, planners will often make the most of what Abstand is available. For example, Ivar Aasen, the developer of the form of Standard Norwegian now known as Nynorsk deliberately modelled it on those (western) dialects which were least like Danish, which had hitherto been the standard language of Norway. There is no widely used English equivalent for this term, but 'language by extension' is sometimes employed. (11--12)
Abstand language (German /ˈapʃtant/) A concept developed by the German sociolinguist Heinz Kloss. A variety of language which is regarded as a language in its own right, rather than a dialect, by virtue of being very different in its linguistic characteristics from all other languages. The degree of linguistic distance (German 'Abstand') between this variety and other languages is such that, unlike Ausbau languages, there can be no dispute as to its language status. Basque, the language spoken in northern Spain and southwestern France, is a good example of an Abstand language. It is clearly a single language, because its dialects are similar. And it is clearly a language rather than a dialect because, since it is not related historically to any other European language, it is completely different in its grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation from the neighbouring languages, French and Spanish . . . . There is no widely used English equivalent for this term, but 'language by distance' is sometimes employed. (1--2)
гǰѸˤ˱ѤǤͤȡ㤨ɤˤƥƥե줬ҤäƤҲŪˤäơѸϡҲŪΩ줳夫äΤΡï⤬ǧ1ĤΩ (autonomous) ǤϤäʤʤСñ˱ѸϥƥեȤϤޤǻĤʤ Abstand language ȤեϥɤˤƤѸϰ̤⤫äեˤƤϥƥαƤˤäƤषѸξ٤ΩϴäեϸҤƥȤޤ˻Ƥꡤ˽° (heteronomous) ؤȹ߳ʤͤʤեϡƥˤäƼ autonomy 줫ͤAusbau language ȤΩϰ̤ɬפäΤǤ롥#653. ѸˤեѸȥƥѸζ̡ ([2011-02-09-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡƥȥեθŪʶᤵäƤȤʤꡤֻκѤ etymological_respelling Ѹˤʾˤ˵äƤȤϡƥФξδطۤʤäƤʤε Abstand Ausbau гǰळȤǤΤǤϤʤ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
ؤӼҲؤθŵŪ1Ĥˡ (language) (dialect) ζȤ꤬롥ζŪ뤳Ȥϡ¿ξ硤[2013-06-05-1]ε#1500. Ϣ³פȡˡζ̤ƤĤʤƺѤ褦 "a linguistic variety" ʸѼˤȤʽѸ줬¸ߤΤҲŪˤƳǰζ̤ĤȤ⤢롥ξ硤ѸȤƼ´ȼäָפȡפȤѸۤäƻȤ³ƤޤȤˡ⤢뤬ǤϳŪˤƶ̤ĤȤĥޤäƤޤ餤롥
ʤΤɸ autonomy heteronomy ȤФγǰautonomous ѼȤϡ⤫ϽѼΤʤǤȤ櫓ҤѼȤƤߤʤ졤ΩȤơʤ۲νѼ«ͤפѼؤheteronomous ѼȤϡ⤫⳰ΩȤƤϰ̤դ줺̤ˤ autonomous Ѽ˽°ѼؤŪˤСautonomy Ȥϱߤ濴ǤꡤߤΤǤ⤢Ȥheteronomy ȤϤαߤ濴ʳˤäơ濴ظɽǤ롥
гǰ褯Ǥ褦ˡTrudgill Ѹ콸
autonomy A term, associated with the work of the Norwegian-American linguist Einar Haugen, which means independence and is thus the opposite of heteronomy. Autonomy is a characteristic of a variety of a language that has been subject to standardisation and codification, and is therefore regarded as having an independent existence. An autonomous variety is one whose speakers and writers are not socially, culturally or educationally dependent on any other variety of that language, and is normally the variety which is used in writing in the community in question. Standard English is a dialect which has the characteristic of autonomy, whereas Cockney does not have this feature. (12)
heteronomy A term associated with the work of the Norwegian-American linguist Einar Haugen. Dependence --- the opposite of autonomy. Heteronomy is a characteristic of a variety of a language that has not been subject to standardisation, and which is not regarded as having an existence independent of a corresponding autonomous standard. A heteronomous variety is typically a nonstandard variety whose speakers and writers are socially, culturally and educationally dependent on an autonomous variety of the same language, and who look to the standard autonomous variety as the one which naturally corresponds to their vernacular. (58)
ѸȤƤΡָפȡפؼΤ줾 autonomy vs heteronomy ȤФƻ autonomous vs heteronomous ȤƵҤǤ褦ˤΤοǰѸζ̡ɸѼɸѼζ̤ȤҲŪΩȰ¸ȤȤ館ľɾ롥ϢơRomain (14--15) βͭѡ
Trudgill, Peter. A Glossary of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: OUP, 2003.
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
ɤζʤ뤤ϻ˸ɤζˤϡɬΤ˰Ȥϸ¤ʤݡ¿ξ硤¿쾯ʤŪǤ롥#1317. פ ([2012-12-04-1]) ǽҤ٤褦ˡ isogloss «ʤȤ˶ȤΤŪǤϤ뤬ŪʴϤʤȤäƤ褤
ιԼԤŪϢ³ΤʤA¼Z¼ؤ⤤Ƥ椯ιȡA¼θB¼θȤ϶ϾʺʤB¼C¼C¼D¼ƱͤιԼԤϡơθŪʺۤˤϤۤȤɵդ⤤ƹԤĤZ¼ã롥ȤҴŪA¼Z¼θ٤ȡ餫礭ʺۤΤǤ롥¼¼ؤθ캹ϥǥǤϤʤʥǤꡤιԼԤθΤϢ³ (dialect continuum) ˤۤʤʤϤϢ³Τ¸ߤ뤬衼åѤƤʣϢ³Τ롥ʲϡRomain (12) οޤͤˤƺäϢ³ΤϿޤǤ롥

Ͽޤϡ㤨ХꥢüեΥ졼ޤǡ뤤ϥॹƥफ饦ޤǡϢ³Τι뤳ȤǤȤȤ̣롥
Ϣ³Τϰθ³ϡǼ줿Ȱפ뤳Ȥ⤢аפƤʤȤ⤢롥ϡ٤礦2Ĥ¼Ǥ뤫Ȥäơɬ礭ۤʤѤƤȤ櫓ǤϤʤȤȤƱˡˤäƤƱ٤礦2Ĥ¼Ǥ䤬ȤȤ
Ϣ³Τ˴ؤƤϡŪ꤬롥A, B, C, . . . Z¼Ϣ³ΤƤꤷ硤줾¼Ǥϰͤʸ줬ԤʤƤȹͤƤ褤Τ뤤ϡ¼üüȤǤϥߥϢ³Τ¸ߤƤΤ⤷A¼B¼줾Ū˰ͤȲꤹʤСA¼1Ĥϰ (dialect area) B¼Ϥ⤦1ĤϰȤȤˤʤꡤA¼B¼δ֤ˤϢ³ΤǤϤʤʤ䤬ꤵȤȤˤʤʤϢ³ΤȤǰϰȤǰϤɤΤ褦˴ϢƤΤŪϡChambers and Trudgill ȤơHeeringa and Nerbonne ˤäƼ夲Ƥ롥
Chambers and Trudgill (1998) introduced an interesting puzzle, one that is related to whether dialects should be viewed as organized by areas or via a geographic continuum. They observed that a traveller walking in a straight line notices successive small changes from village to village, but seldom, if ever, observes large differences. This sounds like a justification of the continuum view . . . . (376)
Ϣ³Τ뤫ʤ¸ߤΤȤˤĤƤϡ#1303. ʤ¸ߤΤ --- Ⱦǥˤ ([2012-11-20-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Heeringa, Wilbert and John Nerbonne. "Dialect Areas and Dialect Continua." Language Variation and Change 13 (2001): 375--400.
Chambers, J. K. and Peter Trudgill. Dialectology. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1998.
ߤ̤褦̤ʤƤ褦ǻƤʤ줢뤤üԤˤߥߥ˥Haugen "semicommunication" ̾դߤˤ٤̤Ȥ륹ʥӥ̥ޥʰʲϿޤȡˤǰƬ֤Ƥ̾դǤ롥Haugen ϡΥ륦ǥǥޡ3ߤθ٤˴ؤ륢Ĵ»ܤ줾θ˴ؤ semicommunication θ餫ˤ1972ǯΤŤĴʤΤǡη̤2013ǯߤɤ٤ƤϤޤΤζ̤ɬüԤǽ˰¸櫓ǤϤʤȤҲؤΰŪ뤦Dzͤ븦Ǥ롥

ȤǤľܤ˸˴ؤܤФǤϤʤĿͤ˴ؤҲŪʼܤ¿ޤޤƤܺ٤ϳ䰦뤬Haugen (225) οޤѤ3üԤθߤ semicommunication ٹ礤ƤߤޤϡθʹưפǤΤˤϡ֤٤Ǥפȡ־θƤ٤Ǥסˤͤγ礫顥

οޤ͡ʤȤ狼롥ǥޡȥǥδ֤ˤ礭κ롥ǥȥΥ륦δ֤ˤ٤롥Υ륦ȥǥޡδ֤٤ŪԤԤ٤Τۤդ礭
Υ륦ȥǥޡԤˤŪۤˤꡤߤθ˸äζ̹¿ȯ˰ۤʤ뤿ˡ٤⤯ϤʤǥޡͤˤΥ륦٤Ū˹⤤ΤϡΥ륦Τֻۤȯδط̩Ǥ뤿ˡǥޡֻͤͳƼ䤹ΤǤϤʤȤͤ롥
ϡߤθǤ뤫ȤФ "yes", "no", "fairly well" 3Ƥä̡"yes" ͤγǤ롥οޤǤϡ3δ֤٤ꤷΤȤƼƤ롥

Ŀͤ٤ˤϽпϡƤ١ߤιؤˬ٤ʤɤʣ˴ͿƤΤǡ̲ΤΡ褽ηϤĤ̲3ǺǤ⥳ߥ˥ƤΤϡǥޡͤǤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Haugen ϡȯ㤬ߥ˥˳װǤ뤳Ȥǧʤ⡤ߤθФ (linguistic attitude) ⸫ƨȤϤǤʤƤ롥
Even though mutual comprehension is basically a matter of language distance, we cannot entirely discount the effect of mutual social attitudes in reducing or enhancing the will to understand. (227)
ߤθФ빥 (228) dzΤȡǥޡǥͤ0%Υ륦ͤ2%ˤȤɤޤäƤ롥ޤǥޡͤ41%Υ륦졤42%ǥޤפƤ롥ǥޡϼ¾Ȥˡ̲3ΤʤŪ㤯ƤȤ褦ͤǸ¤ꡤΥ륦ȥǥϸߤ˹ޤפäƤ롥Τ褦ʸ٤ˤϡǥޡŪϰ̤Ū㤵ȿǤƤǽ롥
semicommunication ˤϡŪʺۤѤƤΤϤҲŪװǤ٤βٺƤȤ Haugen θ餬ߤ˰ۤʤǤϤʤۤʤȸƤФΤˤϡ٤βٺؤäƤΤǤ롥դˡ٤˲ٺʤСνѼ郎Ǥ褦ˡäդǤϸߤ̤ʤˤ⤫餺ȸƤФΤ⤷ʤ"what" 뤪褽Ʊȯθ줬Υ륦Ǥ hva, ǥǤ vad, ǥޡǤ hvad ֤1906ǯϤ hvad äˤΤФǤȯۤʤäƤƤƱǽɽ蘆Ȥ¤ϡ¤оŪǤ롥
ޥδ֤ semicommunication ȤСűѸüԤȸťΥɸüԤɤΤ餤礨ΤȤϡѸˤνפʴؿǤ롥ǤŪۤǤʤߤˤɤΤ褦ʸ٤äƤȤͿƤ
Haugen, Einar. "Semicommunication: The Language Gap in Scandinavia." The Ecology of Language: Essays by Einar Haugen. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1972. 215--36.
˸ϤĤ뤫Ԥˤä3,000Ȥ10,000Ȥޤ͡ǡꤷʤʣԤʿͤȤƤäȤ褯ˤ6,000Ǥ롥
ʤԤˤäƿͤ㤦ΤϵҴŪ˿ʤΤʤΤCrystal θοΤİǤʤͳ5Ƥ (3--5)
(1) ⤽ϤĴʤΤ20Ⱦ Ethnologue ʤɤĤεؤŪĴʤäƤ뤬ΤŪΤǤꡤפϻϤޤäФȤ٤Ǥ롥
(2) ¿ԤϾ嵭ĴԴǤ뤳ȤΤäƤ뤿ˡǤդڤ夲ڤ겼ꤷǤ롥
(3) ǤοȤ餬Ǥ®٤ΤİǤʤ
(4) ȯοȯ٤ΤİǤʤʤäȤ⡤ȯֿפˤäθŪȤϹͤˤΤǡƶ϶Ͼ
(5) Ѽָ ( language ) Ȥߤ뤫Ρ ( dialect ) Ȥߤ뤫ˤĤơΤʴबʤ
ϤĴʤƤƤꡤ(1) (4) ˤĤƤϲƤ椯(5) ϼҲؾθŵŪǤꡤλʤ
㤨С1990ǯˤ Serbo-Croatian ȤäΤߤǤ Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ȻʬƤ롥줬Ѥä櫓ǤϤʤ桼ӥŪʬ椨λ֤Ǥ롥
Ʊ褦ˡѸ줬ޤޤ¿ͲƤ椯ȤͤȡIndian English, Singapore English, Caribbean English ʤɤϤ٤ English Ω̤θȤƿ褦ˤʤ뤫⤷ʤ
ä
Crystal, David. Language Death. Cambridge: CUP, 2000.
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