¤ءˤˡƱؤdz֤ƤҲμȤˤޤ꤬Ȥޤ˼ֳγʤɤνǡ֤ܥΥå (senbonknock) Ԥޤꤵ2ͤǤΥ饤Τ褦ܥΥåȤʤޤ䤬ӽФ80ʬۤɤΥƥʥåȤʤޤ
μȤΰϽ Voicy heldio ǼϿޤΤȾȸȾʬơۿޤʲ˳Ƽ䤪бץʬäޤ
Ⱦ48ʬ #1284. Ѹ˴ؤѤʵ䡡ܥΥå at --- Part 1
(1) Chapter 2, 03:55 --- ȯΥȤʤΤǤĤϤޤʸˤ륢Ȥ¸߰յϡ
(2) Chapter 3, 04:58 --- ʤܸˤϡֻס͡סֲפʤ1;Τ¿θΤǤ
(3) Chapter 4, 00:03 --- ܸˤ褦ϱѸˤ¸ߤΤǤʡּפء
(4) Chapter 4, 04:40 --- ʤ you ˤϡ֤ʤפȡ֤ʤפξΰ̣ΤǤ
(5) Chapter 5, 02:57 --- ʤ3ñ -s ĤΤǤ
(6) Chapter 5, 01:26 --- 㤦²ʤΤ˻ƤϤޤʸζ̡θοء
ڸȾ35ʬ #1287. ؤܥΥå with (2)
(7) Chapter 2, 00:05 --- ǽ2Ĥθʹ֤ïǤ
(8) Chapter 2, 02:57 --- ζ̸뤳Ȥϼ¸ǽǤ
(9) Chapter 3, 03:35 --- ǽ˱Ѹ줬ܤäƤȤɤΤ褦ǤΤǤ
(10) Chapter 3, 02:51 --- ѸΤ褦ʤΤ¾ˤ⤢ΤǤ
(11) Chapter 4, 00:46 --- ܸΥХȷɸΤ褦ʤΤϱѸˤ⤢ޤ
(12) Chapter 5, 00:00 --- ʤѸˤ say, speak, tell ʤɡָפ̣ñ줬¿ΤǤ
ȤȤ⡤ꤵȤ heldio ۿ٥ȤȤʤޤ꤬Ȥޤ
ػˤΥϥɥ֥åɤǤ롥Mufwene θεʲ˴ؤϤǤϡޤǤƤƤ͡ʸ쵯ʲҲ𤵤Ƥꡤɤβͤ롥
褯Ѥʵ1ĤˡθʣäΤ뤤ñäΤȤε˴ؤΤ롥ʲδϡʳ鸽ޤǸñ㲽ƤΤʣƤΤȤϢ뵿䤬Ƥ롥
ʬʤΩˤĤƤԤ롥㤨СԤΤ Jespersen ȡԤ Bickerton ϹоȤʤMufwene (31) βѤ褦
His [= Jespersen's] conclusion is that the initial language must have had forms that were more complex and non-analytic; modern languages reflect evolution toward perfection which must presumably be found in languages without inflections and tones. It is not clear what Jespersen's position on derivational morphology is. In any case, his views are at odds with Bickerton's . . . hypothesis that the protolanguage, which allegedly emerged by the late Homo erectus, was much simpler and had minimal syntax, if any. While Bickerton sees in pidgins fossils of that protolanguage and in creoles the earliest forms of complex grammar that could putatively evolve from them, Jespersen would perhaps see in them the ultimate stage of the evolution of language to date. Many of us today find it difficult to side with one or the other position.
ξرĤȤȼ˴ŤƤꡤ⤽ΤɤǧʤʤΤǡʿɤ餶ʤޤʣñȤϲȤ̤ΩϤ롥ǸˤĤƤϡ#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])#4165. ʣˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2020-09-21-1]) ʤɤȡ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
Charles Darwin (1809--82) ϡοʲϿοʲΤΤʿŪʤȤȹͤƤꡤޤοʲȤطƤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ä˸Ԥ˴ؤƿʲͤǸȤӤĤƤߤԤϡDarwin ǽ˶ᤫä褦Mufwene (23) Ѥ롥
Charles Darwin commented in The Descent of Man (1871) that the evolution of language was in several ways reminiscent of that of mankind itself. He hypotheisized that it had emerged gradually, had not been given by God or invented by design by humans, and could also be explained by natural selection. He was among the first to correlate the evolution of language with that of the human mind . . . , thus accounting for why parrots cannot produce original spoken messages intentionally, although they can imitate human speech fairly accurately. Showing what an important driver role the human mind has played in the evolution of language, he argued that it was for the same reason that other primates do not use their buccopharyngeal structure to speak.
AIФ줬θʤΤȤˤؤäƤǡŤƿ⤷ʤ
ˡβ³ Mufwene (23) ϡǽϤȯȽȯΩƤ뤫ݤȤ⤦1ĤνפŦƤ롥
We now know that Charles Darwin was only partly right. The other primates' buccopharyngeal structure is not shaped in exactly the same way as that of humans, although, based on the parrot's phonetic accomplishments, we must wonder how critical this particular structure was for the emergence of language (not speech!) in the first place. After all, humans who cannot speak produce signed language, which is just as adequate for communication. This argument may be claimed to support the position that the emergence of the capacity for language must be distinguished from the emergence of languages. However, one must also wonder whether the two questions can be considered independently of each other . . . .
⸽λߤ;פˤ⤷AIϡʹ֤ȯ¿δ¸θǡͥ륮ȤơǽϤ餷ΡΤˤи컺ФμˡˤǤ롥
λˡDarwin ɤǤߤΤͭյ⤷ʤ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
Ϣ Mufwene ȤĤĸεᤰˤ֤äƤ롥ϡ¿եůؼԡؼԤ Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis (1698--1759) 夲Maupertuis ϸ¿Τˡ֥Х٥ (tower_of_babel) ȤϤ뤳Ȥ⤽ȯθ餫¿ͤʸ줬äȡĤޤεʣäñ쵯 (monogenesis) Ф¿ (polygenesis) Ǥ롥Mufwene (22--23) ϢʬѤ롥
Another important philosopher of the eighteenth century was Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, author of Réflexions sur l'origine des langues et la vie des mots (1748). Among other things, he sought to answer the question of whether modern languages can ultimately be traced back to one single common ancestor or whether current diversity reflects polygenesis, with different populations developing their own languages. Associating monogenesis with the Tower of Babel myth, which needs a deus ex machina, God, to account for the diversification of languages, he rejected it in favour of polygenesis. Note, however, that his position needs Cartesianism, which assumes that all humans are endowed with the same mental capacity and suggests that our hominin ancestors could have invented similar communicative technologies at the same or similar stages of our phylogenetic evolution. This position makes it natural to project the existence of language as the common essence of languages beyond their differences.
θǽϤ켫ΤΤɤǤǤۤƱ˳֤߽ФƤġθϸߤ˰ۤʤäƤꡤΤȤƸ¿Ф줬 Maupertuis ª
ñ쵯¿ˤĤƤϡ#2841. εȸεδط ([2017-02-05-1]) ε⻲ȡ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
ɸϲ褷褦ΤʤǤϤ뤬ػ (history_of_linguistics) ˤƤϸε (origin_of_language) ᤰΤʤǻڤƤ䤤Ǥ롥
Mufwene (22) Ȥơ2ͤԤȤθҲ𤷤ɥĤůؼ Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744--1803) ȥꥫθؼ William Dwight Whitney (1827--94) Ǥ롥
Herder also speculated that language started with the practice of naming. He claimed that predicates, which denote activities and conditions, were the first names; nouns were derived from them . . . . He thus partly anticipated Heine and Kuteva (2007), who argue that grammar emerged gradually, through the grammaticization of nouns and verbs into grammatical markers, including complementizers, which make it possible to form complex sentences. An issue arising from Herder's position is whether nouns and verbs could not have emerged concurrently. . . .
On the other hand, as hypothesized by William Dwight Whitney . . . , the original naming practice need not have entailed the distinction between nouns and verbs and the capacity to predicate. At the same time, naming may have amounted to pointing with (pre-)linguistic signs; predication may have started only after hominins were capable of describing states of affairs compositionally, combining word-size units in this case, rather than holophrastically.
Herder ϸ̾դ (naming) μϤޤäȹͤȤ̾դη̤ȤƤΡ̾פǽ̾ǤϤʤҸưäȤդϰճȯۤǶ̣Herder ϡ̾ϸư줫ΤǤȹͤϸʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ǤȤʸˡƤȯȤͤ˶ᤤ⤷ʤ
Whitney ϡư̾ζ̤Τʤʳǰɽ (holophrasis) ȯΤǤꡤޤǸˤʤäƤ餽ʸˡƤȯãȹͤ
쵯ʸˡϤΤ褦ˤƴطŤΤȴ补
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
եλ۲ȥ륽 (Jean Jacques Rousseau [1712--78]) ϡεϴŪӤˤȹͤθ塤ϿҲĶѲȤȤˡŪʤΤؤȯŸƤȤϸεȯã˴ؤŵŪɽŪʲ1ĤȤäƤ褤
륽ϸ쵯ȯãˤĤơ嵭δŪʹͤ˴ŤŪʰѤäˤڤƤ롥Mufwene (19--20) ˤ륽Ѥ
. . . Rousseau interpreted evolution as progress towards a more explicit architecture meant to express reason more than emotion. According to him,
Anyone who studies the history and progress of tongues will see that the more words become monotonous, the more consonants multiply; that, as accents fall into disuse and quantities are neutralized, they are replaced by grammatical combinations and new articulations. [...] To the degree that needs multiply [...] language changes its character. It becomes more regular and less passionate. It substitutes ideas for feelings. It no longer speaks to the heart but to reason. (Moran and Gode 1966: 16)
Thus, Rousseau interpreted the evolution of language as gradual, reflecting changes in the Homo genus's mental, social, and environmental structures. He also suggests that consonants emerged after vowels (at least some of them), out of necessity to keep 'words' less 'monotonous.' Consonants would putatively have made it easier to identify transitions from one syllable to another. He speaks of 'break[ing] down the speaking voice into a given number of elementary parts, either vocal or articulate [i.e. consonantal?], with which one can form all the words and syllables imaginable' . . . .
줬ʹ֤ȯãȤȤ "monotonous" ȤʤäƤơ"consonants" ƤȤọ̇ۤȯۤطʤˤϡĴѤִŪʡ줬ϰäƤ뤳Ȥ륽ΤäƤȤ¤롥륽и鼫ͳǤϤʤäȤ狼롥
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
1Υޤλ͡ůؼ Titus Lucretius Titus (B.C 96?--55?) ̣쵯Ƥ롥μήβȤʤäƤñ쵯 (monogenesis) 1ѼȤߤʤ뤬ǽפʵǰ褷ƤȤȤ館롥1Ŀͤ줬ȯȤƤ⥳ߥ˥ġȤƤͭϤʤʾ塤ϽŪȯȹͤʤȤǤ롥Mufwene (17--18) θѤҲ𤷤Ƥ롥
Writing in the first century BC, the Roman poet and philosopher Titus Lucretius Carus questioned one particular brand of monogenesis that is not necessarily Adamic:
[...] To think that one individual then distributed names to things and that humans learned the first words from him is absurd. For why would he be able to mark everything with utterances and emit different sounds of the tongue, and at the same time others not being capable of having done it? Besides, if others too had not used their voices with one another, from where was the notion of utility implanted, and from where was this power first granted to him, to know what he wanted to do and conceive of it in his mind? Similarly, one person could not have prevailed and forced so many to want to learn the names of things so thoroughly [...] (Lucretius Carus 2003 [?54 BC]: ll. 1041--51).
Lucretius thereby suggests that language emerged and evolved from the collective communicative acts of individuals interacting with each other. We may, in modern terms, think of different interactants innovating on different occasions and the successful innovations being copied by others. This is the position articulated by Michel Bréal in the late nineteenth century . . . , in contrast with the vast majority of scholars who have simply ignored the question.
륯ƥεϤޤäȤΤ褦˻פ롥뤤ϡǽϤȯȸѤγϤʬƹͤ褤Τָεפָȯפ̣Ȥ˱ѤäƤǽ롥
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
ε#5398. إɥȥˤߤ ([2024-02-06-1]) ǡ#2946. ˤߤȳȻ ([2017-05-21-1]) ˿줿ˤߤγȻ¿˴ؤäȤƤϡ11ϤΡ֥Х٥ (tower_of_babel) η郎Ȥ櫓ͭ̾¤Ϥ105˥Υ3ͤλҶǤ륻ࡤϥࡤڥƤλ¹줾ϤǤ줾θäƤȤҤ롥King James Version Ѥ褦
By these were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands; every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations.
ˤĤƤϡMufwene (16) ¾θԤȤĤġǻŦƤ롥
Hombert and Lenclud (in press) identify another, less well-recalled account also from the book of Genesis. God reportedly told Noah and his children to be fecund and populate the world. Subsequently, the descendants of Sem, Cham, and Japhet spread all over the world and built nations where they spoke different languages. Here one also finds an early, if not the earliest, version of the assumption that every nation must be identified through the language spoken by its population.
ȹȡ̱²ͼδطȤȴʤʤ꤬ǤޤƤΤǤ롥ϢƼε⻲ȡ
#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])
#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])
#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1])
#3810. ҲŪʹʪȤƤΡֿͼס ([2019-10-02-1])
#4846. ȸδط ([2022-08-03-1])
#5368. ethnonym ̱²̾ˡ ([2024-01-07-1])
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
ˤפȸ奮ꥷ˲ȥإɥȥ (Herodotus, B.C. 485?--425?) μˤʤˡ٤ˡ (origin_of_language) ˴ؤͭ̾äƤ롥奨ץ26īνβǤץƥ1 (Psammetichus [Psamtik], B.C. 664--610) ǤŤϲ餫ˤ뤿ˡѤƤ¸ȤǤ롥ˤĤơPerseus Digital Library Υƥȥ쥯ꡤHerodotus, The Histories (ed. A. D. Godley) 22ϡʱǡˤѤ롥
Now before Psammetichus became king of Egypt, the Egyptians believed that they were the oldest people on earth. But ever since Psammetichus became king and wished to find out which people were the oldest, they have believed that the Phrygians were older than they, and they than everybody else. Psammetichus, when he was in no way able to learn by inquiry which people had first come into being, devised a plan by which he took two newborn children of the common people and gave them to a shepherd to bring up among his flocks. He gave instructions that no one was to speak a word in their hearing; they were to stay by themselves in a lonely hut, and in due time the shepherd was to bring goats and give the children their milk and do everything else necessary. Psammetichus did this, and gave these instructions, because he wanted to hear what speech would first come from the children, when they were past the age of indistinct babbling. And he had his wish; for one day, when the shepherd had done as he was told for two years, both children ran to him stretching out their hands and calling "Bekos!" as he opened the door and entered. When he first heard this, he kept quiet about it; but when, coming often and paying careful attention, he kept hearing this same word, he told his master at last and brought the children into the king's presence as required. Psammetichus then heard them himself, and asked to what language the word "Bekos" belonged; he found it to be a Phrygian word, signifying bread. Reasoning from this, the Egyptians acknowledged that the Phrygians were older than they. This is the story which I heard from the priests of Hephaestus' temple at Memphis; the Greeks say among many foolish things that Psammetichus had the children reared by women whose tongues he had cut out.
δ1Ĥΰäˤʤ褦˻פ뤫⤷ʤˤĤƤϤޤʬʤȤ¿Ȥ¤ƧޤƤɬפ롥äͭ̾ʤ⤦1Ĥθϡ鷺Ȥ줿εҤǤ롥ˤĤƤϡ#2946. ˤߤȳȻ ([2017-05-21-1]) ȡ
Ϣơ#4612. εȯã ([2021-12-12-1])#4614. εȯãΤȺ ([2021-12-14-1]) Ƥ
ʤߤˡ Voicy heldio ˤƴϢ夲#980. ̵֤֤ǰƤƤǤΤ --- ؤγƤäѤʵİС
Τ Comrie (248) εȯŸᤰͻˤơϺǽ餫ʣäݤȤˤĤƵƤ롥ʤߤˡǤʣȤϡ˷֡ʲŪʣؤƤ롥
One question that then arises is how some languages come to have such complexities as complex morphologies and morphophonemics.
One possible answer is that they have always had these complexities, i.e. that some languages, from the beginnings of human language, just started out being complex. After all, if languages with complex morphologies, like, say, the Eskimo languages, can be acquired with relatively little difficulty by children, then they are clearly within whatever limits exist on the acquisition and use of language by human beings in general, and as soon as humans attained the level necessary for dealing with such complexity they would have been able to deal with such a language. But although such a scenario cannot be excluded a priori, the nagging question keeps coming back of where such complexity could have come from, almost as if it were improbable to accept the complexity as always having been there and at least more tempting to try to explain its origin.
ѤκǸ˼Ƥ褦ˡComrie Ȥϡ줬ǽ餫ʣäȤˤŪΤ褦ñäΤʣƤȤȿФɽƤ櫓Ǥʤ餫ʣǰƬ֤Ƥȹͤ롥
⤽ˤʣȤ嵭ǤϷ֡ʲˤʣΤߤθƤˤʤ¾ʣޤŪɾɬפ뤫ơɾδˤĤƸԴ֤ǤιդϤʤȴϢơʲεȡ
#293. ٤¬뤫 ([2010-02-14-1])
#1839. ñ㲽Ȥϲ ([2014-05-10-1])
#2820. ˤĤơ ([2017-01-15-1])
#4165. ʣˤĤƺƹ͡ ([2020-09-21-1])
Comrie, Barnard. "Reconstruction, Typology and Reality." Motives for Language Change. Ed. Raymond Hickey. Cambridge: CUP, 2003. 243--57.
եꥫ4Ĥθ²ˤĤơ#3811. եꥫθ²Ƚγס ([2019-10-03-1]) ǾҲ𤷤#4846. ȸδط ([2022-08-03-1]) ǻȤĤˡȰҤδط˿Ĥĥեꥫθ²ˤĤƤä餫Ѥ (87--88)
ѰۤФ뤴ȤѤޤ顤ƱϰĹ餹ۤɸδ֤ΰŪʰ㤤礭ʤޤۥ⡦ԥ¾ΤɤϰĹեꥫΦ褷Ƥޤ顤եꥫƱΤϡ¾ΦοͤӤȤ礭ʰŪѰۤäƤޤºݡλİŪ¿Τ¤ȬޥѡȤޤǤϥեꥫͤäƤȿꤵƤޤDNAƱ֤͡ȤȤѲƤޤΥԡɤDNAѲϤ뤫ǯ⤵Τܤȸ֤ηطɤʤۤѲȤƤޤƱ褦Ѳ뤳Ȥ顤ʬۤȽĤˤΤˤ̩ܤʴط뤳Ȥͽۤޤ
եꥫˤϡ¸ߤλʬΰ롤褽θ줬¸ߤޤϡեꥫΦĹˤ錄äƿͤӤȤ餷Ƥ뤳ȤξڵǤ⤢ޤեꥫäƤ礭ͤĤΥ롼פʬƤꡤ̤顤ե졤ʥ롦ϥ졤˥롦졤줬ʬۤޤϤ˸ޤĤΥ롼פʬƤꡤߤζϤۤȤɤʤȤƤޤΤʬ췲θ²Τª٤ΤǤȤ⤢졤쥰롼פʬۤͻҤȽĤΰŪʹˤ̩ܤʴط뤳Ȥ狼äƤޤ̸ά͡
ޤեꥫο͡θ²ҡŪʬۤߤ˴ط뤳Ȥ˲äȤشطȤ߹ޤƤȤե²̱̱ȴϢŤ졤ʥ롦ϥ²̱ȡ˥롦²̱ȡ²ϼĺν̱Ȥ줾ϢŤ롥 *
(89) ϡָȡŪʬۤΰ㤤ϡˤ뽸Ĥΰưͻη̤ȹͤΤǡФDNAˤϹųŪʾڵηĴ٤뤳ȤǡΥեꥫĤΩΥʥꥪ¿ŪȤǤޤפƱäƤ롥
Ϣơ#3807. եꥫˤ¿ (1) ([2019-09-29-1])#3808. եꥫˤ¿ (2) ([2019-09-30-1])#3814. եꥫ͡Ķ̱² ([2019-10-06-1]) ۤ africa γƵȡ
졡ؿεDNAۥ⡦ԥΡ礤ʤιס١2022ǯ
#4623. 㡼Ȥϲ ([2021-12-23-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǯؤȤؤοʬȤƥ㡼椬ˤʤäƤƤ롥㡼γػˤ֤ȡ19ޤǤϼ˸쵯ȤδϢǥ㡼ؤδؿϳͷߤä20Ⱦ˹¤λ夬Ϥޤȡܤ뤳Ȥʤʤä
¤λˤϡؤ϶ŪʴؿĤäᡤ쵯ȷӤĤζ㡼θⲼФˤʤäΤǤ롥ޤؤμΧȤ˼ĥ줿ˡؤȤΥܥ졼Ȥ른㡼ϡϤ꿶ʤʤä
塤㡼뤲롥طʤˤϡؤӴϢسˤؿΰܹԤäKendon (81) λΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
In the first years following the Second World War, certain changes eventually produced a climate in which gesture again became relevant for theoretical issues related to language and thought. First, information theory and cybernetics, developed as solutions to problems in communication engineering, were applied in the study of communication within and between living systems, with the result that much thought and investigation came to be devoted to social communication. Not unrelated was the emergence of semiotics which, especially in North America, greatly broadened attention to sign processes, enhancing an interest in visible modes of signification, including gesture. Further, the question of language origins once again began to be taken seriously. When experiments with chimpanzees suggested that they might use gesture symbolically, as in a sign language, the idea of gesture as a first form of language was discussed once again . . . .
At the same time, in psychology, complex mental processes once again became legitimate objects of investigation. Psychologists took an interest in language and the field of psycholinguistics was established. Noam Chomsky's work was especially important. He showed the inadequacy of a behaviourist approach to language and argued that linguistics should focus on 'competence', the mental apparatus making the acquisition and use of any language possible, rather than on descriptions of specific languages. Although neither Chomsky himself nor his followers showed interest in gesture, their mentalistic orientation was influential. When, later, psycholinguists looked at gesture, they did so for what it might reveal about the mental operations of utterance production.
ΰʸ顤㡼ؤδؿ᤹Τ˹θؤȴϢʬĬήɽ魯ɤ¤٤С"information theory", "cybernetics", "semiotics", "origin_of_language", "sign_language", "Chomsky" դȤ櫓塼ϻϤ¤ؤäƥॹ˿ؤ褵Ȥΰյ礭ˤȿӤĤƤ褤Ȥ줿Ǥ롥
Ϣʬγػˤɤ϶̩ϢȤƤΤȼ´碌ơ#252. ʸˡȸ쵯 ([2010-01-04-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
Kendon, Adam. "History of the Study of Gesture." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 71--89.
㡼 (gesture) ϸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤƱ뤳Ȥ¿ؤҲؤʤɤʬǤϽפʸоݤȤʤäƤ롥Ȥ櫓ǯǤϡ֥ޥƥ⡼ʬϡ (multimodal analysis) ȸƤФ롤ѥŪ (paralinguistics) Ū˴ѻˡԤ߽ФƤƤ롤㡼ϡε (origin_of_language) (sign_language)ȤäȤꡤؤȤηӤĤ϶ºݡܲɤ߿ʤƤػˤΥϥɥ֥åǡ㡼ˤ1Ϥ䤫Ƥ롥Kendon (71) ꡤճȴˤ֥㡼פƤ
'Gesture' here refers to the wide variety of ways in which humans, through visible bodily action, give expression to their thoughts and feelings, draw attention to things, describe things, greet each other, or engage in ritualized actions as in religious ceremonies. 'Gesture' includes the movements of the body, especially of the hands and arms, often integrated with spoken expression; the use of manual actions, often conventionalized, to convey something without speech; or the manual and facial actions employed in sign languages. All this is part of 'gesture', broadly conceived. Expressions such as laughing and crying, blushing, clenching the teeth in anger, and the like, or bodily postures and attitudes sustained during occasions of interaction, are less likely to be so considered. 'Gesture' is not a well-defined category. Although there is a core of phenomena, such as those mentioned, to which the term is usually applied without dispute, it is not possible to establish clear boundaries to the domain of its application, and some writers are inclined to include a much wider range of phenomena than do others.
ܥ֥Ǥϡ#2921. 㡼ʬ ([2017-04-26-1]) ǥ㡼夲Ȥ٤ǻ糰ǤդȻפäΤ˥㡼ؤȤΤ¸ߤΤ㤨бΥѥեޥܿܤʤɤλʤɤ顤餷椬ΩĤΤ
Kendon, Adam. "History of the Study of Gesture." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 71--89.
#4612. εȯã ([2021-12-12-1]) ǰѤ Mufwene (51) ϡεȯãˤĤơǶᲿƤФƤƤȤ¤ϤʤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ֽפ18ůؼԤμˤꡤǤ˽ФäƤȤǧ
For instance, the claim that language is what distinguishes mankind the most clearly from the animal kingdom is already evident in Condillac. It is also hard to sharply distinguish eighteenth-century arguments for the emergence of human language out of instinctive cries and gestures from Bickerton's position that the predecessor of his 'protolanguage' consisted of holistic vocalizations and gestures. The idea of gradualism in the evolution of language is not new either; and Rousseau had already articulated the significance of social interactions as a prerequisite to the emergence of language. And one can keep on identifying a number of current hypotheses which are hardly different from earlier speculations on the subject.
ǤϡȤäƤΰˤ븦椬ʤǤʤȤС櫓Ǥʤ Mufwene (51--52) ϵ³롥18ůؼԤ19θؼԤȡβ桹Ȥδ֤ˤϽפʰ㤤ĤȤ
1ܤϡ桹10--20ǯβпȲ桹Ȥ˶ŪˤֳŪˤۤʤä¸ߤǤ뤳ȤǧƤ뤳ȤεȯãǡǧϽפǤ롥
2ܤϡ桹εȯã⤬ "speculative" ʵǤȤȤǧƤ뤳Ȥ̤θС桹Τۤ夲äƲʳŪμθ³˼ŪʤΤǤ롥
3ܤϡ桹ϸȯãˤĤƳͥ˥ƤȤȤ줬ˤäͿ줿ǽϤǤȤΩԤ⡤ɤǤȤϤ¸ߤ롥ήθǤϡǽϤѰۤˤäƤΤȤƤ롥
4ܤϡ桹ϸι¤⥸塼벽줿ΤǤ (modular) ȹͤƤ롥ĤƤΤ褦˸ιǤ٤ƤȤƱȯȹͤɬפϤʤȤȤߤϡ줬ȯãƤȤȤƤ褤롥
Τ褦ˡˤʤäƲ⤬Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤΤΡ18--19ˤȤƤʤäȤǤȤƤ褦ˤʤäȤȤϡ줳ʤΤ
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
εȯãˤĤơܥ֥Ǥ origin_of_language evolution εǼ夲Ƥ夫鸽˻ޤ䤤³ƤŤƿȤ櫓ϳغŪʥץԲķǤ롥ޤ˿ΰǤꡤˤ̤˾ΤۤɤMufwene (14--15) "The Origins and the Evolution of Language" ꤹͤǡϢΰüꥹȤǼƤΤǡѤ롥
1. Was language given to humans by God or did it emerge by Darwinian evolution?
2. From a phylogenetic perspective, did language emerge abruptly or gradually? If the emergence of language was protracted, what plausible intermediate stages can be posited and what would count as evidence for positing them? Assuming that the structure of modern languages is modular, would gradual evolution apply to any of the modules, only to some of them, or only to the overall architecture? What is the probable time of the emergence of the first real ancestor of modern language?
3. Does possessing Language, the non-individuated construct associated exclusively with humans, presuppose monogenesis or does it allow for polygenesis? How consistent is either position with paleontological evidence about the evolution of the Homo genus? How did linguistic diversity start? Assuming Darwinian (variational rather than transformational) evolution, can monogenesis account for typological variation as plausibly as polygenesis?
4. What is the chronological relationship between communication and language? What light does this distinction shed on the relation between sign(ed) and spoken language? Did some of our hominin ancestors communicated by means of ape-like vocalizations and gestures? If so, how can we account for the transition from them to phonetic and signed languages? And how can we account for the fact that modern humans have favoured speaking over signing? Assuming that language is a communication technology, to what extent are some of the structural properties of language consequences of the linearity imposed by the phonic and signing devices used in their architecture.
5. Is the evolution of language more biological than cultural? Or is it the other way around, or equally both? Are languages as cultural artifacts deliberate inventions or emergent phenomena? Who are the agents in the emergence of language: individuals or populations, or both?
6. What is the relationship between language and thought? Did these entities co-evolve or did one cause the other?
7. Is there such a thing as 'language organ' or 'biological endowment for language'? How can it be characterized relative to modern humans' anatomical and/or mental makeups? What are the anatomical, mental, and social factors that facilitated the emergence of language?
8. Can we learn something about the evolution of language from historical language change, especially from the emergence of creoles and pidgins? Can we learn something from child language and/or from home sign language? And what can be learned from 'linguistic apes'? Does it make sense to characterize these particular communicative 'systems' as fossils of the human protolanguage . . . ? In the same vein, what can modelling contribute to understanding the evolution of language. This is definitely the kind of thing that scholars could not do before the twentieth century; it is important to assess its heuristic significance.
į䤤ȤȤ褯ʬ롥θ椷ƤѸˤѲ (language_change) ϡΤʬߤ¸ߤˤ⤳ʬľŪ˻뤫ʬʤٻǤ롥
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
ưʪĤϡؤˤˤƤϽ뤵Ƥ#431. ʶθε ([2010-07-02-1]) Ǥߤ褦˸ε (origin_of_language) Ȥ̩ܤʴطȼ꺻ƤȿȤʤ륪Υޥȥ (onomatopoeia) ζ븻Ǥ⤢롥Ϥ줬ۤʤĤۤʤ롥ʲѸˤפưʪĤư̾ˤǤ褦ʡرѸŵ (474--76) ˡ
| Animal | cry ư | cry ̾ |
|---|---|---|
| bear ʷ | growl ٹŨդˤʤ | grr |
| roar 礭Ǥۤ | rooaar | |
| bird Ļ | chirp åäĤ | chirp-chirp |
| sing Τ褦ˤ | ||
| tweet = chirp | tweet-tweet | |
| burro ʾС | bray ʤʤ | hee-haw |
| cat ǭ | hiss ٹ˥塼äȤФ | hisses; sssss |
| meow ˥㥪Ĥ | mew; miao | |
| purr ˤΤɤĤ餹 | purrrr | |
| spit ܤäƤĤФǤ褦Ф | pffft | |
| chick ʤҤ褳 | cheep ԥԥĤ | cheep-cheep |
| peep ԥԥĤ | peep-peep | |
| cock [rooster] ͺĻ | crow åȤȤĤ | cock-a-doodle-do |
| cow ʵ | bawl ⤤ΤФĤ | |
| low; moo ⥦Ĥ | moo | |
| cricket ʥ | chirp ⤯û³ŪĤ | chirp-chirp; chirr |
| crow ʥ饹 | caw Ĥ | caw-caw |
| dog ʸ | bark Ȥۤ | bow-wow |
| growl ٹŨդˤʤ | grrr | |
| howl ܤ | ow-ow-ow-oooow | |
| whine ɡĤ餹 | ||
| woof 㤤Ǥۤ | woof-woof | |
| yap; yip Ĥ | yap-yap; yip-yip | |
| donkey ʥС | bray ʤʤ | hee-haw |
| dove ȷ | coo Ĥ | coo-coo |
| duck ʥҥ | quack Ĥ | quack-quack |
| squawk Ԥ郎Ĥ | ||
| elephant ʾݡ | trumpet 褯̤礭Ĥ | |
| fox ʥĥ͡ | bark û⤤Ĥ | |
| frog ʥ | croak Ĥ | croak-croak; reebeep-reebeep |
| goat ʻӡ | bleat ᥨᥨĤ | bah-bah |
| goose [wild goose] ʥ祦 | gabble Ĥ | gabble-gabble |
| hiss 塼äȤФ | ||
| honk 祦äĤ | honk-honk | |
| hen ʻĻ | cackle Ǥ⤯³ŪĤ | buck-buck-buck-budacket |
| cluck åäȤҤʤƤ | cluck-cluck | |
| horse ϡ | neigh ҥҡȤʤʤ | wheee |
| snort ɡФɡ©Ƥ | ||
| whicker = neigh | ||
| whinny = neigh | ||
| hyena ʥϥʡ | laugh ͤФ褦Ǥۤ | hee-hee-hee |
| jay [blue jay] ʥ | scold ޤ | |
| lion ʥ饤 | growl ٹŨդˤʤ | grrr |
| roar 礭Ǥۤ | rooaar | |
| monkey ʱ | chatter åäĤ | chitter-chatter |
| scold ޤĤ | ||
| mouse ʥͥߡ | squeak 奦奦Ĥ | eek-eek; squeak-squeak |
| mule ʥС | bray ʤʤ | hee-haw |
| nightingale ʥʥ | sing | |
| warble = sing | ||
| owl [screech owl] ʥե | hoot ۥۥĤ | whoo-whoo |
| screech ڤФ | ||
| parrot | screech ڤФ | |
| shriek ڤФ | eek-eek | |
| talk ͤθޤͤ | "Polly-wanna-cracker?" ʥˤ ˸碌ʸ | |
| pig ڡ | grunt ֥֥Ĥ | |
| oink ֥ͭĤ | oink-oink | |
| squeal ڤФ | ee-ee | |
| pigeon ʥϥȡ | coo Ĥ | coo-coo |
| rat ʥͥߡ | squeak 奦奦Ĥ | eek-eek; squeak-squeak |
| robin ʥޥɥ | chirp åäĤ | chirp-chirp |
| sheep ӡ | bleat ᥨᥨĤ | bah-bah |
| snake ʼء | hiss 塼äȤФ | sssss |
| sparrow ʿ | chirp åäĤ | chirp-chirp |
| swan Ļ | trumpet 褯̤礭Ĥ | |
| tiger ʸס | growl ٹŨդˤʤ | grr |
| roar 礭Ǥۤ | rooaar | |
| turkey ʼĻ | gobble Ĥ | gobble-gobble |
| wolf ϵ | howl ܤ | ow-ow-ow-oooow |
θεեꥫˤȤȤϡ¿θؼԤǧƤȤǤ롥ȤкΥեꥫθʬۤ˴ؿͯƤ櫓ǤĹˤͭƤ뤫餳ʤΤԳΤʤȤ¿եꥫθʬۤˤĤ绨ĤˤޤȤƤߤ褦
#3290. եꥫθѸ ([2018-04-30-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡߤΥեꥫǤ2θ줬äƤꡤ¿⤤ʡ#3807. եꥫˤ¿ (1) ([2019-09-29-1])#3808. եꥫˤ¿ (2) ([2019-09-30-1]) ȡˡեꥫäƤϡ褽 Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Sahara, Khoisan 3²Τ줫°뤬ߤδطʬäƤʤФ꤫¾Τʤ²ȤɤΤ褦ʴطˤ뤫̤ܤǤ롥ؼԤΤʤˤϡˤ2Ĥθ쥰롼פꡤ1Ĥϥեꥫθ췲⤦1ĤϤʳΤ٤ƤȤԤ⤢ۤɤ (Comrie 74)
եꥫǹԤʤƤ4Ĥθ²Ҳ𤷤Ƥܡ (689) Υեꥫθ²ʬۿޤˤȡΤۤȤɤΥꥢϡNiger-Kordofanian ²νˤäƤ롥Bantu Ϥޤ¿θ줬°1ǯˤϡʬۤեꥫ˸ꤵƤ褦θ塤س礷Ȥ롥 *
Niger-Kordofanian ²ŪʳεȤʤäΤȤ˹ʬۤƤ Khoisan ²νǤ롥ɽŪʸ Namibia ι16ͤüԤȤ Khoekhoe (or Damara) Ʊ²¾θϿषƤƤ롥Ǥ (click) Τ²
եꥫǡ¾θ²˼Ϥޤ褦ˤҤäʬۤƤΤϡNilo-Sahara ²νǤ롥ŤʬۤϤۤ礭ѲƤʤȤ롥Songhai, Saharan, Chari-Nile ʤɤޤޤ뤬ߤ˸ŪˤۤɶϤʤ
̥եꥫƤΤϡArabian ɽ Afro-Asiatic ²Ǥ롥̤̾ꥢʤ餯ϥ衼åѤˤνȴطƤꡤŪˤפʸ¿ޤࡥ
4Ĥθ²ôˤĤƤϡ1ǯʳǤȤܤĤǧ롥Niger-Kordofanian ² West Africans ȤĤˡKhoisan ²Nilo-Saharan ²Afro-Asiatic ²Ϥ줾 Bushmen, Nilotics, North Africans ȤĤбȤ롥դˡĤƥեꥫ˵サƤߡб²¸ߤǧʤĤȤƤ Pygmies 롥ϡˤβǡեꥫ礷 Niger-Kordofanian ² Bantu Ͻݤ߹ޤ졤夷Ĥĸ˻äƤ롥
Comrie, Bernard, Stephen Matthews, and Maria Polinsky, eds. The Atlas of Languages. Rev. ed. New York: Facts on File, 2003.
ԡˡؿեꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ
ɸȴϢ#2980. 30ǯκǸŤΥۥ⥵ԥ ([2017-06-24-1])#1544. εȿʲǯɽ ([2013-07-19-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥۥ⡦ԥ˺ǤᤤǤͥǥ륿ͤϡϤƸäƤΤɤ
Ȥʤˤϡ(1) ǤǾⵡäƤ뤳ȡ(2) 첻ȯ뤿αưäƤ뤳ȡ2Ĥξ郎ʤФʤʤ2˴ؤơФųŪʾڵȤ͡ʸƤäƤ뤬ʤʤ¬ΰФʤ褦[2013-07-19-1]ǤϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ȥ1Ĥθˤʤ
ͥǥ륿ͤϹƬޤ⤤֤ˤȤɤޤäƤꡤư¤Ƥᡤȯ뤳ȤΤǤ벻褬¤ƤȹͤƤ롥ϷͤԤáԤʤɤʣʼҲưųŪʾڵ뤳Ȥ顤Τ褦ʼҲΩɬǤȤƽŪʸ¸ߤȤ롥
(204--05) ⡤嵭ȤãƤ뤬οʲˤĤƤ⿷ʼäƤ롥ۥ⡦ԥȥͥǥ륿ͤξΤȤʤäۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ڤӤΤäǽΤ뤵˸Ťۥ⡦쥯ȥӤʤ顤ͥǥ륿ͤθǽϤˤĤƥȤƤ롥
ۥ⡦쥯ȥǤǾη顤֥̤Ǥ褦ˤʤäۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ǤФˤʤäͥǥ륿ͤǤǹη꤬ꡤFOXP2 ҤŬפˤʤäդϤʤ긽줿ΤǤϤʤʳŪ˾ȯŸƤΤ
äơͥǥ륿ͤޤääʤäȤϹͤˤдȻޤȤ߹碌äꡤ֤ȶϤƼꤹ뤿ˤϡ٤ϸդä뤳Ȥɬפϥۥ⡦ϥǥ٥륲ˤ뤳Ȥη顤ʤ꼫ͳϽФȹͤ롥
ɤ٤ʸˡȤäդäƤΤϡ狼ʤ餯ܤǵƤ븽ߤΤȤˤĤƤäΤȤˤĤƤϤɤäΤˡȤäơ¤ˤϵƤʤȤޤäΤˡϾħưκǤΤǤ롥ҥȤȥͥǥ륿ͤΤǾħư礭ʺäȤСդˤĤƤƱͤˡ礭ʺäȹͤΤǤ롥ŪʤȡȤСʿ¡פդȤ鷺˹ͤ뤳ȤϤʤͥǥ륿ͤμˤϡֻפפϤäƤ⡤ʿ¡פϤʤäΤǤϤʤ
Ǥοˡ١NHKǡNHKǿӡ2018ǯ
ۥ⥵ԥϸȤˤꡤ̤ξ˼¸ãǤ褦ˤʤäɤΤ褦ʾΤ˸ΤHarari ˤСˤ2Ĥ⤬Ȥ1Ĥϡζ˥饤⡤⤦1ĤϡֱáǤ롥ԤϿʹ֤̿ľܴؤؿüȯǤꡤԤϿʹ֤μҲܤǤ롥ޤԤ "the there-is-a-lion-near-the-river theory" ˤĤơHarari (24--25) ϼΤ褦롥
A green monkey can yell to its comrades, 'Careful! A lion!' But a modern human can tell her friends that this morning, near the bend in the river, she saw a lion tracking a herd of bison. She can then describe the exact location, including the different paths leading to the area. With this information, the members of her band can put their heads together and discuss whether they should approach the river, chase away the lion, and hunt the bison.
2ܤ "the gossip theory" ˤĤƤϡ̤ (Harari 25--26)
A second theory agrees that our unique language evolved as a means of sharing information about the world. But the most important information that needed to be conveyed was about humans, not about lions and bison. Our language evolved as a way of gossiping. According to this theory Homo sapiens is primarily a social animal. Social cooperation is our key for survival and reproduction. It is not enough for individual men and women to know the whereabouts of lions and bison. It's much more important for them to know who in their band hates whom, who is sleeping with whom, who is honest, and who is a cheat.
The amount of information that one must obtain and store in order to track the ever-changing relationships of even a few dozen individuals is staggering. (In a band of fifty individuals, there are 1,225 one-on-one relationships, and countless more complex social combinations.) All apes show a keen interest in such social information, but they have trouble gossiping effectively. Neanderthals and archaic Homo sapiens probably also had hard time talking behind each other's backs --- a much maligned ability which is in fact essential for cooperation in large numbers. The new linguistic skills that modern Sapiens acquired about seventy millennia ago enabled them to gossip for hours on end. Reliable information about who could be trusted meant that small bands could expand into larger bands, and Sapiens could develop tighter and more sophisticated types of cooperation.
Harari (27) ϡ餯2ĤȤȽҤ٤Ƥ롥ϸεȽȯŸͤǽפʾ˸ȸǽܼŪȤʤäƤΤǤϤʤ
Harari, Yuval Noah. Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind. 2011. London: Harvill Secker, 2014.
䡦ꥹȶˤСȳȻˤޤĤäϡ줾쥢ȥХ٥ΰä˽롥ϡŪ˸Ƥ쵯ΤʤǤⷲȴƹΤ졤ŤĹˤ錄äƿƤγפMufwene (15--16) ˤǤǼ
Speculations about the origins of language and linguistic diversity date from far back in the history of mankind. Among the most cited cases is the book of Genesis, in the Judeo-Christian Bible. After God created Adam, He reportedly gave him authority to name every being that was in the Garden of Eden. Putatively, God and Adam spoke some language, the original language, which some scholars have claimed to be Hebrew, the original language of Bible. Adam named every entity God wanted him to know; and his wife and descendants accordingly learned the names he had invented.
Although the story suggests the origin of naming conventions, it says nothing about whether Adam named only entities or also actions and states. In any case, it suggests that it was necessary for Adam's wife and descendants to learn the same vocabulary to facilitate successful communication.
Up to the eighteenth century, reflecting the impact of Christianity, pre-modern Western philosophers and philologists typically maintained that language was given to mankind, or that humans were endowed with language upon their creation. Assuming that Eve, who was reportedly created from Adam's rib, was equally endowed with (a capacity for) language, the rest was a simple history of learning the original vocabulary or language. Changes needed historical accounts, grounded in natural disasters, in population dispersals, and in learning with modification . . . .
The book of Genesis also deals with the origin of linguistic diversity, in the myth of the Tower of Babel (11: 5--8), in which the multitude of languages is treated as a form of punishment from God. According to the myth, the human population had already increased substantially, generations after the Great Deluge in the Noah's Ark story. To avoid being scattered around the world, they built a city with a tower tall enough to reach the heavens, the dwelling of God. The tower apparently violated the population structure set up at the creation of Adam and Eve. God brought them down (according to some versions, He also destroyed the tower), dispersed them around the world, and confounded them by making them speak in mutually unintelligible ways. Putatively, this is how linguistic diversity began. The story suggests that sharing the same language fosters collaboration, contrary to some of the modern Darwinian thinking that joint attention and cooperation, rather than competition, facilitated the emergence of language . . . .
Ǹʬɾ⤷Х٥οäǤϡָͭƤȶƯ䤹ʤפȤ뤬θ쵯ǤϤषֶƯȯưפˤפ⤫롥դεϡȼҲشط̴طȤ̩ܤ˴طԥᥦդβ (sapir-whorf_hypothesis) ؤ³Х٥㤫ؤȤĤʤƻڤȤϻפäƤ⸫ʤäΤǡäȯä
Х٥ˤĤƤϡǶᡤ#2928. űѸǡ11:1--9 ʡ֥Х٥סˤɤ ([2017-05-03-1]) ȡ#2938. ֥Х٥פθѡ ([2017-05-13-1]) ˤΤǡ⻲Ȥ줿
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013.
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