ε#5398. إɥȥˤߤ ([2024-02-06-1]) ǡ#2946. ˤߤȳȻ ([2017-05-21-1]) ˿줿ˤߤγȻ¿˴ؤäȤƤϡ11ϤΡ֥Х٥ (tower_of_babel) η郎Ȥ櫓ͭ̾¤Ϥ105˥Υ3ͤλҶǤ륻ࡤϥࡤڥƤλ¹줾ϤǤ줾θäƤȤҤ롥King James Version Ѥ褦
By these were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands; every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations.
ˤĤƤϡMufwene (16) ¾θԤȤĤġǻŦƤ롥
Hombert and Lenclud (in press) identify another, less well-recalled account also from the book of Genesis. God reportedly told Noah and his children to be fecund and populate the world. Subsequently, the descendants of Sem, Cham, and Japhet spread all over the world and built nations where they spoke different languages. Here one also finds an early, if not the earliest, version of the assumption that every nation must be identified through the language spoken by its population.
ȹȡ̱²ͼδطȤȴʤʤ꤬ǤޤƤΤǤ롥ϢƼε⻲ȡ
#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])
#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])
#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1])
#3810. ҲŪʹʪȤƤΡֿͼס ([2019-10-02-1])
#4846. ȸδط ([2022-08-03-1])
#5368. ethnonym ̱²̾ˡ ([2024-01-07-1])
Mufwene, Salikoko S. "The Origins and the Evolution of Language." Chapter 1 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 13--52.
̱²̾̾̾Ϥߤ˴ϢΡʸͭ̾̾ (onomastics) Ǥ demonym ethnonym ȸƤФƤ뤬ܲɤ³Ƥ̾ؤΥϥɥ֥åǤϸԤθƾΤѤƤ롥
ϥɥ֥å17ϡKoopman ˤ "Ethnonyms" ƬǤϡѸϪ롥ä "ethnic group" ̱²ˤȤ뤫ʸؾǤꡤ줬ʤ ethnonym ȤѸˤӲФ뤫ǧĤĥɤ߿ʤƤȡɤɤȵ⤷ʤäƤʲΥ٥θФƤмΤ褦ˤʤ롥
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Ethnonyms and Race
17.3 Ethnonyms, Nationality, and Geographical Area
17.4 Ethnonyms and Language
17.5 Ethnonyms and Religion
17.6 Ethnonyms, Clans, and Surnames
17.7 Variations of Ethnonyms
17.7.1 Morphological Variations
17.7.2 Endonymic and Exonymic Forms of Ethnonyms
17.8 Alternative Ethnonyms
17.9 Derogatory Ethnonyms
17.10 'Non-Ethnonyms' and 'Ethnonymic Gaps'
17.11 Summary and Conclusion
Ǹ "Summary and Conclusion" Ѥʬ̥ϤָƤ
In this chapter I have tried to show that while 'ethnonym' is a commonly used term among onomastic scholars, not all regard ethnonyms as proper names. This anomalous status is linked to uncertainties about defining the entity which is named with an ethnonym, with (for example) terms like 'race' and 'ethnic group' being at times synonymous, and at other times part of each other's set of defining elements. Together with 'race' and 'ethnicity', other defining elements have included language, nationality, religion, geographical area, and culture. The links between ethnonyms and some of these elements, such as religion, are both complex and debatable; while other links, such as between ethnonyms and language, and ethnonyms and nationality, produce intriguing onomastic dynamics. Ethnonyms display the same kind of variations and alternatives as can be found for personal names and place-names: morpho-syntactic variations, endonymic and exonymic forms, and alternative names for the same ethnic entity, generally regarded as falling into the general spectrum of nicknames. Examples have been given of the interface between ethnonyms, personal names, toponyms, and glossonyms.
In conclusion, although ethnonyms have an anomalous status among onomastic scholars, they display the same kinds of linguistic, social, and cultural characteristics as proper names generally.
̱²դѸˤĤƤϰʲε⻲ȡ
#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])
#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])
#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1])
#3810. ҲŪʹʪȤƤΡֿͼס ([2019-10-02-1])
ޤethnonym Τ⤷ˤĤƤϡϢ#5118. Japan-ese θꤹ by khelf Ĺ ([2023-05-02-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Koopman, Adrian. "Ethnonyms." Chapter 17 of The Oxford Handbook of Names and Naming. Ed. Carole Hough. Oxford: OUP, 2016. 251--62.
ӸؤǤϡѸȺǤƤθϲȤХեꥸ (Frisian) ȤȤˤʤäƤ롥ܥ֥ǤϱѸˤμդ͡˰äƤեꥸˤĤƤϡ#787. Frisian ([2011-06-23-1]) #3169. űѸ⳰ˤեꥸͤγ ([2017-12-30-1]) Ǽ夲٤ǡޤܤƤʤä
ǶḽΥեꥸξˤĤ٤֥եꥸκפꤹ̥Ū1Ѥ (262--63) ̱²߽Ф1Ȥƥեꥸ줬夲Ƥս
줬ϤζΰϤˤäƾǤδˤ餵Ƥ⡤̱²ŪޥΥƥǥƥƥ᤹뤳Ȥǡθϰ̤θˤĤʤ뤳Ȥ롥եꥸξ礬Ǥ롥եꥸϡѸƱޥ췲γθ췲̥եꥸ췲ͤ°Ѹ¿ζäƤ롥θ˸ŤˤäƤꡤޤȴطäƤ衼åѤ̱²θǤ롥ĤƥեꥸüԤϡγȤ襤ȴαĤߤơؤ⤯äƤDeus mare, Friso litora fecitաֿĤꡤեꥸͤߤĤäפȡȤեꥸäҤȤӤȤϡʥեȽȥե˥˻͡ˤȥɥġʥǥޡȹܤ륷쥹ҡۥ륷奿ˡΤॹȥإॹϡեδ֤ˤϰ衤ߤȤޤäƤΦȤϤʤۤʤƿ͡ˤΤʬƤޤΤʤǥեꥸˤϿषƤ
ưϽȾФ餹Ǥ˻ϤޤäƤΤǤϡեꥸ¼ǤäƤʤä줬ˡΧʸˤƥեꥸˤȤäϤɤ⡤ˤʤäơΰĹΤȤƥեȤ¸ߤȤϡǥƥƥγä¥ȤϡŪʵϤαդĤġθˤޤȤޤäˡ褦Ȥˤˤϥեꥸǥߡꡤ¤Ƥ롥եꥸ϶ˡΧΰˤϤޤۤȤƳƤʤɤ⡤廰ǯʹ߾عܤȤƳ졤ǯȽǿѤǤ褦ˤʤäȤȡθߤŪʹưΤǡեꥸϥ˶Ϥ˰褯ƤȤ̸ά͡
֥եꥸǥߡפʤȿ뤳ȤΤʤäΤǶä졤Ѹ졤ɥĸ졤̲ȤŪˤŪˤҲŪˤʽζ֤ˤäơޤӤƤȤΤϴפΤ褦ˤפ롥
ɡˡë 𡦺 ľҡˡض̸ --- 衼åѽᤰء١ҡ2018ǯ
ѸˤˤơɸѸ (Standard English) ľܤεϤɤˤ뤫֤ɤˤ뤫פȤ⡤षԤ֤ɤ֤ΤפȤǤ뤫顤ʸ롥դɸಽ Chaucer 14˲"Chancery Standard" 15Ⱦȯã˸ڤơդλɸಽȤ븫ŪˤϤ롥ɸѸľϢʤΤϡ֤ɤפǡ֤ġפʤΤȤϡɸಽ (standardisation) ȤϲʤΤȤܼŪȷӤĤʤʤ
Crowley (303--04) ϡɸѸη˴ؤͤνȤ "Renaissance Origins" ꤹƤ롥ɸಽΥߥ˴ؤ1ĤθȤơƶ٤ƤΤǡޤޤѤThomas Wilson, George Puttenham, Edmund Spenser Ȥ16̾ͤθդڤơϤΤɸѸ쵯ŸƤ롥
The emergence of the English vernacular as a culturally valorized and legitimate form took place in the Renaissance period. It is possible to trace in the comments of three major writers of the time the origins of a persistent set of problems which later became attached to the term "standard English." Following the introduction of Thomas Wilson's phrase "the king's English" in 1553, the principal statement of the idea of a centralized form of the language in the Renaissance was George Puttenham's determination in 1589 of the "natural, pure and most usual" type of English to be used by poets: "that usual speech of the court, and that of London and the shires lying about London, within lx miles and not much above" (Puttenham 1936: 144--5). In the following decade the poet and colonial servant Edmund Spenser composed A View of the State of Ireland (1596) during the height of the decisive Nine Years War between the English colonists in Ireland and the natives. In the course of his wide-ranging analysis of the difficulties facing English rule, Spenser offers a diagnosis of one of the most serious causes of English "degeneration" (a term often used in Tudor debates on Ireland to refer to the Gaelicization of the colonists): "first, I have to finde fault with the abuse of language, that is, for the speaking of Irish among the English, which, as it is unnaturall that any people should love anothers language more than their owne, so it is very inconvenient, and the cause of many other evils" (Spenser 1633: 47). Given Spenser's belief that language and identity were linked ("the speech being Irish, the heart must needes bee Irish), his answer was the Anglicization of Ireland. He therefore recommended the adoption of Roman imperial practice, since "it hath ever been the use of the Conquerour, to despise the language of the conquered, and to force him by all means to use his" (Spencer 1633: 47).
There are several notable features to be drawn from these Renaissance observations on English, a language which, it should be recalled, was being studied seriously and codified in its own right for the first time in this period. The first point is the social and geographic basis of Wilson and Puttenham's accounts. Wilson's phrase "the king's English" was formed by analogy with "the king's peace" and "the king's highway," both of which had an original sense of being restricted to the legal and geographic areas which were guaranteed by the crown; only with the successful centralization of power in the figure of the monarch did such phrases come to have general rather than specific reference. Puttenham's version of the "best English" is likewise demarcated in terms of space and class: his account reduces it to the speech of the court and the area in and around London up to a boundary of 60 miles. A second point to note is that Puttenham's definition conflates speech and writing: its model of the written language, to be used by poets, is the speech of courtiers. And the final detail is the implicit link between the English language and English ethnicity which is evoked by Spenser's comments on the degeneration of the colonist in Ireland. These characteristics of Renaissance thinking on English (its delimitation with regard to class and region, the failure to distinguish between speech and writing, and the connection between language and ethnicity) were characteristics which would be closely associated with the language throughout its modern history.
ѹͥ16ˡ(1) ŪŪ˸ꤵ줿ҿѼȤơ(2) äաաפȡ(3) ָ̱²פΤȤ߽Ф줿Ѹ졥줬ޤϢʤ "Standard English" ľܤεǤ뤳Ȥ¤ΤʤʸϤФƤ롥ȤɶȤƻȤۤɡɤ߱ΤʸϤƱΥȤȤץ쥼ơȵӤǡƤ⤹äȼƤޤ褦ʰᡥΤ褦ʸϤ褦ˤʤꤿΤ
嵭 Puttenham ͭ̾ʰˤĤƤϡ#2030. ꥹ̤ץåˡ ([2014-11-17-1]) ǸʸƤΤǡ⻲ȡ
Crowley, Tony. "Class, Ethnicity, and the Formation of 'Standard English'." Chapter 30 of A Companion to the History of the English Language. Ed. Haruko Momma and Michael Matto. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. 303--12.
ꥫѸ̱²Ѽ1ĤȤ "Lumbee English" ȸƤФѼ郎뤳Ȥ Smith and Kim (296--97) ˤäΤä
ߥå¦ˤΥꥫ轻̱Ȥӡ² (Lumbee) 濴Ϥϡ줿̱ϤȤͭ̾ Roanoke 餵ۤɱʤNorth Carolina Robeson Ǥ롥äϡ轻̱²ͭθǤϤʤޤǥꥫѸǤ롥Ʊ̱²ȷӤĤƤäʥꥫѸǤꡤLumbee English ȾΤΤǤ롥Robeson οʣŪǤꡤ40%ϥꥫ轻̱35%ϥ衼åѷϥꥫ͡25%ϥեꥫϥꥫͤȤ롥3Ԥ3ͤΥꥫѸѼäƤꡤ1Ĥ Lumbee English Ȥ櫓
Ʊ¾ѼȽŤʤħ⾯ʤʤLumbee English ˤɸѸȤϰۤʤ뼡Τ褦ʹܤѻ롥
be ư was/is ε§were/are Ѥʤ: they was dancin' all night.
ʬƬ a- դˡ my head was just a'boilin.
were ε§ she weren't here.
λ be I'm been there.
á ellick ʥꥳҡ
㤤üԤˤ Lumbee English ϡƱäƤ륢եꥫϥꥫͤαѸѼȽŤʤʬ¿褦Ǥ⽽ʬΩݤäƤ뤿ˡȼѼȤߤʤƤ롥ʣ̱²θʣŪʸܿޤ줿äΥꥫѸѼȤƶ̣
Smith, K. Aaron and Susan M. Kim. This Language, A River: A History of English. Peterborough: Broadview P, 2018.
#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ̱²ȸδطϳΤ˿ñʤΤǤϤʤ̱²ꤹΤ˸줬פ̤Ȥ¿Τϻ¤ŪǤϤʤȤкε ([2019-09-29-1]) ˤեꥫˤƤϡָηϡפŪ˼夤ΤǤϤʤȤ⤤롥ܡĤεʹƤߤ褦 (695--96)
եꥫǤ̱²ꤹװȤơϤۤɽפǤʤä褦Ǥ롥ϡ̱²ꤹĤװǤϤ뤬¾ˤ⽡Ϲʸɽݡʹѡ롤Ͻͭ֡ˡ²١֤ʤɸʳμҲŪкŪʸŪŪװ礭ƤȻפ롥С̱²ŪǥƥƥФǡŪװʱƶϤΤ϶ʹߤħǤꡤϱط֤ζ붦̤طĤޤкѡҲʸŪװߤ˺ѤơषʾϱطȯŸθưϤȤʤä
顤եꥫͤ¿ѤμҲŪפޤ줿ϡο¿ʬۤħ줴ȤüԤŪʤ֤ܿζʤɤ˵롥⡤ƸμҲŪǽ̡ǡ餬ʬŪŪʬŪ˶礷Ƥ뤫Ǥ롥ƸȵǽȶߺѤեꥫθҲΥʥߥ߽Ф֤¿Ѥ¥ʤƤΤ
ָήˤꡤĤ礭ޤȤޤȤϡषڤʬƤȤΤեꥫθħȤȤطʤˡָηϡפŪʼ夵ȤŦϡߤ٤ࡥʹּҲˤȤä̱²ȸϢ٤ϡ䤿QŪ˴ƤʾˡˤäƤˤäƤ⡤ޤޤʤΤ⤷ʤ
ΰѤǤϡʹߤϡָηϡפʤäƤȤƤ롥̱²ʤ̹ȤȸϢ٤ȤβˤꡤեꥫˤϤʡָηϡפ⤿餵줿ȤȤʤΤ
ԡˡؿեꥫˡǡ١̼ҡҹ̼Ҹ忷ӡ2018ǯ
֥ƥǰޤ줿Ѹʸδؤˤ֥ȡ ˤĤƤϡ˸Ū¦̤ (celtic) ¿εǼ夲Ƥޤǡ֥ȡפȤƤȤȤϲ뤤ϥȿͤȤϲԤȤϡΤ#3743. Celt λؼоݤŪѲ ([2019-07-27-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡȤȤ̾λؤΤŪɤƤѸȤƺФƤΤǤ⤢롥
εǤϤ˿ꤻˡإʸŵ٤Ρ֥ȿ CeltesפιѤƤ
ȿͤȤϡмϰۤʤΤΡȸȤä̱²ΤǤ롥ȿͤȤդˤϿͼẓ̇ϤʤҲŪʸŪʹ¤ȴطƤǤ롥ˤ̾ΤѤ褦ˤʤäΤϤǶΤȤǡʹֽĤü˴ŤƼڤ̤Τ˻Ȥ褦ˤʤä
륱̱²ϡ5衼åȾϰ˽Ǥꥹ֥ƥ硤硤ͥʤӤܤ硹ˤϤޤǤʤ饤ϸԥ̮͡ءΤܥإߥˤϰޤḁ̇̄ꥢ䥹ڥǵサƤ
ߡȸäƤ륱̱²ϡɿ̥͡åȥɿ͡ޥ͡륺֥͡ȥ͡ʸ̾ϥꥫ͡ˡѹ뽣˽ΥͤǤ롥ȸϤäʤ̱²δ֤ǥŪʤΤĤäƤ뤳Ȥ⤢롥ΤܤС奱ȿͤ䵤¸Ƥ̱²Ǥ롥֥ס֥륿˥ˤä֥륿˥塤ڥΥꥷѸΥɡե٥륮Τϰξ礬Ǥ롥
ʹƤΤȻפˤˤȡȤȤ1Ū˥ȽȤηӤĤˤäħŤҲĤȤȤˤʤ롥˿ͼϴؤäƤʤ
̤ˡ̱²ʤ뤤ϿͼˤδطȤˤĤƤϡ#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1])#3706. ̱²ȿͼ ([2019-06-20-1]) Ȥ줿
ޥ륫롤ˡ λϺ ʡˡإʸŵ١罤ۡ2002ǯ
ε#3743. Celt λؼоݤŪѲ ([2019-07-27-1]) ³ German ȤλؼоݤˤĤơ
ͤϡ沤̲ˤƵサƤޥϽä̱² Germānī ʥޥ˥͡ˤȸƤǤơбϰ̾ Germany ʥɥġˤϢʤ Germānia ʥޥ˥ˤäŪˤ¾ΤǤꡤΤȤѤ줿ȤϤʤ褦
ѸǤѸ German ޥ˥ͤؤȤƥե𤷤äƤ16ȸ˥ɥĿͤؤ褦ˤʤäˤϡѸǥɥĿͤؤ̾ΤȤƤ Almain Dutch Ūä
German θ츻ˤĤƤϽ⤢롥1ĤϡͤΥޥ˥ͤȸǡٿ͡פȸƤΤǤϤʤȤcf. ťɸ gair ٿ͡ˡˡ⤦1ĤϡƱȸ gairm ʶӡˤͳ褹Ȥ⤢롥Ĥޤ̱פۤɤξΤޤޥǡߤ̱פ̣ *Geramanniz (cf. OHG ger "greedy" + MAN) ƥؼѤ줿ΤȤ⤢롥
θ츻ⲻ夽¾ꡤ̤ܤȤäƤ褤
#760. Celt ȯ ([2011-05-27-1]) ǡνפ̱²̾ȯȸˤˤĤάҤ̾ؤƤΤïΤȤʤΤɥȿͤȤϲԤʤΤȤ뤿ˡOED (1) Ūʻؼоݤȡ(2) 18ʹߤθŪʻؼоݤȤ٤Ƥߤ褦
(1) ѸǤν1607ǯȶäƤŵǤϥꥢͤΦʬۤƤ֤ؤ̾Ȥ̤ѤƤǤϡ֥ȥͤؤΤѤ줿ȤϤʤդɬפǤ롥
1. Historical. Applied to the ancient peoples of Western Europe, called by the Greeks Κελτοί, Κέλτοι, and by the Romans Celtae.
The Κελτοί of the Greeks, also called Γαλάται, Galatae, appear to have been the Gauls and their (continental) kin as a whole; by Cæsar the name Celtae was restricted to the people of middle Gaul (Gallia Celtica), but most other Roman writers used it of all the Galli or Gauls, including the peoples in Spain and Upper Italy believed to be of the same language and race; the ancients apparently never extended the name to the Britons.
(2) 1703ǯ˥ե˲ P. Y. Pezron Antiquité de la nation et de la langue des Celtes ʡظ奱̱²ˡ١ˤФư衤֥ȥͤޤȷϽäΤؤˡȯã
2. A general name applied in modern times to peoples speaking languages akin to those of the ancient Galli, including the Bretons in France, the Cornish, Welsh, Irish, Manx, and Gaelic of the British Isles.
This modern use began in French, and in reference to the language and people of Brittany, as the presumed representatives of the ancient Gauls: with the recognition of linguistic affinities it was extended to the Cornish and Welsh, and so to the Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic. Celtic adj. has thus become a name for one of the great branches of the Aryan family of languages . . . ; and the name Celt has come to be applied to any one who speaks (or is descended from those who spoke) any Celtic language. But it is not certain that these constitute one race ethnologically; it is generally held that they represent at least two 'races', markedly differing in physical characteristics. Popular notions, however, associate 'race' with language, and it is common to speak of the 'Celts' and 'Celtic race' as an ethnological unity having certain supposed physical and moral characteristics, especially as distinguished from 'Saxon' or 'Teuton'.
Celt λؼоݤϡΤ褦18ʹߤΡ֥ȤפФѲƤCelt εˤθ츻ϲȤСƥ celsus "high" ˴ϢȤ⤤뤬ԾܤǤ롥դδϢ Gallia, Gallic, Gaul, Galatian, Goidel, Wales, Welsh ϸߤˤĤʤäƤ褦Celt Ϥޤ̤餷
ʤθθƬҲˤĤơε OED Ǥ /sɛlt, kɛlt/ νǵƤȽҤ٤OED Online κǿǤdzǧȤ /kɛlt, sɛlt/ ȤʤäƤȤҤ٤Ƥ
ɮԤϳ˸ؤ˴ؿ˸ءƼҲؤؤȴؿƤޤ̱²פȡֿͼפȤäȴʤʤҲŪȤˤʤȤ̴ˤפʤä鿴äơ̱² (ethnic_group) ȡֿͼ (race) ˤĤƤߤŪˤԤʸŪʤΡԤϷŪʤΤȤȤ館ƤǤɬ⤽Τ褦ˤȤ館Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤޤϡ̱² (ethnicity) ˤĤƸƤA Dictionary of Sociolinguistics ethnicity ι (100--01) ꡥ
ethnicity An aspect of an individual's social IDENTITY which is closely associated with language. Ethnicity is usually assigned on the basis of descent. In addition, the subjective experience of belonging to a culturally and historically distinct social group is often included in definitions of ethnicity. Thus, DEAF people usually consider themselves to be part of the Deaf community, which is defined by specific cultural and linguistic practices, although they may not have been born into the community (they may have become Deaf only later in life, or they may have grown up among hearing people). Questions of identity and ethnicity are also problematical in the context of migration. Second-generation migrants may not wish to identify with their traditional ethnic group but with the new society (e.g. second-generation German migrants in the USA may see themselves not as German but as American; such shifts in identity are often accompanied by symbolic actions such as name changes --- Karl Müller to Chuck Miller). To assign individuals unambiguously to distinct ethnic groups can be difficult in such contexts. Sometimes RELIGION is also considered to form part of ethnicity.
Language forms a central aspect and symbol of ethnic identity (see e.g. Smolicz (1981) on language as a 'core value' of an ethnic group). Sociolinguists who study multicultural societies have often included ethnicity as a SOCIAL VARIABLE. Horvath (1985), for example, included speakers from different ethnic groups (Australians of English, Italian and Greek background) in her study of English in Sydney.
̱²˸줬礭ؤΤϻ¤ΤߤǷꤵ륫ƥȤ櫓ǤʤˤϡʳʸˡҲŪʥƥ⤷ФдͿ롥ʣŪװˤäƷ륢ǥƥƥȤ٤ΤǤ롥
ˡֿͼפϤɤñʪŪʶʬȤߤŪʸ⤢뤬켫ΤǤ˼Ҳ줿¤ʪǤȤ⤢롥ƱѸ켭ŵѤ롥
race Highly contested term. Whilst it has no basis in biological or scientific fact, 'race' is in widespread everyday usage to refer to particular groups or 'races' of people, usually on the basis of physical appearance or geographical location, who are presumed to share a set of definable characteristics. The term ETHNICITY is sometimes used to refer to the identity of different groups on the basis of their assumed or presumed genealogical descent. 'Race' in social studies of language is viewed as a social construct rather than a fact (hence the use of inverted commas around 'race'): that is, 'race' or 'racial groups' only exist because particular physical characteristics (such as skin colour, facial features) are attributed a special kind of significance in society. This attribution usually involves differentiation between 'races' in terms of status and power, resulting from a particular IDEOLOGY. It is acknowledged that 'race' has considerable force in continuing to inform policies, behaviour and attitudes, including those relating to language and behaviour (see discussions in Omi and Winant, 1994). For this reason, 'race', usually within the context of RACISM, has been a focus of study in sociolinguistic research (e.g. Reisgl and Wodak, 2000).
̱²ͼϤ줾ΩƥǤʤ⡤ʣʻߴطݤäƤ롥椨˳ƥƥϡʬŪȤʤʤʤФʤʤ̿ʤΤ
Ϣơ#1871. ȿͼ ([2014-06-11-1])#3599. ȿͼ (2) ([2019-03-05-1]) ⻲ȡ
Swann, Joan, Ana Deumert, Theresa Lillis, and Rajend Mesthrie, eds. A Dictionary of Sociolinguistics. Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama P, 2004.
Ѹ礿ȤƤıξǤϡˤɸ (standard) Τªۤʤ롥ꥹǤɸŪȯǤ RP ¸ߤ뤬ꥫǤ RP ҿäͣȯ¸ߤʤޤɸɸ̤뼴ϡꥹǤϳ (class) Ȥ뤬ꥫǤ̱² (ethnic group) ˤȤ٤ΰ㤤ξˤȼҲȿǤƤ롥ʲ18ʹߤΥꥫξ Milroy and Milroy (157--58) ˽äάҤ褦
ꥫ̱²Ȥ顤㤨 AAVE Τ褦ʱѸѼФ봲Ƥ礤ƤΤˤŪطʤ롥18ޤǤϡꥫˤŪƤ¸ߤȤȤƤüԸĿͤȤƤ¿Ѥλ¤äΤޤ1ˡ18Υꥫˤϡ̱ϻۤͭŪʸȤơѸΤۤ˥ڥե¸ߤƤեǤϡषѸ⥹ڥѤΤۤĹäեѤϰ⤢ä2ˡο̱Ԥϥꥫ轻̱ν˿Ƥаޤꡤۤ˥ɥĿͿ̱ԤΥߥ˥ƥʤɤ⤢äꥫˤŪʱѸͥϵʤäȤƤ⡤¿ѤϼҲŪ˴оݤʤɤǤϤʤä
Ȥ19ʤˤĤ¿ѤФ봲Ƥ졤ѸнŻۤɽФƤˤϡȾФΥɡå夬1ĤηȤʤäƤ롥Ͱ̱̤äȤˤꡤӳۤޤ줿1848ǯΥꥫˤᥭΤʻ⡤ڥüԤФѸüԤͥۤ浯̱²ŪԴƤĹΤ˰äơ1878ǯˤϥե˥ΡֱѸ쥪פνȤʤäΤ褦ԴƤʼҲĬΤʤǡ轻̱νڻ뤵褦ˤʤäǸˡǰפˤ⡤ʤ餳̱²ŪԴƤνפطʤʤƤ롥θ塤Ĭϡ2021ˤѤƤ롥
Milroy and Milroy (160) ΤޤȤ˼褦
In the US, bitter divisions created by slavery and the Civil War shaped a language ideology focused on racial discrimination rather than on the class distinctions characteristic of an older monarchical society like Britain which continue to shape language attitudes. Also salient in the US was perceived pressure from large numbers of non-English speakers, from both long-established communities (such as Spanish speakers in the South-West) and successive waves of immigrants. This gave rise in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to policies and attitudes which promoted Anglo-conformity. To this day these are embodied in a version of the standard language ideology which has the effect of discriminating against speakers of languages other than English --- again an ideology quite different from that characteristic of Britain.
Milroy, Lesley and James Milroy. Authority in Language: Investigating Language Prescription and Standardisation. 4th ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2012.
˴ؤ뺬¯1ĤˡָͼפȤΤ롥¯ˤϡ롥ʤϸŷŪǤꡤͼŷŪǤ롤ȸкѤʤʤǤΡָפȤϡҥȤθǽϤȤ̣ǤΡָפǤϤʤȤƽ̤ΡָפǤˡ͡ΰռΤʤǤϡФФ2ĤʬӤĤƤꡤۤɴñˤ뤳ȤϤǤʤ
ˤϡȿͼƱˤꡤϢ¿θޤƤ㤨С19ˤϥɡ衼åѸ (the Indo-European) ȤؾѸ줬ͼŪʴްդäѤ줿ɡ衼åѸȤϡӡ˸ؾιʪˤʤˤ⤫餺ǯˤĸäƤʹֽĤʤɡ衼åѿ͡ʼˤǤȤä߽Ф졤ȿͼȤӤĤ줿ĸθϤõߤʤüԽĤεõߤǤȲᤵ졤κǤʸѼԤɥ̱²ǤȤͤǤȤä20ɥĤΥʥˤƤ⡤ޥ줳ɡ衼åѸ²μĹǤꡤޥ̱²ɡ衼åѿͼɽԤǤȤơȿͼζƱ뤬ߤ줿
¯θäƤ뤳Ȥϡ͡ʷdzǧǤ롥ɡ衼åѸ²ǹͤС衼åѤΥɥĿͤ쥤ɤΥ٥ͤϡ줾̴طˤɥĸȥ٥äƤȤϤͼȤƶᤤϤȿԤϤʤޤǹͤƤ⡤ɤʿͼǤҥȤȤޤ줿ΤǤСޤĶˤäơɤʸǤ⽬뤳ȤǤȤȤԤϤʤ
Τ褦˾ͤʬ뤳ȤʤΤȤäƴñˤʤΤ¯ȤΤǤ롥㤨С롼ޥ˥ͤϥ롼ޥ˥ȤޥϤθäΤǡƥϤοͼ˰㤤ʤȤ褦ʹͤƤ롥ºݤDNAĴɤΤ褦ʷ̤Ф뤫Ϥ狼ʤ롼ޥ˥ͤϿͼŪˤϾʤȤ⥹ڥͤݥȥͤʤɤȴطŤΤƱ١뤤Ϥʾˡ٤ΥͤʤɤȤطŤΤǤϤʤδ֡٤ο͡ȺƤϤʤΤǡΤ褦ͽۤȤƤޤää٤ȤǤϤʤΤ¯⤬롥
ؤŪΰǤ顤κǰϱƤȤߡεήɤΰոǤϡεϡǯΥۥ⡦ԥνиȥۥ⡦ԥθȯãŸȴϢŤ뤳Ȥ¿ͼ郎ޤۤɳȻƤʤȻȤǤεǤȤϤƤ⡤ϤƤϷ¯˴٤äƤʤȸڤ
ϢơTrudgill (43--44) ε⻲Ȥ줿
Trudgill, Peter. Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society. 4th ed. London: Penguin, 2000.
Х륫 (the Balkans) ˤ̱²ʬۤʣʤȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥Х륫Ⱦϡ#1314. ([2012-12-01-1]) Ƥꡤ#1374. 衼åѳƹ¿ѹǤ ([2013-01-30-1]) ιȤʤäƤꡤ#1636. Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian ([2013-10-19-1]) ȤҲŪƤʤɤλˤꡤҲؾ塤ͭ̾ˤƽפϰȤʤäƤ롥ʲEncylopædia Britannica 1997 Ʊϰ̱²ʬۿޤʲ˷Ǻܤ롥ʬۿޤˤĤƤϡ˴ؤȤȤ Ethnologue Greece and The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia ȡ#1469. Хȡָɡʰ²ˡ ([2013-05-05-1]) Ǹڤ Distribution of the Slavic languages in Europe Ƥ

ޥɥ˥¹ (The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) ϡ200ʤХ륫ȾΦǤ롥̱2/3ʾ夬ޥɥ˥ (Macedonian) ѤƤꡤѸȤʤäƤ뤬Ǻξ̱²Ǥ륢Х˥ͤˤꥢХ˥ (Albanian) äƤʿ Ethnologue Macedonia Ȥ줿ˡޥɥ˥ South Slavic 췲θǡSerbian Bulgarian Ϣ³Ƥ롥Ҥ褦ˡޥɥ˥ϡϢ³Τȡ°ˤ椨ˡߤ˻ޤǸ autonomy ˶줷Ƥ롥
ޥɥ˥ͤȤϤˤϸŤAlexander the Great (356--23 BC) ڽФޥɥ˥ Gibraltar Punjab ޤǤιۤޥɥ˥ (Ancient Macedonian) Ϥθޥɥ˥ (Macedonian) ȤϤޤäۤʤꡤޤꥷȤ̤ȸ뤬ꥷͤϸޥɥ˥ꥷ1ȤߤʤƤаޤ롥ꥷϥꥷ autonomy Фޥɥ˥ heteronomy Ȥ罾طŪѤơޥɥ˥˽°ΤȤߤʤƤΤǤ롥ꥷˤŪ Makedhonia ̾뽣⤢ꡤޥɥ˥ˤȤäƤܤ륮ꥷ礭ŪϤʤ顤ĤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥ºݡꥷϥޥɥ˥¹Ω縢ȤߤʤƤ롥
ơä˰ܤ롥ޥɥ˥6˥ӥƥΰǤä550--630ǯδ֤ˡϤ˥ѥ̮̤饹̱²衤ޥɥ˥λŪʸϥꥷȥδ֤Ǹؤ15ˤϥޥΰȤ߹ޤ줿1912--13ǯΥХ륫Ǥϥӥͤλ۲ꡤ1944ǯˤϥ桼¹礵줿ν°ˤβǡޥɥ˥äƤϡӥͤˤȤäƤϥӥ1Ȥߤʤ졤֥륬ꥢͤˤȤäƤϥ֥륬ꥢ1Ȥߤʤ졤θŪ autonomy 뵡ĤȤǤʤäߤǤ⡤ӥ֥ͤ륬ꥢͤϥޥɥ˥μΩʤ¸ߤǧƤʤޥɥ˥ˤƤϡŪ°ˤϸŪ°ˤäȤäƤ褤
Τ褦ʣˤɤäƤˤ⤫餺ޥɥ˥ȤƾΤ̱̾̾²̾̾˶̤ѤƤ뤳ȤˤƤ롥ޥɥ˥̱²ˤȸޥɥ˥̱²ˤϻؼоݤۤʤȤΤ䤳դ3ϡκѤƥޥɥ˥ؤŪϤƤΤǤꡤޥɥ˥ϡθȤʤϤΩȤΩȤʤäƤ⡤ޤΩΩƤ롥autonomy ˸ƤƻΤϸ
ʾ塤Romain (15--17) ȤƼɮ
Romain, Suzanne. Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 2000.
Ѳ벾ΰĤˡظƶ (substratum_theory) 롥ԤԤθݤˡȤθħäȯħˤϢƤ椯Ȥǡ¦θ˸ѲȤͤǤ롥ѸˤȴŪ˴ϢȤǤϡˡ§ޤ First Germanic Consonant Shift 䡤Second Germanic Consonant Shift ʤɤΤˡβ⤬Ф뤳Ȥ¿#416. Second Germanic Consonant Shift Ϥʤä ([2010-06-17-1]) #650. ˥ȥˡ§ ([2011-02-06-1]) #1121. Grimm's Law Ϥʤ ([2012-05-22-1]) ʤɤǿ줿̤Ǥ롥
βκμߤϡ¿ξ硤ؤʤƤˤĤƤμƤ뤳Ȥˤ롥ä˸θѲˤˤϡμߤ˸롥㤨Сˡ§˼СƶͿƤȤظ줬ʤΤȤǤ鴰ʰפƤ櫓ǤϤʤ⤷ˤ줬ȸäλƤ⡤θѲľܤǤΤΥȸѼθηϤ뤳ȤפˡѲڤܤȹִͤظפԹɤ褦˻Ωƾ夲뤳ȤĤǤǽʤΤǤ롥θħžܤȤݼΤϸ콬ʬǤΤƤ뤬ζŪʸѲľƤϤ뤳Ȥ
Jespersen Bloomfield ⡤Ʊ˲ŪΩäƤ롥ȽδĴϡȤƤѲȡؤδͿꤵƤ̱²ȤŪ뤤Ūɬ礷ƤʤΤǤϤʤȤǰǤ롥̱²ꡤ̤ȤƸؤʹԤƤޤˤλ֤ȾˤơθѲäȤȤǤСظƶϾʤȤ⸡ڤͤѲؤλ֤äƤꡤѲ뤲ŪʬۤŪʬۤȰפʤΤǤСʬظƶʤåȤϾʤʤ롥ष̤θõä褤ΤǤϤʤȤȤ
ظƶԤˤϡʥ˥βǽΤȤ⤻ظ㤨Хȸˤαƶ͡ʻ˴Ф褦ȼĥԤ⤤롥Jespersen ϤΤ褦ʹͤȿ롥
I must content myself with taking exception to the principle that the effect of the ethnic substratum may show itself several generations after the speech substitution took place. If Keltic ever had 'a finger in the pie,' it must have been immediately on the taking over of the new language. An influence exerted in such a time of transition may have far-reaching after-effects, like anything else in history, but this is not the same thing as asserting that a similar modification of the language may take place after the lapse of some centuries as an effect of the same cause. (200)
Jespersen μĥϡظƶˤϳ (atavism) ϤʤȤĥ (201) ƱݤȽBloomfield Ǥⷫ깭Ƥ롥
The substratum theory attributes sound-change to transference of language: a community which adopts a new language will speak it imperfectly and with the phonetics of its mother-tongue. . . . [I]t is important to see that the substratum theory can account for changes only during the time when the language is spoken by persons who have acquired it as a second language. There is no sense in the mystical version of the substratum theory, which attributes changes, say, in modern Germanic languages, to a "Celtic substratum" --- that is, to the fact that many centuries ago, some adult Celtic-speakers acquired Germanic speech. Moreover, the Celtic speech which preceded Germanic in southern Germany, the Netherlands, and England, was itself an invading language: the theory directs us back into time, from "race" to "race," to account for vague "tendencies" that manifest themselves in the actual historical occurrence of sound-change. (386)
ǯѸˤ夬äƤƤ륱ȸαʸˡؤαƶȤ⡤ظƶΰ֤ª뤫⤷ʤǤȤСʤȤŪˤϡ嵭ȽƤϤޤ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) #1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1]) ȡ
ظƶ⤬ƤѲȤƤϡJespersen (192--98) ȡ
Jespersen, Otto. Language: Its Nature, Development, and Origin. 1922. London: Routledge, 2007.
Bloomfield, Leonard. Language. 1933. Chicago and London: U of Chicago P, 1984.
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