
ɸγҤοܤޤ꤬Ȥޤ
ҤˤֺǿѸءإפ20Ȥ֤Ťǡʸˡ߱ѸˡפκǿŪθޤȤƤޤ300ǤۤɤǡŪˤܳɤǤѸѲŪ˹ͻԡˤȤäơɬȤλͽǤ
ʲܼФƤߤޤ礦̥Ūȹ٤Ѹ줬¤Ǥޤ
I ʸˡˤѲ
1 ʸˡŪȤߤȸѲ
1. ϤˡѸˤλʬ
2. ʸˡŪȤ
3. ʸˡѲȤƤθѲ
2 ѲΥ
1. ʬϤȥѥѲ
2. ʸˡɸ to Ȥ
3. Ѳ
4. ¤ѲưȤ
II Ѹṽ¤Ѳ
3 Ѹṽ¤ưưξü
1. Ϥ
2. űѸ졦Ѹδܸ
3. űѸ졦Ѹṽ¤
4. ưư˭ʰפβ
5. ܼοưưξü
6. ʸˡˤư줫ưؤѲ
7. ޤȤ
4 ֤ȳƼﹽʸѲ
1. Ϥ
2. 칽ʸ
3. ֳʷиԼ칽ʸ
4. ¾ưʸ
5. that
6. ޤȤ
III Ѹ̾ι¤ʬ
5 ¤ʤξüȳʤˤ̾ǧˡѲ
1. Ϥ
2. ʤ˴ؤиŪ¤Ū
3. Ϳ̾ȤʤʸŪ
4. Ϳ̾ǧĤǧˡѲ
5. ޤȤ
6 ̻ʬۤͷΥǽ̻Ū
1. Ϥ
2. Ѹˤ̻ʬ
3. Ū
4. ͷΥ̻ʬۤ˴ؤ̻ŪѲ
5. ̾ȿ̻θ
6. ޤȤ
ܽˤĤƤϡ1211 Voicy heldio ˤ#1291. Ƿ ͵ ˡʸˡȸѲ١ʳҡ2024ǯˡۿǤ⤴Ҳ𤷤Ƥޤܵȹ碌ƤİС
ܽȴϢơҤΡֺǿѸءإפ21 ջҡ δˡʸؤȱѸ˸١ʳҡ2022ǯɤꤤפޤ
Ƿ ͵ ʸˡȸѲ١ҡ2024ǯ
ε#5457. ᤰ ([2024-04-05-1]) ³̤θѸ켭ŵ (subject) ιܤƤߤ褦Crystal Ѹ켭ŵѤ롥
subject (n.) (S, sub, SUB, Subj, SUBJ) A term used in the analysis of GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS to refer to a major CONSTITUENT of SENTENCE or CLAUSE structure, traditionally associated with the 'doer' of an action, as in The cat bit the dog. The oldest approaches make a twofold distinction in sentence analysis between subject and PREDICATE, and this is still common, though not always in this terminology; other approaches distinguish subject from a series of other elements of STRUCTURE (OBJECT, COMPLEMENT, VERB, ADVERBIAL, in particular. Linguistic analyses have emphasized the complexity involved in this notion, distinguishing, for example, the grammatical subject from the UNDERLYING or logical subject of a sentence, as in The cat was chased by the dog, where The cat is the grammatical and the dog the logical subject. Not all subjects, moreover, can be analyzed as doers of an action, as in such sentences as Dirt attracts flies and The books sold well. The definition of subjects in terms of SURFACE grammatical features (using WORD-ORDER or INFLECTIONAL criteria) is usually relatively straightforward, but the specification of their function is more complex, and has attracted much discussion (e.g. in RELATIONAL GRAMMAR). In GENERATIVE grammar, subject is sometimes defined at the NP immediately DOMINATED by S. While NP is the typical formal realization of subject, other categories can have this function, e.g. clause (S-bar), as in That oil floats on water is a fact, and PP as in Between 6 and 9 will suit me. The term is also encountered in such contexts as RAISING and the SPECIFIED-SUBJECTION CONDITION.
ѡȤ McArthur εҤȽŤʤäƤʬ⤢뤬 Crystal εҤϡäΩĸ˱Ƽªۤʤ뤳Ȥ褯ʬ롥طʸˡǤϼβ̤ǽܤƤꡤʸˡǤϤ⤽ȤѸѤʤ餿ƼȤʸˡ˴ŤˤѸǤꡤƤδˤøŬڤ餳ѤƤΤȤȤʬ롥
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ǯҤ Gunter Senft ˡк ͡Ϥ ҡظδä롡ǡǤޤ

(pragmatics) ιǤܽ YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥ2ۤɰȤƼ夲Ҳ𤷤Ƥޤ85Gunter Senftк͡Ϥظδä롦ǡ١ʳҡ2022ǯˤΤҲ93ֻؼ̾ϰճ˱˭ŸǤ⤴
YouTube ǰ夲֤ɤǤߤפȤݤȯȤ⤢äơʤһƤޤˡԤкܽܤƤޤޤʤߤޤؤդƤޤˡܽɤϤƤޤϤ p. 5 ˡܽˤ3Ĥε줬ȤơबƤޤ̤Ǥ
1. ϼҲŪ߹٤ˤƤäˤѤ롥ϲҲŪʤĤʤǤδطϽФƻǤ롥ΤĤʤطϽФʤϸʸˤä͡Ǥ롥
2. ȯäϤ줬ʤʸ̮ΰǤꡤܼŪ˸ϸŪʤְ̣ȯäθŪǽ˰͵ (Bauman 1992: 147)
üԤϼҲŪ߹٤ˤƸѤ뤵ϡ§˽
ñ졤硤ʸΰ̣ϡμξŪʸ̮롥
äθѤϡüԤΥߥ˥ưߤΥߥ˥ư˻εǽ¸롥
3. ϸ줪ʸͭθѤη֤椹ʬŪǤ롥
Τ褦ʸħƤʬ1970ǯʹߤˤʤäƤطʤˤϡꥫ¤ؤʸˡФȿưäȤҤ٤Ƥޤ (3--4) ̾βˡؤ褤ȤθѤܳŪ˰ʳäƤΤȻƤޤ
Senft, Gunter ˡк ͡Ϥ ҡˡظδä롡ǡ١ҡ2022ǯ
Senft, Gunter. Understanding Pragmatics. London and New York: Routledge, 2014.
ֱѸءץ Day 3 ǤϡѸ (syntax) ܤޤ1950ǯȾ Noam Chomsky ư衤ޤǤϤۤܤƤʤä椬Ȥߤ˳ȯޤʸˡ (generative_grammar) ӤȡǤΥȤ George Lakoff Ronald W. Langacker Ƴ1980ǯȾǧʸˡδޤϤǤܤ³ޤcf. #3532. ǧθΩη ([2018-12-28-1])ˡ
Ȥ櫓ѸϡָθפʤΤϽפǤѸȤΰû֤ǰ˾褦ȤΤ̵ΤǤŪΰ̤Ϥ̣äƤߤȻפޤ
1. ʸˡ
1.1 ĥ
1.2 #1820. c-command ([2014-04-21-1])
1.3 #2136. 3ñ -s ʸˡˤʬϡ ([2015-03-03-1])
1.4 #4860. ʸˡǤμưʸκ ([2022-08-17-1])
2. ǽŪʸ
2.1 ¤ȴ: #3831. ʤѸˤϴ줬ΤǤ ([2019-10-23-1])
2.2 #4641. ΥǥեȤν --- ֡֡տ ([2022-01-10-1])
2.3 #4864. ưȻ ([2022-08-21-1])
3. ѸθȤ: #4527. ѸθˤѤǤͤҲ ([2021-09-18-1])
4. heldio #450. ѸءѸˤεå
عʸˡǤϡǽưʸʤǤSVOʸˤưʸݤˡȤǽưʸμŪbe ưäꡤưʬˤꡤֻ by äȡʤȤȲ⤵롥
the teacher scolded John
John was scolded by the teacher
ʸˡǤϡΤ褦ǽưʸưʸ뤳ȤϤʤع¤ (D-structure) ˤƤǤȼι¤ꤷŪǤ֤˰ưȤͤ롥
Τ褦˹ͤϼ̤Ǥ롥ع¤Ǥϡǽưʸʤ [V' scolded John] Ȥ¤ꤵƤ롥̾Ǥ scold Ȥ¾ư줬 John гʤͿϤscolded Τ褦˲ʬˤʤȳͿǽϤȹͤ졤John ϳͿʤޤޤ֤Ȥʤ롥ȡJohn Τ褦̾ɬͿʤФʤʤפȤʥե륿 (case filter) θƤޤᡤ뤿 John ϳʤͿƤ館֡Ĥޤ꿼ع¤Ƭ ___ ؤȰưƤΰ֤ϡư was ˤäƼʤͿƤ館֤Ǥ롥ơǤɽع¤Ƴ롥
ʸˡήλųݤˤ͡ߤƤꡤʤ뤳ȤʤΤϡ˵ʤФʤʤ㤫顤ʸˡħ1ĤȤƳͿŻ뤹뤳Ȥʬʾ塤 (79) Ȥ
졡3ϡʸˡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ
ʬ̤줿ȤŪ˥åץǡȤĤľҲ𤷤Ƥ Oxford Bibliographies ꡤ"Syntactic Change" ιܤȤƤߤʤ٤Ƥɤˤϥ֥饤֤ɬסˡAcrisio Pires David Lightfoot ˤǡǽ2013ǯǽӥ塼2017ǯȤʤäƤʤʤȴԤˡ *
ѸˤʬǤѲ椬Ǥꡤ椬ǤãΤDZѸλŪϤ褯ʤǤ롥ػˤ֤äƤߤȡѲδ20ȾʹߤθݤȤäƤ褯ϲθ椬ήä1950--60ǯʸˡоȡ˿ȯ줿ޤޤ츦Υ֡ˤꡤѸˤʬǤؤδؿޤäƤΤǤ롥21äƤϡȤ櫓ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ܤ졤ѲϿ̤嵭 "Syntactic Change" ιΥȥѤ롥
Linguistics began in the 19th century as a historical science, asking how languages came to be the way they are. Almost all of the work dealt with the changing pronunciation of words and "sound change" more broadly. Much attention was paid to explaining why sounds changed the way they did, and that involved developing ideas about directionality. Work on syntax was limited to compiling how different languages expressed clause types differently, notably Vergleichende Syntax der Indogermanischen Sprachen, by Berthold Delbrück. With the greatly increased attention to syntax in the latter half of the 20th century, approaches to syntactic change were enriched significantly. Most of the work on change, both generative and nongenerative, continued the 19th-century search for an inherent directionality to language change, now in the domain of syntax, but other approaches were developed seeking to understand new syntactic systems arising through the contingent conditions of language acquisition.
Oxford Bibliographies ȤƤϡ#4631. Oxford Bibliographies ˤ̣Ѳγס ([2021-12-31-1]) ȡ#4634. Oxford Bibliographies ˤѸ˸ˡ ([2022-01-03-1]) ⻲ȡ
Ѹ an angel of a girl ŷȤΤ褦ʾפΤ褦 of ѤʸˤĤơ#2461. an angel of a girl (1) ([2016-01-22-1]) #2462. an angel of a girl (2) ([2016-01-23-1]) Ǽ夲Ȥ뤬ܸˤ̣Ū㤬Ȥ˽вä (83) ˤȡܸȱѸ͡ʥ齸ȤƼΤΤƤ롥
(1) a. αžʡǤ뱿žꡨcf. ž
b. žνʡ᱿žǤcf. *ž
(2) a. a village like a jewel
b. a jewel *(of) a village
(3) a. λ⤵ʤ3000ȥǤ롥
b. λ3000ȥ*ʤΡ˹⤵Ǥ롥
(4) a. It rose with great rapidity until it reached the height of 400 feet, ...
b. Lead-glazed earthenware; height 7 feet, 10 1/2 inches over-all.
c. Asher smiled quizzically, as he spread his broad brown hands before his face and drew himself up to his full six feet *(of) height.
(83) ϡʸˡȤߤ˰͵Τ褦ʹʸ̾ŪҼʸפȸƤʬϤƤ롥̾ǰ̣Ū˼ȽҸʬ֤Ǥ礬ꡤκݤ˷Ҽof ֤Ρסˤ빽ʸΤȤǤ롥(1a), (2a), (3a), (4a, b) ǤϷҼʤʤ뤤ϵ̳ŪǤϤʤˤ(1b), (2b), (3b), (4c) ǤϷҼ̳ŪȤʤȤħ롥ޤŪ˸ԥ롼פԥ롼פƤȤ⤢Ȥϸԥ롼פŪʽи칽¤ʣ̤ȤߤƤꡤʣŪʸפȸƤǤ (92)
(3), (4) Τ褦˿̤ñ̤˴ؤ̾칽¤ʾ p. 83 ǡּ̾칽ʸפȸƤǤˤϡܸǤѸǤΤʣȻפäƤ a jewel of a village an angel of a girl ꤬ӤĤȤͽۤ⤷ʤä⤷ΤϡΤ褦ͽ۳δϢƤˤ롥
of ؤ¾ȤƤϡ#4116. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡϡ ([2020-08-03-1])#4117. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡŪˤϡֹټԡס ([2020-08-04-1]) դ⻲ȡ
˧Ѹ̾ŪҼʸ̻ŪѲȶŪѰۡסإ쥭οʥץٴ ƻ Ϻԡˡǡ2019ǯ81--111ǡ
#4623. 㡼Ȥϲ ([2021-12-23-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǯؤȤؤοʬȤƥ㡼椬ˤʤäƤƤ롥㡼γػˤ֤ȡ19ޤǤϼ˸쵯ȤδϢǥ㡼ؤδؿϳͷߤä20Ⱦ˹¤λ夬Ϥޤȡܤ뤳Ȥʤʤä
¤λˤϡؤ϶ŪʴؿĤäᡤ쵯ȷӤĤζ㡼θⲼФˤʤäΤǤ롥ޤؤμΧȤ˼ĥ줿ˡؤȤΥܥ졼Ȥ른㡼ϡϤ꿶ʤʤä
塤㡼뤲롥طʤˤϡؤӴϢسˤؿΰܹԤäKendon (81) λΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥
In the first years following the Second World War, certain changes eventually produced a climate in which gesture again became relevant for theoretical issues related to language and thought. First, information theory and cybernetics, developed as solutions to problems in communication engineering, were applied in the study of communication within and between living systems, with the result that much thought and investigation came to be devoted to social communication. Not unrelated was the emergence of semiotics which, especially in North America, greatly broadened attention to sign processes, enhancing an interest in visible modes of signification, including gesture. Further, the question of language origins once again began to be taken seriously. When experiments with chimpanzees suggested that they might use gesture symbolically, as in a sign language, the idea of gesture as a first form of language was discussed once again . . . .
At the same time, in psychology, complex mental processes once again became legitimate objects of investigation. Psychologists took an interest in language and the field of psycholinguistics was established. Noam Chomsky's work was especially important. He showed the inadequacy of a behaviourist approach to language and argued that linguistics should focus on 'competence', the mental apparatus making the acquisition and use of any language possible, rather than on descriptions of specific languages. Although neither Chomsky himself nor his followers showed interest in gesture, their mentalistic orientation was influential. When, later, psycholinguists looked at gesture, they did so for what it might reveal about the mental operations of utterance production.
ΰʸ顤㡼ؤδؿ᤹Τ˹θؤȴϢʬĬήɽ魯ɤ¤٤С"information theory", "cybernetics", "semiotics", "origin_of_language", "sign_language", "Chomsky" դȤ櫓塼ϻϤ¤ؤäƥॹ˿ؤ褵Ȥΰյ礭ˤȿӤĤƤ褤Ȥ줿Ǥ롥
Ϣʬγػˤɤ϶̩ϢȤƤΤȼ´碌ơ#252. ʸˡȸ쵯 ([2010-01-04-1])#519. εȿʲõ븦ʬ ([2010-09-28-1]) ʤɤ⻲ȡ
Kendon, Adam. "History of the Study of Gesture." Chapter 3 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Ed. Keith Allan. Oxford: OUP, 2013. 71--89.
Ѹ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) ȤСThere is/are . . . . ιʸפ⤫̤֡ be ư There ϷΥߡμȤȤ館졤̣ομ be ưθ̾롥μ줬ưθȤΤϡѸ̾θ˾Ȥ餻㳰ŪȤۤʤư˷餷ΤʤФʤʤȤѸΰŪ쵬§ϡߡ there ˤäƽ餵Ƥ롥ˤ衤̤ǤʤפιʸǤ뤳Ȥ餫
Moro (149--50) ˤȡJespersen (155) ϱѸޤ¿θĴ¸ʸפˤ¸ԡˤưθ뤳ȡŵŪʼ餷ʤȤŦ
Whether or not a word like there is used to introduce [existential sentences], the verb precedes the subject, and the latter is hardly treated grammatically like a real subject.
㤨СɥĸǤ Es gibt viele Kartoffeln "(lit.) it gives many potatoes; There are many potatoes" Τ褦ˡϷŪˤŪȤɽ蘆롥եǤ Il y a beaucoup de livres. "(lit.) it there has lots of books; There are many books" Τ褦ɽϤ꿿ŪȤɽ롥롼ޥ˥Ǥ Sunt probleme "(lit.) are problems; There are problems" Ȥʤꡤthere ΤϤʤϤ꿿ưθ֤롥Ǥ You gui "(lit.) you have ghosts; There are ghosts" Ȥʤ롥
Moro ϱѸ there is/are ¸ʸˤߤ֤ϡष be ưΥǥեȤŪħݻ̤ǤȤƤ롥̤ be ưʸμ졤㤨 John is in the garden ʤ John is a student John ϡʤư֤櫓Ūư˸֤ƤΤˤäƷ夲 (raising) 줿̤ǤȤΩȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥;ư (impersonal_verb) ȤƤ be ưȤ˴ŤؿΤϡܤ Moro 3ϤȤ줿
¸ʸΤϡ#1565. existential there ε (1) ([2013-08-09-1]) ȡ#1566. existential there ε (2) ([2013-08-10-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Moro, Andrea. A Brief History of the Verb To Be. Trans. by Bonnie McClellan-Broussard. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT. P, 2017.
Jespersen, O. The Philosophy of Grammar. London: Allen and Unwin, 1924.
ѸˤѲθˤơˡư (modal verb) ȯãϡȤ櫓ʸˡ (generative_grammar) ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ʤɤŪʴܤƤűѸ䤽¸ߤư (preterite-present_verb) üȯѸˤʸˡ̤ƳƼˡư줬ޤ졤ƶḽѸ˻äƤưȾΤ֤³Ƥ롥ȤܤʸˡʹԤƤѸ줫ѸˤƤޤ©ĹѲǤ롥ܥ֥ǤϰʲεʤɤǼ夲Ƥ
#1670. ˡưȯã V-to-I movement ([2013-11-22-1])
#1406. «ȤʤäƵ®ʸˡѲ ([2013-03-03-1])
#3528. ˡưŤͤ줿 ([2018-12-24-1])
#64. ˡưʤ³ȡ ([2009-07-01-1])
ǽ2Ĥεǿ줿褦ˡLightfoot ˤȡ¿ˡưû֤β16ޤǤ˴λƤȤθˤϰ롥Bergs (1640--41) ˤСषˡưϻŪ˥ХХȯãƤ뤷ˡưŪʽħƤ˳줿櫓ǤʤäȤΤ
Ū˥ХХȯãˤĤơBergs ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥ˡư첽ȤʤäΤϡ餯 motan, magan Ǥ롥ξԤȤˤǤ˸űѸˡưŪħƤˡѸ cunnan Ѹ willan ȯã should, would, could, might ơХХλˡư첽Ƥꡤб븽߷ᤫä⤢롥ˡˡư첽βˤƿη֤¸Ƥ "layering" λ¤ǧƤ롥Ĥޤꡤ٤ƤˤäʹԤƤȤ櫓
ޤˡưŪʽħƤ˳줿櫓ǤϤʤȤˤĤƤ⡤Bergs ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤롥ľŪʤȤˡưħϡȤˤΤǤϤʤޤǽ˳ƤΤǤ롥ޤŪ̵ޤȤħˤĤƤƱ͡
Bergs ϡˡư첽ʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) ȤߤǤȤ館褦ȤƤ롥ʸʸˡϡηϤʸ֤ΥͥåȥȤȤ館ѲΥͥåȥѲȤȤ館롥äơˡư첽ȤѲϡưηǽŪħޤǤ¾ιʸȤδؤѲͥåȥȤؤԤʤäȤȤˤۤʤʤơΥͥåȥȤؤϡޤǽˤäȵäΤǤ⤯
ˡưȯãϡʸˡŵȤƾҲ𤵤뤳Ȥ¿ʸʸˡȤߤˤäƤϾ嵭Τ褦ʸ (constructionalization) ŵȤƲᤵΤǤ롥
Lightfoot, David W. "Cuing a New Grammar." Chapter 2 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 24--44.
Bergs, Alexander. "New Perspectives, Theories and Methods: Construction Grammar." Chapter 103 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1631--46.
#4147. ̾ ([2020-09-03-1])#4148. ʤ each other ֤ߤפΰ̣ˤʤΤǤ ([2020-09-04-1]) εǡ̾ (reciprocal_pronoun) 夲Ѹˤ̾Ūˤϡ̣Τ롥Quirk et al. (6.31) Ȥơ2ۤƤߤ褦
Each other and one another are both written as word sequences, but it is better to treat them as compound pronouns rather than as combinations of two pronouns. At the same time, they correspond the correlative use of each . . . other and one . . . another (cf 6.58) in sentences such as:
They each blamed the other.
The passengers disembarked one after another
ε ([2020-09-04-1]) Dz⤷褦ˡŪˤϾʸˤ褦ʹǤΥФʤعʸˤꡤˤʤäƤüʷȤƹǤܤ each other, one another ȤȤä
ˡ̣Ūˡ̾줬֤ˤΩˤˤĤơ
Each other and one another resemble reflexive pronouns in that they cannot be used naturally in subject position. Instead of [1], [1a] is preferred.
?The twins wanted to know what each other were/was doing. [1]
Each of the twins wanted to know what the other was doing. [1a]
There appears to be no such constraint on reciprocals as subject in nonfinite verb clauses:
The twins wanted each other to be present at all times.
However, the rule which excludes occurrence in subject position holds not only for independent pronominal use but also for genitival reciprocals in subject noun phrases. The reciprocals must have coreference with antecedent phrases which have some other genitive or possessive modification. Compare:
*Each other's letters ----------
?The letters to each other ---------- were delivered by a servant.
Their letters to each other ----------
ʸˡǤϡդξȱϽפȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ̣̾ˤϼ¤˹äƤ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
θ礭2ĤʬȤС챿 (linguistic performance) Ż뤹ɤȸǽ (linguistic competence) Ż뤹ɤ2ĤȤʤ챿ѤȸǽϤΩϡѥ (parole) ȥ (langue) ΩȤäƤ褤E-Language I-Language ΩȤäƤ褤ɤ˱ѸȤۤʤ뤬褽褦ʤΤǤ롥
챿ѤŻ뤹ɤϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation theory) 乽ʸʸˡ (construction_grammar) ɽǧθ (cognitive_linguistics) Ǥ롥ǽϤ˽Ť¦ɽʸˡ (generative_grammar) Ǥ롥ξɤθѤ͡¦̤180ٰۤʤꡤԤΩƤȤäƤ褤Fischer et al. (32) ɽѤΩ⤫Ӿ夬餻Ƥߤ褦
| EMPHASIS ON PERFORMANCE/LANGUAGE OUTPUT | EMPHASIS ON COMPETENCE/LANGUAGE SYSTEM | |
|---|---|---|
| (a) | product-oriented | process-oriented |
| (b) | emphasis on function (in CxG also form) | emphasis on form |
| (c) | locus of change: language use | locus of change: language acquisition |
| (d) | equality of levels | centrality (autonomy) of syntax |
| (e) | gradual change | radical change |
| (f) | heuristic tendencies | fixed principles |
| (g) | fuzzy categories/schemas | discrete categories/rules |
| (h) | contiguity with cognition | innateness of grammar |
츫ȱѸΥڥ Chomsky ȤϷӤĤʤ褦˻פ뤬¤ϴط롥Chomsky ϡοŪɽˡΥڥ˶ᤤ¸ߤƤΤǤϤʤȹͤƤ뤫Cook (77) ͳǡ2ĤۤɰѤ
. . . conventional orthography is . . . a near optimal system for the lexical representation of English words. (N. Chomsky and M. Halle 1968: 49)
In short, conventional orthography is much closer than one might guess to an optimal orthography, an orthography that presents no redundant information and that indicates directly, by direct letter-to-segment correspondence, the underlying lexical form of the spoken language (N. Chomsky 1972: 12)
ʸˡǤϡüԤε˳ǼƤδϡΤ˺Ŭ줿ɽäƤΤȤ롥δȽϤβۤʤäƤȤȤ¿ˤʤȤäξԤ˸̩˰פƤȤ櫓ǤʤξԤδطϴˤطǤ롥δˤϡΥڥȯδطˤƤϤޤ롥ʸˡǤȱѸˡΥڥȤΤϡΩ֤ȤƤƤΤǤ롥
ˤĤơCook (78) ϾˤѤ Chomsky ˰͵ʤ鼡Τ褦Ƥ롥
Most claims that English spelling is deficient are based on the view that English spelling corresponds to the sounds of speech. The purpose of English spelling is instead to link to the underlying lexical representation. However bad English writing may be as a sound-based system, it is efficient at showing the underlying forms of words stripped of the accidental features attached to them by phonological rules. Its purpose is not the representation of sounds but the representation of word forms. Looked at in this light, 'conventional orthography is . . . a near optimal system for the lexical representation of English words' (Chomsky and Halle 1968: 49).
ǽҤ٤ƤΤϡѸ쥹ڥɽȤĤ뤫⤷ʤɽȤܤʤСʤ꤯äƤȤȤ#3873. ֻɸಽ경餳ѸνηϤʣˤʤä ([2019-12-04-1]) 䡤ĥäεǼĥƤ褦ˡѸˡˤ륹ڥνſϡɽȤɽˤȹͤƤ롥
ʤȤ Chomsky ȤĤʤäƤȰճǤϤ롥 Chomskian!?
Cook, Vivian. The English Writing System. London: Hodder Education, 2004.
Chomsky, N. and M. Halle. The Sound Pattern of English. London: Harper & Row, 1968.
Chomsky, N. Phonology and Reading. Basic Processes in Reading. Ed. H. Levin. London: Harper & Row, 1972. 3--18.
ʸˡ (generative_grammar) ˤơʣε§ȤƤꡤ̤Хåƥ硤֤ɤε§ͥס֤ɤ餬ŬѤΤפȤ꤬뤳ȤԲǤ롥ΥȤȯۤФȴ֤ʤֺŬפ "Optimality Theory" ʺŬˤΤɬȤäƤ褤⤷ʤꤽˤⲿ餫ε§ꤹʬǤСˤ餺ȤȯۤޤΤϼΤ褦˻פ롥伫ȡ˴ؿϤȤϤ褷ɸؼԤǤϤʤȤȯۤˤ϶Ф롥
Crystal (342--43) ˤȡŬ (= Optimality Theory = ot) Ȥϼ̤ꡥ
optimality theory (OT) In phonology a theory developed in the early 1990s concerning the relationship between proposed underlying and output representations. In this approach, an input representation is associated with a class of candidate output representations, and various kinds of filter are used to evaluate these outputs and select the one which is 'optimal' (i.e. most well-formed). The selection takes place through the use of a set of well-formedness constraints, ranked in a hierarchy of relevance on a language-particular basis, so that a lower-ranked constraint may be violated in order to satisfy a higher-ranked one. The candidate representation which best satisfies the ranked constraint hierarchy is the output form. For example, in English the negative prefix in- (e.g. insufficient) has two output forms, im- before bilabials (as in impossible, immodest), and in- elsewhere (inarticulate, involuntary, etc.). The coexistence of these forms means that there is conflict between the class of faithfulness constraints (which require identity between input and output) and the class of constraints which impose restrictions on possible sequences have identical place of articulation --- which needs to be resolved by an appropriate ranking of the relevant constraints. Optimality theory thus aims to account for a wide range of phenomena by specifying the interaction of a small number of universal constraints, which apply variously across languages in producing phonological representations. A particular constraint may achieve high ranking in one language (i.e. its output accounts for many surface forms) and low ranking in another (i.e. its output accounts for only a small class of forms). Although initially developed in relation to phonology, during the later 1990s optimality theory came to be extended to morphology and syntax.
ˤޤ꿨줿ȤʤСǤŪȴ˰㤤ʤפڤäƴάƤޤȡѸܸʤɤθ̸줬ɤޤǤε§ȿϵ뤬ɤϵʤȤääƤȤȤʤΤ
OT ϼȤƲ˶ߤȯǤϤ뤬§Ŭѽ˴ؤǤǧʤС§ȤΤꤵ뤽¾ΤʤʬʷˤˤˤƤŬѤȹͤ롥
Ƹ줬줾ͭΥե (fetishism) äƤȤѤȤΤȤ롥
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ĸδܸ SOV äȹͤƤ뤬Ǥϴܸ礬ѲΤ⤢롥Ѹĸ줫饲ޥĸФ˻˵ڤĹˤΤʤǡܸ SVO ؤѲƤʸˡήˤСO ΰư (movement) Ȥ櫓 (fronting) η̤ȤƤθ礬ǥեȤȤ夷Τȹͤ뤳ȤǤ
#3127. ĸ줫鸽Ѹؤδܸοܡ ([2017-11-18-1])
#3131. Ϣ11֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤԡˡס ([2017-11-22-1])
#3160. Ϣ12֤ʤѸSVOθʤΤʸԡˡס ([2017-12-21-1])
#3733.رѸ춵٤Ϣ5֤ʤѸϸ礬ʤ˷ޤäƤΤס ([2019-07-17-1])
O ǤϤʤ V ֤줿 VSO ȤѰŪʸ礬䤬ƥǥեȤȤ夷줬롥٥ȸ (Insular Celtic) Fortson (144) Τ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
If verb-initial order generated in this way [= by fronting] becomes stereotyped, it can be reanalyzed by learners as the neutral order; and in fact in Insular Celtic, VSO order became the norm for precisely this reason (the perhaps older verb-final order is still the rule in the Continental Celtic language Celtiberian). A similar reanalysis happened in Lycian . . . .
βǤȡ餯ŪװˤѰ۸1ĤˤʤäΤǥեȤθȤƺʬ (reanalysis) 졤夷ȤȤˤʤȡġΰˤܸϡ褽 SOV ƳФ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
ʿʸ VSO ȤߤΤʤȤȤƤϡʤưǻϤޤȤФϥޥĤʤȤ#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡVSO θΤʤǤ褷ƵʸǤϤʤθδܸˤĤƤϰʲ⻲ȡ
#137. θδܸ ([2009-09-11-1])
#3124. ܸ (1) ([2017-11-15-1])
#3125. ܸ (2) ([2017-11-16-1])
#3128. ܸ (3) ([2017-11-19-1])
#3129. ܸ (4) ([2017-11-20-1])
Fortson IV, Benjamin W. Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2004.
1980ǯʹߡΤǧθءοؤΩطʤˤϡ͡ʳŪȯŸȴͿä (8) ʬ䤹ޤƸ褦

ĤȤ⤤륤ץåȤϡFranz Boaz Edward Sapir ɽؤαƶؤǤ롥ʸȸδط˸ƤλۤϡǧθؤθѤĴ¤Ȥ¿
οؤαƶޤ줿Τꥫ¤ؤǤ롥̣ξݤʬϤ1βȤ֤ǤϸϼΧŪʤΤȤƤȤ館졤ͤμǽϤΩΤȤİ줿
1950ǯꥫ¤ؤ֤ΤϡNoam Chomsky ʸˡäͤμȤƤȤ館ʤǥˤηϲ뤳Ȥ˸Ӥạ̈ڻ뤷μ¾μȤϴͿʤΧŪʤΤȤƤȤ館ƤȤǤϡ¤ؤȰۤʤȤʤä
μμΧ˵ȶָ̣פȶǧθؤΩ夲СȤʤ롥1980ǯȾλƳԤȤơGeorge Lakoff Ronald W. Langacker פ̤Ф1990ǯˤϹݳز
ǧθؤΤ⤦1Ĥαƶϡ1970ǯȾθζδǤ롥ӡоȤ̤ơˡ§ظˤưŤˤĤƤδؿޤꡤǧθؤ˻ɷͿ
ߡǧθؤϹǧβʳؤΤʤݤ1ΰȤ֤ŤǤ롥ޤΰˤ͡Ω줬ꡤ1Ĥ̾ǤäƤ褤ΤȤ⤢롥˸ؤѲʤɤˤ⾯ʤ̥ѥȤͿ褦ˤʤäƤƤꡤ1ĤĬήƤ뤳Ȥϴְ㤤ʤ
Ϣơ#2835. ¤ʸˡǧθؤ3ѷ ([2017-01-30-1]) ⻲ȡ
סǧθء١ؽDz2002ǯ
塼˻Ϥޤ20θؤϡθǯ͡ŸƤŸλϥ衼åѤȥꥫȤǤʤۤʤΤΡηϡŻγɤˡŻγɤΩˤȤ館Ȥ狼䤹ʤ餽֤˰֤ŤŪʳɤ⸽Ƥơ2021ˤ¿̤ʸؤֺ餯Ȥˤʤäʲⶶ (pp. 4--5) ˤäƼ
ޤ20Υ衼åѤγƸɤˤĤơηϽŻʺ¦ˤˡŻʱ¦ˤξˤȤ뼴ξ˰֤ŤޤǤ褦
ηϽŻ롡ˡŻ 塼롡 ڥϡեץ顼ɡɥ ɡ͡ɡŪǽ
Ż롡ˡŻ ʸˡ¤Ż뵡ǽʸʸˡǧʸˡýŻ뵡ǽ
Τ褦ˡ20Υ衼åѤθؤ⡤Υꥫ濴Ȥؤ⡤ءǧβʳؤҲءʸؤʤʬߤ˱ƶ礤ʤ顤¤Ż뤹뤫ǽˡŻ뤹뤫ˤäơѡʸˡѤ礭ۤʤꡤ⡤1Τߤʤ餺¿˿뿶ҤΤ褦ѲȯŸƤΤȻפ롥
ⶶ 顦 ůͺֽϡؤȤϲ ůͺԡˡظīоȸإ 3īҽŹ2012ǯ1--8ǡ
ؤˤ (syntax) ȤϲʬʤΤȤ䤤ФϡɤΤ褦ʸǰƬˤƤ뤫ˤäưۤʤäƤ롥ŪѤ§ä绨Ĥ˸äƤޤСȤʸˤȸδطʬǤꡤŵŪˤϸε§Ҥꡤ繽¤餫ˤꤹ뤳ȤɸȤ롥
⤦ŪβΤǤСLos "Three dimensions of syntax" ꤯Ƥ롥1ĤѤˤʤȤФʤΤɤǤʤۤɤȻפäΤǵƤ (Los 8)
1. How the information about the relationships between the verb and its semantic roles (AGENT, PATIENT, etc.) is expressed. This is essentially a choice between expressing relational information by endings (inflection), i.e. in the morphology, or by free words, like pronouns and auxiliaries, in the syntax.
2. The expression of the semantic roles themselves (NPs, clauses?), and the syntactic operations languages have at their disposal for giving some roles higher profiles than others (e.g. passivisation).
3. Word order.
Dimension 1 ϡư濴ȤƳ꿶̣䤬ޤʤɤηŪʤɽ蘆Τ֤ˤŪʤɽ蘆ΤȤ˴ط롥ԤμʤѤƤСʤȤʤ롥
Dimension 2 ϡ꿶줿̣䤬ʤɽˤäƼ¸Τ˴ͿʤѷˤȤä˾Ƥ롥
Dimension 3 ϡ̤ȤƼ¸ȸ֤˴ؤǤ롥
3ĤμϡǤŪǿŪ Dimension 1 顤ǤŪɽŪ Dimension 3 Ȥ¤٤Ƥ롥ʸˡѤ˴ŤΤǤ뤬褯줿ѤǤ롥
Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.
ͤɤߡּҲ (sociosyntax) ȤοΤäΰȤϡθȤ٤Τǡ (146) ֥פȰ֤ŤƤ롥ޤʸˡȤΤּҲΡפȤİȤħ롥 (159) ˤС
¤ʸˡȤϡ쥳ߥ˥ƥƱΤߺѤ˽ɤ롤ʬ줿μȤƤΡּҲΡפǤꡤۤʸˡȤϡġ¾ȤΡֶͭϰϡפ䤷Ʒפä̤Ȥ롤֤Ϥ褯狼ʤ٤ֵϡפȤƤΡּҲΡפǤ롤ȤħŤǤ롥
쥳ߥ˥ƥϡߤƱ褦ä٤ȤҲŪʥץå㡼ʤ顤ƱܻؤƸѤƤΤȤȤȡɬŪˡ͡귿ɽѤʤɤݼŪʸư뤳Ȥ¿ʤȤȤñ㲽ƤСݼܼǤȾƤ롥ϡ¤ۤĥʸˡʤɽȤϿøΩͤǤ롥
θѤС㤨ʸˡ§æ㳰פˤϡĤƤλʸˡ§ĤȤǤΤʤʤΤ褦ʤΤ㳰פȤߤʤ٤ǤϤʤݼζȤߤʤФ褤ȤȤˤʤ롥 (152) ۩
Τ褦ʡ㳰פȰ̤ˡʸˡפȤƵҤ뵬§ȤκϲŪʤΤǤϤʤŬѤϰϤεϤ礭κۤǤʤǽ롥ܼ¤ǤϤʤ귿ݼ˵Сϡݼٹ礤פȤƼٲ̲ǽǤꡤֵ§㳰פΤ褦켰ǹͤɬפϤʤʤ롥
Ҳϡʸˡ§μҲŪͭݼ˾Ƥ variationist ŪΩȤ
͡8ϡҲסؼҲءٰ ʼԡˡīҽŹ2017ǯ146--67ǡ
ɸθؤˡˤĤơ (58) ȤФʬϤˤפʣŪǤäƤ褤ȤݤΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ʲϡФ֤ʸˡǧθؤȤ2ĤθǰƬ֤ĤĽҤ٤Ƥ븫Ǥ롥
鷺⤬ʤǤϤ뤬ȤФʬϤˤפβ뤫ˤĤơҤ٤롥θϡֲŪפȤ䤤˲ŪͿ뤳ȤӤǤȤΤǤ롥ΥѥˤĤӸƤ뤳ȤʬŪ̵ʤΤǡʤĤޤʤĤʤˡƤ븽ݤˤĤư̲줿硤ŪʲȳŪʲȤǽȻפ뤬ξԤ¾ŪǤɬפʤڤʤΤξԤ¸ǤȤȤǤ롥㤨Сʸˡ§ŬѤϹ¤¸ǤפȤΰ̲ФʸˡˤĤƤŪǤ롤Ȥ뤳Ȥ˰¸ϤʤƱˡǧεоݤ¤Ūİ롤Ȥ̲OKʤΤǤ롥פǧŪʳ٤줬뤳ȤФޤ칽¤Ϥޤޤ̤ưŤƤȤ¤˼Ф褤ΤǤϤޤ
ǸƤŪŪʲפ¾ϸˤĤƤΰ⤤ϸѲθˤĤƸˤƤϤޤꤽ㤨СŪʸȳŪʸϸߤ¾ŪʤΤǤϤʤޤƱȤϡѻ2Ĥ١֤̻֤ˤĤƸˤƤϤޤΤǤϤʤ֤̻֤ߤ¾ŪȤߤɬפɬʤ
Ū˾嵭ƱΩǸΡפȤΤƤ롥Ȥʣоݤ1ĤǴϤʤष줳Ȱۤʤ٤ͻ뤳Ȥˤäơ椬ƤȤ餤ʪʤΤǤϤʤˡ͡ʳ٤ǽŪ1Ĥθ˽ȤǽʤǤϤʤ줹˾ߤΤǤϤʤȵäƤ롥ΰ̣ǤϡؤȤϡȤФɤΤ褦˸뤫͡ʳ٤νˤۤʤʤȹͤƤ롥
ס֥θءȤФιȤơסءظ٥쥯1ظԽԡˡ罤۽Ź2012ǯ51--58ǡ1992ǯ11Ͽ
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