hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     1 2 ڡ / page 1 (2)

passive - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-08-28 00:27

2025-04-15 Tue

#5832. ʤűѸθ絬§ϴˤäΤ --- 2Ĥθͤ [word_order][oe][pde][japanese][linearity][syntax][information_structure][article][cleft_sentence][passive][voice][discourse]



1β heldio ˤ#1413. ʤűѸθ絬§ϴˤäΤǯٽۿΥˡۿˤ򥢡Ȥۿޤ (word_order) ȤˤưŪʤΤǡؿ⤿줿ΤǤ礦ޤǤβʿѤ¿İ褵Ƥޤ꤬Ȥޤ
ѸˤʬǡָפȤСѸǤϸ絬§ΤˡűѸǤϸ礬ŪˤäȤ椬ˤʤޤʤ֤ϤʤפȤѤʵ䤬ͯƤΤǤϤʤǤ礦ϡεľΤǤϤʤФᤫΥץǤϤޤȤϲȤŪˤϿ̤ȤǤȻפޤ
ʲʸϤ׻ݤ򼨤ޤ׾촶Τ륪ꥸʥβۿˤƤİФȻפޤ

1. ⤽ָפȤϲ --- (linearity)

䤿ϡؽä˱Ѹؽ̤ơνؤӤޤѸ SVO ܤǤꡤỌ̇̄ѤäꡤʸˡŪˤʤäꤹȶäƤޤ㤨 I eat a banana. ɸŪǤꡤ*Eat I a banana. *A banana I eat. ̾ƤޤʶĴʤɤüʸ̮Ͻޤˡ
ܸǤϡֻϥХʥʤ򿩤٤ (SOV) Ǥ֥ХʥʤϿ٤ (OSV) ֿ٤롤ϥХʥʤ (VSO) ʤɤ⡤ԼϤˤ衤ʸˡŪ˴ְ㤤Ȥϸڤޤ
ǤϡʤˤϸȤΤ¸ߤΤǤ礦ϡ줬ʤ뤤ʸˤּ˱äľŪ¤٤뤳ȤˤäΩƤ뤫ǤȸƤӤޤ䤿ȯﴱʤȤ櫓ӡˤϴŪ1ĤʤΤǡʣñƱȯ뤳ȤϤǤޤ󡥤äơñ֤¤٤뤷ʤΤǤϸˤ򤱤ʤǤꡤʪؤˤϤΤª뤳ȤǤޤ
While the dog is running in the yard, the cat is sleeping on the hot carpet. ʸäƤ֡ǭϥۥåȥڥåȤξǿƤˤȤʸϡƱ˵äƤɽ路Ƥޤ󤫤顤ɤ餫˸虜ޤ󡥤⤷˿ʹ֤2ĤӤƱ2Ĥñȯ뤳ȤǤʤ顤ι¤ۤʤäƤȤǤ礦

2. 絬§2Ĥθ

ñ֤¤٤ʤФʤʤȤ¸ͳʬޤϡ֤ɤΤ褦¤٤뤫פȤ絬§ǤθϤȡθ絬§ظˤϡ礭ʬ2Ĥΰۤʤ븶¸ߤ褦˻פޤ

(1) ʸˡθ絬§

ʸʥƥ󥹡ǡʼ졤ư졤Ūʤɡˤ֤ꤹ븶
ǤʸˡŪʵǽʼʤΤŪʤΤˤˤäƼ
ŵ㡧Ѹ (SVO) (SVO) ʤ
ʸˡŪʴطˤäΤˤʤȿ̡μͳ٤㤤

(2) ʸ̮θ絬§

ʸʥƥ󥹡ˤ⹭ʸ̮áˤˤήŻ뤹븶
¿ξ硤ꡦơޡ󼨤³ǽҡ졼ޡ֤뷹
ŵ㡧ܸ졤űѸ
ή줬ˤʤʸθŪͳǡִˤפȸʤ䤹

ܸΡΡȤˡȤФޤؼǴˡפȤФͤƤߤޤ礦ǽʸǤϡθ塤Ǥ֤ȤФפ֤פȼäƸޤʸǤϡΤȤʤä֤פ֤ϡסʼˤȼäʸƬơʻؼǴ˹Ԥäȡˤ³ޤΤ褦ˡܸʸ̮ξήʼꢪҡơޢ졼ޡ󢪿ˤˤäɽ뤳Ȥ򹥤ʤΤǤ

3. űѸܸ췿ä

ơǸűѸܤƤߤޤ礦ʤűѸθ絬§ϴˤäΤϡűѸ줬ѸΤ褦ʡʸˡθ絬§פ1ȤǤϤʤषܸ˶ᤤʸ̮θ絬§פŻ뤹äǤ
űѸǤϡʸ̮˱ơȸʤǤʸƬ֤³Ȥ礬ޤޤΤᡤʸ¤򸫤ȡSVO SOV VSO ǽǤꡤѸüԤλ鸫ȡ礬ꤵƤ餺ˤȴ櫓Ǥϡֵ§ʤפ櫓ǤϤʤۤʤθ˴ŤƤΤ򤹤٤ΤʤΤǤ

4. 縶žȱѸ˾Ѳ

ѸˤϡΡʸ̮θ絬§פŻ뤹륿פʸˡθ絬§פŻ뤹륿פؤȡδŪʤ礭žˤǤª뤳ȤǤޤžϡѸ˸ˤʤꡤѸˤƸ경Ƥޤ礭ʸžϡñ˸ǤʤѸ¾͡ʸˡܤˤϢŪʱƶڤܤޤ

(article) ȯãűѸˤⴧ˨ϤޤѸۤηŪʥƥ꡼ǤϤޤǤ򼨤괧 the 䡤򼨤괧 a/an ȯãƤΤϡޤ˾¤ (information_structure) ʳˡǼɬޤäȤȴϢƤȹͤޤ
Ĵʸ (cleft_sentence) ȯãűѸǤϡĴǤŪͳʸƬ˰ư뤳ȤǽǤ礬경ȡΤ褦ʰư¤ޤȤơIt is ... that ... Τ褦ʶĴʸȯãǤΩ뵡ǽĤ褦ˤʤޤ
ư (passive) ¿ѡűѸˤư֤¸ߤޤ٤ϸѸۤɹ⤯ޤǤ礬경ǡŪȤʤǡʿˤʤ䤹ǡˤȤʸƬ֤ˡư֤֤ȤˤѤ褦ˤʤäƤΤȹͤޤ㤨СŪʸƬ֤ OSV θ礬ȤˤʤäˡŪˤʸƬ֤ư֤ޤ褦ˤʤäȤǤ

5. ޤȤ

űѸθ礬Ѹ줫鸫ơִˤפΤϡ絬§ʤäǤϤʤѸȤϰۤʤʸ̮θ絬§פȤŻ뤷ƤǤθϡܸȶ̤ʬ¿ޤѸˤϡδܸ礭žʥߥåʲǤꡤαƶϱʸˡ͡¦̤˵ڤǤΤǤ
űѸؤֺݤˤϡѸθŪʸѤöΥ졤־ήפȤĤȤäνˤʤ뤫⤷ޤܸüԤˤȤäƤϡषߤ䤹¦̤⤢ȤǤ礦Ȥڤ顤ѸαˤõᤷƤߤΤ⡤⤷ΤǤϤʤǤ礦

Referrer (Inside): [2026-01-01-1]

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2024-09-30 Mon

#5635. easy-to-please ʸˤߤưŪ [middle_voice][passive][voice][semantic_role][infinitive][syntax][adjective][complementation][construction][adverb]

ϡε#5634. eager-to-please ʸθŤȽư첽η ([2024-09-27-1]) ǿʤä⤦1Ĥιʸeasy-to-please ʸˤĤơŪħͤƤߤޤ
Fischer et al. (171--72) ˤСeasy-to-please ʸˤ (voice) ˴ؤפ꤬ĤޤȤޤ

   The easy-to-please construction has undergone a number of changes. From around 1400, two slightly more complex variants of the construction are found. One has a stranded preposition in the subordinate clause, as in (28a). The other has a passive infinitive (28b).

(28) aþei fond hit good and esy to dele wiþ also
'They found it good and easy to deal with as well.' (Curson(Trin-C)16557)
bthe excercise and vce [= 'use'] of suche ... visible signes [...] is good and profitable to be had at certein whilis [= 'times'] (Pecock,Represser,Ch.XX)


(28a) Ϥޤ˸ easy-to-please ʸǤ(28b) ʬ to be had Τ褦˼ư֤ȤʤäƤʬդɬפǤΰ㤤ϲʤΤǤ礦ˤĤơѸ˰ĤƶŪ˲⤷ޤ礦 He is easy to please. ˤơʸμ he ȤƸư please ̣Ūʴطϡ"he is pleased" 뤤 "someone pleases him" ȤȤˤʤޤԤȤСǽư֤ǤϤʤư֤βȤʤޤȤƸư켫Τϼư֤ɸӤӤƤʤˡȵǽ˿㤤ƤޤäƤޤ֤δߤȡ嵭 (28a) (28b) ΤۤŬäƤ褦˻פޤɤʤΤǤ礦
Fischer et al. (172) ǤϡΤ褦˵³ޤ

The development in (28b) is reminiscent of that in the modal passive . . . , and some degree of mutual influence seems likely. Curiously, however, passive marking eventually became obligatory in the modal passive, but not so in the easy-to-please construction, where formal passives never became systematic and sometimes even disappeared again, as shown by the now-ungrammatical example in (29a). Fischer (1991: 175ff) suggests that formally passive infinitives tend to occur with easy-type adjectives when the relation between adjective and infinitive rather than between adjective and subjective is stressed (cf. 29a). In such cases, an adverb rather than an adjective is also often found, as in (29b).

(29) a when once an act of dishonesty and shame has been deliberately committed, the will having been turned to evil, is difficult to be reclaimed (1839, COHA)
b Jack Rapley is not easily to be knocked off his feet (1819, Fischer ibid.)

From this, one might speculate that passive forms failed to fully establish themselves in this context because the meaning the construction conveys is not always purely passive. As (30) illustrates, the subject of many easy-to-please constructions combines both patient-like and agent-like qualities. While the subject undergoes the action, its intrinsic qualities also contribute to how that action unfolds. The construction could therefore be analysed as marking middle voice.

(30) more experienced opponents ... can sometimes be tricky to play against. (BNC)


easy-to-please ʸư֤Ȥʴط夬äƤ

Fischer, Olga, Hendrik De Smet, and Wim van der Wurff. A Brief History of English Syntax. Cambridge: CUP, 2017.
Fischer, Olga. "The Rise of the Passive Infinitive in English". Historical English Syntax. Ed. D. Kastovsky. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1991. 141--88.

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2022-11-01 Tue

#4936. ʤŪֻŪ줬ȤʤưʸǽʤΤ [passive][syntax][inflection][verb][me][sobokunagimon][word_order]

Voicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio)פǡꥹʡ󤫤󤻤줿˲#517. Ū줬ˤʤư֤Ѹȯ --- He was given a book.ۿޤҤİ



§ȤƸűѸǤưľŪ줬Ȥʤưʸ¸ߤޤǤȤ³ѸˤʤꡤưδŪֻŪޤǤ⤬ȤʤưʸǽȤʤäƤޤʳפ (125--31) ˡϤۿؤ­Ȥʤޤ
Fischer ˤСѸǤϼΤ٤ƤμưʸǽǤ

1 The book was selected by the committee
2 Nicaragua was given the opportunity to protest
3 His plans were laughed at
4 The library was set fire to by accident


Ѹ˸Ǥϡμưʸγ˴ؤ¿ʤƤޤĤιͤΤΡͼư (passivisation) ˴ؤ쵬§ŬϰϤѲƤȤȤ館¿褦Ǥפˡưоݤ֤ȤȤưľŪ줫ŪءֻŪس礷ƤȤǤ
1ĤβǤ⤷ȤƤ⡤ʤʤΤȤŪɬפޤưȤϰۤʤ뤱ɤⲿ餫Ǵط츽ݤˤƤѲ礬äƤȤСȹ碌ƹͻɬפޤդλ Fischer (384) ˸äƤ餤ޤ礦

There are two general paths along which one could look for an explanation of these developments. One can hypothesise that there was a change in the nature of the rule that generates passive constructions . . . Another possibility is that there was a change in the application of the rule due to changes having taken place elsewhere in the system of the language . . . The latter course seems to be the one now more generally followed. Additional factors that may have influenced the spread of passive construction are the gradual loss of the Old English active construction with indefinite man . . . (this construction could most easily be replaced by a passive) and the change in word order . . . .


ѲβȸڤϡʤʤưפǤϤޤ󡥤Τ˱ѸˤȤʬꡤ椬³ƤΤǤ

ס ˡŪˤ븽αʸˡ١罤ۡ1990ǯ.
Fischer, Olga. "Syntax." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 2. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 207--408.

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2022-08-17 Wed

#4860. ʸˡǤμưʸκ [generative_grammar][passive][syntax][case][case_filter]

عʸˡǤϡǽưʸʤǤSVOʸˤưʸݤˡȤǽưʸμŪ򥯥be ưäꡤưʬˤꡤֻ by äȡʤȤȲ⤵롥



the teacher scolded John

                

  
                    
              
                    
John was scolded by the teacher



ʸˡǤϡΤ褦ǽưʸưʸ뤳ȤϤʤع¤ (D-structure) ˤƤǤȼι¤ꤷŪǤ֤˰ưȤͤ롥



[IP___[I'[I was][VP[V' scolded John] by the teacher]]]

[IPJohni [I'[I was][VP[V' scolded ti] by the teacher]]]



Τ褦˹ͤϼ̤Ǥ롥ع¤Ǥϡǽưʸʤ [V' scolded John] Ȥ¤ꤵƤ롥̾Ǥ scold Ȥ¾ư줬 John гʤͿϤscolded Τ褦˲ʬˤʤȳͿǽϤ򼺤ȹͤ졤John ϳͿʤޤޤ֤Ȥʤ롥ȡJohn Τ褦̾ɬͿʤФʤʤפȤʥե륿 (case filter) θ񿨤Ƥޤᡤ򤹤뤿 John ϳʤͿƤ館֡Ĥޤ꿼ع¤Ƭ ___ ؤȰưƤΰ֤ϡư was ˤäƼʤͿƤ館֤Ǥ롥ơǤɽع¤Ƴ롥
ʸˡήλųݤˤ͡ߤƤꡤʤ뤳ȤʤΤϡ˵ʤФʤʤ㤫顤ʸˡħ1ĤȤƳͿŻ뤹뤳Ȥʬʾ塤 (79) 򻲾Ȥ

졡3ϡʸˡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס 򹯡 ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2022-08-24-1]

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2022-04-20 Wed

#4741. ֤ȼưֲζ [word_order][passive][inversion][syntax][information_structure]

(inversion) ȼưֲ (passivisation) Ȥ2ĤŪˤ϶̤䤬롥ŪʼʳǤŵŪ (topic) ôƬΰ֤ưȤǤȤȤС2ĤŪϤȤ경 (topicalisation) Ȥ׵˱ƤʤʤΤǤ롥
֤ȼưֲˤϡ̣롥䡤ȤȤäۤŬڤξԤϥåȤǡޤ褷Ƥ褦ʤΤǤ롥Seoane (379) εѤ褦

. . . inversion and passivization operate in different syntactic environments: passivization applies to transitive verbs whereas inversion applies to intransitive and copular clauses. Empirical studies . . . have made manifest that the tendency of inversion to apply to intransitive clauses was already observed in OE, ME, and EModE, when intransitive verbs dominate in the inverted (XVS) order, while there is a predominance of transitive verbs in the non-inverted order (XSV, probably determined by the need to maintain the cohesion between V and O . . .). As argument-reversing constructions, therefore, passivization and inversion were in a nearly complementary distribution and passives were almost the only order-rearranging pattern available for transitive clauses.


ʤۤɡ֤ȼưֲϡ줾켫ưʸ¾ưʸˤȤ㤤Ϥʤ⡤ܻؤƤȤǤƱߤƤȤ롥2ĤβˤϷŪ˰ۤʤ뤳Ȥ1Ĥ롥ϡ֤ͭɸФưֲФϤޤ̵ɸǤ뤳ȤΰѤˤ³1ʸѤ褦 (Seoane 379)

However, the most significant difference between the two argument-reversing devices is that, even if they satisfy the same discourse constraints, inversion produces marked topics, while passivization is the only strategy reversing the order of clausal constituents and creating unmarked topics/subjects.


ޤ֤ȼưֲӤĤƹͤȤʤäΤǡȤƤ⿷ʸä

Seoane, Elenna. "Information Structure and Word Order Change: The Passive as an Information-Rearranging Strategy in the History of English." Chapter 15 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 360--91.

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2022-01-08 Sat

#4639. ѸˤƤưʸ [passive][syntax][word_order][information_structure][statistics][hc]

̤˸ˤơ¤ (information_structure) δ顤ȤʤʼȤϸ¤ʤˤʸƬʸ֤Τ˾ޤȤ롥ܸΤ褦ʼͳʸĸǤС¸뤳ȤϤ䤹ºݡܸƱͤ˸礬ŪͳäűѸǤ⡤ξ¤׵˱뤳Ȥ񤷤ʤä
ḽѸΤ褦ʤ褽경ĸξˤϡ餫ιפ򤳤餵ʤФʤʤűѸ줫ѸˤʸʸˡȤƤV2§졤礬경ƤˤĤơȤʤʸƬˤäƤ뤿ˡˤʤäΤ褦ʾˤäơפʼʤ1Ĥܤ褦ˤʤäΤưʸǤ롥ǽưʸˤŪ줬Ȥʤ硤ǽưʸưʸ˴뤳ȤˤꡤŪ줬ȤʤꡤʤʸƬ֤褦ˤʤ뤫
θ경ȼưʸ¿ѲȤ츫Ω2ĤŪݤϡ¤ȤŪʳǰΩȤƴϢŤΤǤ롥ϡ#4561. Ⱦ¤θ ([2021-10-22-1]) ̤Ǥ롥ʤȤⲾȤƤ϶̣
β¾ڤ褦Ȥ Seoane 롥Helsinki Corpus 1518ޤǤʬʤʤV2§줿λΥ֥ѥˤѤĴˤСʲ̤ꡤɤäƼưʸΨƤ뤳Ȥʬ (Seoane 371)

 WordsActivesPercent activePassivesPercent passive
M4 (1420--1500)44,0002,92881.964718.0
E1 (1500--1570)50,0002,23678.561221.4
E2 (1570--1640)48,0002,55077.972222.0
E3 (1640--1710)55,0002,89378.52,90321.3
Total197,00010,60778.52,90321.3


ɽطʤˤ륳ѥΰǡνˤĤƤɬפSeoane ˤСǽưʸμϼưʸǤ륿פΤΤ˸¤äƤȤޤѸǤ褯ΤƤ̤ꡤưʸ٤ϥƥȥפ礭¸뤿ᡤιθɬפǤ롥ޤưʸǹ԰ټԤ򼨤 by ̵ͭ⡤θ٤ѥ᡼ȤʤʼºݡSeoane ʸǤϤδˤդʧƤˡ
ɽϤޤ绨ĤĴ̤Ȳ᤹٤Ǥꡤ嵭β¾ڤȤޤǤϤʤѥ礭Υѥ᡼Ƥ뤳Ȥˤäơ¾ڤ˶ŤȤϤǤ뤫⤷ʤ⤳βΥϡθ경ȼưʸ¿ѲδطäȤפФξԤΰ̴ط¾ڤˤϡɤλˤĤƲɤ餫ˤФ褤Τ

Seoane, Elenna. "Information Structure and Word Order Change: The Passive as an Information-Rearranging Strategy in the History of English." Chapter 15 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 360--91.

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2021-04-27 Tue

#4383. be surprised at ǤϤʤ be surprised by ¤ήԤäƤƤ [hel_education][link][khelf][passive][preposition][corpus][clmet][lmode][oed][khelf_hel_intro_2021]

4̤ƤֱѸƳ2021⡤ޤ֤ˤɤ夭ޤرȳαѸ˥ߤΥСֱѸ˥ƥġפ󶡤ȤǯٽΥڡŸƤޤ
46˸ɽ줿󥳥ƥĤϡ#4362. ֱѸƳ2021פץ󤷤ޤ ([2021-04-06-1]) ǾҲ𤷤be surprised atäȶäΤϤ⤦Ť1ˡǤѸؽԤï⤬ be surprised at ǤǶǤ be surprised by ¿ʤäƤȤ׷λ¡ʡˤŦرˤ륳ƥĤǤ
ƺåפ줿ΤϡƱˤ2be surprised atäȶäΤϤ⤦Ť2ˡǤϸѸνѼ˾ƤֶŪפƤǤϤ褤ѸỤ̄Ȥ⤤̻ŪפʥץǤʬϤǤʤΤȤäλ¤餫ˤʤޤѸƳȤƥʥǤҤɤ
⤽ƶ˻ɷ18--19դʬۤϤɤäΤȡѸΥѥ CLMET3.0 ǤäȸƤߤޤ70ǯߤ3ʬ(be ưϤƻꤻsurprised at surprised by ǥҥåȿñӤƤߤޤ

Periodsurprised atsurprised by
1710--178015840
1780--185018955
1850--192015730


λˤ surprised by ϤޤΤ23٤äȤȤˤʤޤ嵭ΥƥˤСθ surprised by 20Ⱦ鿭ĥƤȤȤǡޤޤܤΥʤɤ夲ȤäƤ褤Ǥ͡ʤƥǤ⿨Ƥ̤ꡤ˴ؤܳŪʸȤưʲΤΤޤΤǡƤޤ

Taketazu, Susumu. Psychological Passives and the Agentive Prepositions in English: A Historical Study. Tokyo: Kaibunsha, 2019.

ΥƥϡѸ˳ؽؤƳȤƤϤϥ٥ä⤷ޤ󤬡Ѹ˸ؤƳȤƤϡŪʤ⤿ؤפʻŦ¿ޤǤȻפޤ5ۤɵ󤲤мΤ褦ˤʤǤ礦

Ѹ˸ˤϥѥѤؤͭǤ뤳
Ʊ OED (= Oxford English Dictionary) ѤԲķǤ뤳
餫줿ϡñ˷ˤĤʤΤǤϤʤŤʬϤ뤳ȤɬפǤ뤳
ϾѲƤȤ
ȻפäƤɽ¤ϸŤѤ줿Ȥ

ֱѸƳ2021Ϥޤޤ³ޤ³ꤤפޤ

Referrer (Inside): [2021-08-09-1]

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2021-04-06 Tue

#4362. ֱѸƳ2021פץ󤷤ޤ [hel_education][link][khelf][passive][preposition][khelf_hel_intro_2021][notice]

41ˡ#4357. ǯ٤αѸƳڡ򳫻Ϥޤ ([2021-04-01-1]) ư衤ѸˤγؤӤ¥³Ƥޤͤ³ΤǤ©ڤ줷ƤޤޤȤȤǡʸʸظʤ˺ҤƤѸˤ칶를ߤγϤڤ뤳Ȥˤޤμݤǡ¤ϤǤ˺ֱѸƳ2021ʤΤΩ夬äƤޤ
ΥߤˤƱѸˤؤֳ´¾δطԤʤˤեब¸ߤƤꡤ khelf (= Keio History of the English Language Forum) ȾΤƤޤʤ顤ۡڡ⤢ޤΤǤδζϼԤϡۤʤ̤ khelf СǤ
δˤĤơֱѸƳ2021ڡžܤޤ

2021ǯ٤Ȥޤǯ٤ khelf ȤƤγưϤƤޤ

ǯٽ45ϡⶵ̿ͤ⿷ؤӤѶŪˤʤǤǡѸˤ칶䤿 khelf СرȳΥ濴ˤȯȤʤäơѸˤȤʬȤ̥Ϥ˹٤餫Ρ֥ƥġפ1Ĥĥ־˸ɽƤȤֱѸƳ2021ΩƤޤ

45ʷˤϤ5ܤޤǡƤͽǤ֤ʤ˿ȶʥȥԥåѸˤˤʤΤפȤ֤¾ΤʤˤĤƿ˳䤷Ƥ뽸ĤΤפȤ͡˴Ƥ餤Ѹˤ˴ؿäƤ館ФȻפޤ

ƥĤϥ󥯥ե꡼Ǥƥ󶡼ԡƿ̾ˤǤ khelf СرȳΥ濴ˤγؽ桦ưˤȤϤ򤪴ꤤפޤ


åץɤ줿1󥳥ƥĤϡرˤbe surprised atäȶäΤϤ⤦Ť1ˡǤѸؽԤǤɬؽƤϤνϸ be surprised at ֻ at ˴ؤơճʻ¤餫ˤޤΰճʻ¤򥳡ѥȤ餫ˤȤƤǤ򺣤αѸ˸ΥȥɤǤ World Englishes λƤꡤȤƤ⻲ͤˤʤޤư֤ưѤֻˤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ ##1333,1350,1351,2269 ⤴Ȥ
ܥ֥⡤ֱѸƳ2021åפƤ륳ƥĤϢưDZѸˤ̥ϤȯؤƤȻפޤȤɤ⡤ꤤפޤ

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2021-02-18 Thu

#4315. ǽʸȯۤѸߤ [ergative][case][middle_voice][passive][voice][semantic_role][transitivity]

ε#4314. ǽʸϸ2 ([2021-02-17-1]) ˤợŪʥƥ꡼ȤƤǽ (ergative) ˿줿ѸǽʸǤϤʤгʸǤꡤľܤˤϴطʤȤפ뤫⤷ʤǽ (ergativity) ȤѸľƤߤȡȯ롥ưμ¾̩ܤ˴ؤäƤ뤷ư (passive) ư (middle_voice) Ȥ⿼롥ºݡưμ¾ζ̤ϱѸư乽ʸͤݤŪǴŪʸ󶡤ƤƤ뤬ǽλ鸫ľȡʿѤäƤΤ
Malmkjær (532) "Ergativity" ιΰѤ롥

Complementary to the transitive model of the grammar is the ergative model, an additional property of the system of transivitity, which foregrounds the role of Agency in providing a 'generalised representational structure common to every English clause' (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 281). This system is simultaneous with those of process type and circumstance . . . . Here the key variable is not a model of extension, as in transitivity, but of causation: 'The question at issue is: is the process brought about from within, or from outside?' (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 287). Every process must have one participant central to the actualisation of the process; 'without which there would be no process at all' (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 288). This is the Medium and along with the process forms the nucleus of the clause. The Medium is obligatory and is the only necessary participant, if the process is represented as being self-engendering. If the process is engendered from outside, then there is an additional participant, the Agent. Options in the ergative model of transitivity define the voice, or agency, of the clause. A clause with no feature of 'agency' is neither active nor passive but middle (for example, Europeans arrives). One with agency is non-middle, or effective, in agency (for example, Europeans invaded Australia). An effective clause is then either operative or receptive in voice. In an operative clause, the Subject is the Agent and the process is realised by an active verbal group; in a receptive clause the Subject is the Medium and the process is realised by a passive verbal group (Australia was invaded by Europeans) (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004: 297).


⿨줿褦ˡνˤгʸ (accusative language) ǽʸ (ergative language) Ȥ2祿פ롥ơ transitivity Żθ ergativity ŻθȸƤ褤ʸˡѤ礭ۤʤ륿פǤϤ뤬°¾ȯۤįƤߤȡƶ롥ɤΤȤʹ֤ɽȤɽˡˤϾΥѥ󤷤ʤɽŪˤϰۤʤäƤ褦ˤߤƤ⡤ϥɲˡ򾯤㤨Ƥˤʤɾ뤳ȤǤ

Malmkjær, Kirsten, ed. The Routledge Linguistics Encyclopedia. 3rd ed. London and New York: Routledge, 2010.
Halliday, M. A. K. and Matthiessen, C. M. I.M. An Introduction to Functional Grammar. 3rd ed. London: Edward Arnold, 2004.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-09-13-1]

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2020-12-28 Mon

#4263. XXX Made Easy Ȥȥ (1) [syntax][adjective][construction][flat_adverb][passive][participle]

˥δ֤夬äҲ𤷤Time The Best Inventions of 2020 ˡϳĴ Chef iQ Smart Cooker Ȥʤ夲ƤȤΥڡǥե㡼Ƥ뤬ϤΥȥ "Meals Made Easy" Ǥ롥ϤɤΤ褦ʹʸǤꡤɤΤ褦ʰ̣ʤΤ
֡Τ͡˵ʤ졤Ѥ⤷äʤȤǤϤ졤ΤʤϪǵȤΤϡȤƤθ餷
Ǥϡˡä礤η̡Ф줿ո͡äִñ˺줿פȤ̣ easy ϼ¤ñ (flat_adverb) ʤΤǤʤȤ򤬽Ф줿 make μȹʸǤ easy ϤޤǷƻȤѤƤִñˤ줿פۤɤǤȤ⤢äΤȤơֳڤӡפۤɤΥ˥奢󥹤ȤȤϳ狼äƤ뤱ɤ⡤ʸˡŪǼΤ񤷤ȤäȤǵǤߤȤʤä
餤Сϻ make μȹʸǤ롥ʸˡǤ5ʸ SVOC ١ȤʤäƤ롥(This cooker) makes meals easy. ۤɤǰƬˤȤ褤Ȥˤ "Meals are made easy (by this cooker)." Ȥʤ롥ȥȤΤ̾ˤ٤meals Ȥ "Meals Made Easy" Ȥ櫓
ǤϤäỌ̇̄ʬʤȤгΤˤmake ϡ?פθǤϤʤޤǻΡ?ĤˤפθѤƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ뤫make meals ֿפʤäʬ䤹ʤ collocation ⤢ޤʤ褦ˡǤϤʤ make meals easy = cause meals to be easy ȤطĤޤֿñˤפȤȤʤΤǤ롥̤θ򤹤 meals = easy Ȥطˤʤ롥ֿסִñפȤΤϤɤȤֿѰաסִñפȤΤǤСȤƤ褯ʬ롥ϰäʤ
¤ XXX Made Easy ȤɽϡʤɤΥȥ˾Ѥ귿Ǥ롥ܸǤСء١ïǤ狼١ñ٤ȤäȤXXX ˤϡ롤̣ܡܤʤ͡ʸ礬롥BNCweb ˤ "made easy" ñ㸡Ǥ⡤̤ᤤΤԲʤΤޤǡȵ󤬤äƤ롥

Harvesting and storing made easy
MIDDLE EAST DISTRIBUTION MADE EASY
Suicide made easy
FLOOR TILING MADE EASY
COSMETICS MADE EASY
Sheep counting made easy
Financial Analysis Made Easy
Mechanics Made Easy

ºݤ˽ǤƤܤΥȥǤСܥӥΤ Word Power Made Easy ⤢СMath Made Easy ʤɤγزʤΤ֤Japanese cookbook for beginners: 100 Classic and Modern Recipes Made Easy Τ褦Τ¿AUSTRALIAN COOKBOOK: BOOK1, FOR BEGINNERS MADE EASY STEP BY STEP դϹʸ䤹ΤǤϤʤXXX Made Simple XXX Simplified õиĤ롥
XXX ϡֺ (make) оݤǤɬפϤޤäʤष餫ΰ̣ǽ٤оݤǤвǤ褤ȤȤǡ"Meals Made Easy" ֤עֳڤӡפۤɤȤʤ櫓Ǥ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2020-12-29-1]

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2020-11-06 Fri

#4211. ϡֽ̤פֹ԰ټԤꤹפ [indo-european][person][verb][voice][impersonal_verb][middle_voice][passive][fetishism]

ϢεǡԢʬˡư֤ջ֤Ǥι͸ųء٤εҲ𤷤Ƥcf. #4205. ԢʬϺˡư֤ջ֤Ǥι͸ųء١ ([2020-10-31-1])#4207. ̾줢꤭٤ư줬 ([2020-11-02-1])#4208. It rains. Ϲ԰ټԺߤǡֹ߱פۤɤΰա ([2020-11-03-1])#4210. ;Τνи3;Τ˻Ϥޤꡤ12;ΤؤŸ ([2020-11-05-1])ˡǶᡤưˤĤƹƤȤäΤǡư򿼤Τˤ˻ͤȤƤäƤ롥
Ԣʬ (175--76) ϡưΤȤ顤ΡˤޤĹˤɸΤ褦󼨤Ƥ롥礭ʲǧθŪʴߤƤ⤭Ƽ٤ʰʲǤϸʸ뤤ϷǼƤˡ

԰ټԤä

ϰǯʾ˵ڤ֤⤷Ĺˤפ
Ǥϡ̴ֶפλξ֤Ϥޤ륤ɡ衼åѸѲˤ򡤰ʾΤ褦ư줪֤ѲȤį᤿Ȥ˸ФȤϲΤʤ䤤ˤƤߤ褦
Ѳˤΰ¦̤̤԰ټԤꤹؤΰʹߤˤȤФ褦˻פ롥
̾Ūʸλ塤ưñʤȤ줿ޤ줿ư⡤;η֤ˤꡤưι԰ټԤǤϤʤƽΤΤ򵭽ҤƤ
ưϸ˿;Τˤäơư줬԰٤֤˷ӤĤȯۤδäޤ롥ȤϤư줬θ֤Ȥ֤⡤ưȹ԰ټԤȤδطĤƤϡưץ¦˹԰ټԤΤȤ⤽γ¦ˤΤޤޤαޤäƤˤäΤǽưưζʬä
θ塤ưϤ궯̣ǹ԰٤԰ټԤ˷ӤĤ褦ˤʤ롥ǽưȼưζ̤ˤäơ԰ټԤʬǤäΤɤ褦ˤʤ뤫


βˤȡϡưɽ魯ưΤΤܤ줫顤ưμïʤΤ˰۾ʴؿ򼨤ؤȲȤˤʤ롥Ԣʬ (178) ϾΰѤθǡԤ夤θֽͭפȤƤǤ롥
Ѹ˾Ȥ餷ƤСŪ졤ư¾ư졤ǽư֤ȼư֤ʤɡŪۤ˿мʸȤʤäƤ뤬ϡưι԰ټԤꤵեפθȤȤˤʤ

Ԣʬ Ϻư֤ջ֤Ǥι͸ųء١ؽ񱡡2017ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2024-10-05-1]

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2020-10-31 Sat

#4205. ԢʬϺˡư֤ջ֤Ǥι͸ųء [philosophy_of_language][voice][middle_voice][passive][review]

ԢʬϺˡư֤ջ֤Ǥι͸ųء٤λư֡ (middle_voice) 뤤ϡ֡פȤƤФ롤Ťϰ²˹ߤ줿 (voice) ˴ؤůŪͻǤ롥
ͤ¿ˤߤ֤Ǥ뤬奮ꥷǤϰŪˤ褯ߤ졤ΰˤⲿ餫ηǻ褬ĤäƤ롥ޤܸΡּȯפɽ魯ưɽʤɤ⡤ư֤ΰȤ롥ܥ֥Ǥϡ#232. Ѹˤλʬ (1) ([2009-12-15-1])#2185. Ƶ̾Ѥưɽο ([2015-04-21-1])#3331. ĸ줫饲ޥĸؤưʸˡƤκ ([2018-06-10-1]) Ǥ̾ΤˤϿ줿ΤΡޤȤ˼夲ȤϤʤäǤ롥
ܽʬ䤹󤹤뤳ȤϻζȤԤκμĥϡ䤿Τ褦ˤߤʤƤǽư֤ȼư֤Ω򵿤äƤߤ褦ȤƤӤǤ롥ǽư֤ȼư֤Ω˴줭äƤȡư֤ϡʸ̤ŪʡΩ֤Τ褯ʬʤɤäĤ¸ߤǤ褦ˤߤ롥ΩμƤ뤫ǤϤʤΩ٤ϡǽư֤ȼư֤碌1Ĥ֤ȡư֤Ȥ⤦1Ĥ֤ʤΤǤϤʤư֤ϲ֤ʤΤǤϤʤषǽư֤ȱԤΩ֤ʤΤǤϤʤܽǤϡȾ餳Τ褦ܤڤ褦ʵŸ롥pp. 82--83 ԤμĥѤ褦ʰʲǤϸʸηǼƤˡ

ư֤뤿ˤϡ줬Τʤ˿äƤޤäǽưмưȤѡڥƥٳ̤줿ǡĤư֤֤ƤѡڥƥʤФʤʤΤäŪ˸СκȤϡư֤򤽤ñȤȤƤǤϤʤơǽư֤ȤΩˤ뤳Ȥ̣롥
Ȥˤ⤦̤β꤬롥
ư֤ǽư֤ȤΩˤƤΰ̣ꤷƤΤʤСޤäƱ褦ˡǽư֤ޤư֤ȤΩˤƤΰ̣ꤷƤϤǤ롥Ȥ顤ư֤ΩƤȤǽư֤򡤸ߤΥѡڥƥˤǽư֤Ʊ뤷ƤϤʤʤȤˤʤ롥ư뤿ˤϡư֤ΩƤǽư֤ľʤФʤʤϤ
줬Τʤ˿äƤѡڥƥ̤ȤϡΤ褦ʤȤ̣롥ư֤䤦ˤϡ줬̵ռ˺ѤƤȤ켫ȤꤷƤͤФʤʤΤ


Τ褦˽֤θžݤ褦ƶܽκǸޤ³ΤʤˤϡǤư칽ʸ̾칽ʸäΤǤϤʤȤ⤢Сư֤֤äΤǤϤʤȤ⤢롥餿Ƹˤ֤ȤϲʤΤ鷺ˤϤʤʤͤǤ롥

Ԣʬ Ϻư֤ջ֤Ǥι͸ųء١ؽ񱡡2017ǯ

Referrer (Inside): [2020-11-06-1] [2020-11-02-1]

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2020-08-04 Tue

#4117. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡŪˤϡֹ԰ټԡ [preposition][syntax][infinitive][construction][adjective][semantics][passive]

ε#4116. It's very kind of you to come. of ˡϡ ([2020-08-03-1]) ³ԡŪˤϤäꤷʤ of ˡŪˤߤȤ褽褹롥ϡιʸ of ˡˤĤŪˤҤȤƹԤ
OED of, prep. ˤȡˡ of ϡ"V. Indicating the agent or doer." ȤʬβǸ16˵󤲤Ƥ롥

16. Indicating the doer of something characterized by an adjective: following an adjective alone, as foolish, good, rude, stupid, unkind, wise, wrong (or any other adjective with which conduct can be described); following an adjective qualifying a noun, as a cruel act, a cunning trick, a kind deed, an odd thing; following a past participle qualified by an adverb, as cleverly managed, ill conceived, well done.
   Usually followed by to do (something), as in it was kind of you (i.e. a kind act or thing done by you) to help him etc., and less frequently by that, both constructions introducing the logical subject or object of the statement, e.g. It was kind of him to tell me = His telling me was a thing kindly done by him.


ֹ԰ټԡפ of ȤƤ⡤ˤ狼ˤǼ⤷ʤɸʸǤСΤ you come ΰ̣μǤꡤäƹ԰ټԤȤ⤤롥Ǥ for Ѥ It is important for him to get the job. ब뤳ȤϽפʤȤˤˤƤ⡤him get ΰ̣μǤ԰ټԤǤ⤢뤫顤of for ˡΰ㤤Фʤ2Ĥֻ줬ƱˡĤȼΤϤˤ衤ʤʤΤߤ
OED ΰѤ˵ҤƤŪطʤǫɤ߲򤱤Сʤֹ԰ټԤ ofפʤΤʬäƤ롥ˡ of κǽϡɤƻľ³Ȥ⡤ƻޤ̾ľ³褦ʤΤǤ롥ĤޤꡤIt's a very kind thing of you to come. Τ褦ʹʸäȹͤ롥θιʸФϰճ٤Ѹ̤ˤʤʲOED ǽο󤲤Ƥ

1532 W. Tyndale Expos. & Notes 73 Is it not a blind thing of the world that either they will do no good works,..or will..have the glory themselves?
a1593 C. Marlowe Jew of Malta (1633) iv. v 'Tis a strange thing of that Iew, he lives upon pickled grasshoppers.
1603 W. Shakespeare Hamlet iii. ii. 101 It was a brute parte of him, To kill so capitall a calfe.
1668 H. More Divine Dialogues ii. 383 That's a very odd thing of the men of Arcladam.
1733 J. Tull Horse-hoing Husbandry 266 Is it not very unfair of Equivocus to represent [etc.]?
1766 H. Brooke Fool of Quality I. iv. 145 Indeed, it was very naughty of him.


ǽ4ϡַƻޤ̾ + ofפȤʤäƤ롥of "(done) by" ۤɤΡֹ԰ټԤ ofפȤɤؤ򤷤䤹ǻפФΤϡȤưɽ魯ֻϡǤ by ŪѸ줫ѸˤƤϡष of Ƥ¤ϸʾ of = "done by"ʤֹ԰ټԤ ofפδФǻäΤǤcf. #1350. ư֤ưѤ of ([2013-01-06-1])#1333. ѸǼư֤ưѤ줿ֻ ([2012-12-20-1])#2269. ư֤ưѤ줿 by of ζ ([2015-07-14-1]
˵󤲤Ǹ2ˤĤƤϡǤŪάơַƻ + ofפιʸؤȰܹԤƤꡤΡֹ԰ټԤ ofפδФƤƤ褦˸롥ɸιʸϡιʸΤ褦˾άʤ⡤ޤǷѾƤΤˤۤʤʤΤǤ롥

Referrer (Inside): [2025-10-24-1] [2022-01-09-1]

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2019-10-15 Tue

#3823. show θΰ̣ϡָפǤϤʤָ [verb][semantic_change][causative][passive][voice]

show 濴Ūʸϡָ롤פűѸǤϴŪˡָ ̣Hall θűѸ켭 scēawian ߤȡ"look, gaze, see, behold, observe; inspect, examine, scrutinize; have respect to,look favourably on; look out, look for, choose; decree, grant" ʤɤ줬ͿƤ롥Ǹ "decree, grant" ˤϸθε̣ⴶ뤬űѸμ礿̣ϡָפä
줬ѸˤơָפָפʤɡưŪʸ (passive) Ūʸ (causative) ȯŸƤָ͡סָ͡סָʪפȤưΰ̣˴ؤ뻲Ϳ (participants) 3ԤȤ (voice) 괬ѲȤߤ뤳ȤǤ뤬ʤΤ褦ȯŸ뤳ȤˤʤäΤϤ褯ʬäƤʤ캬ϰĸˤΤܤꡤޥǤ⤹٤ơָפ̣ƤΤǡѸǤȯŸȼΤΤǤ롥OED show, v. ˡηˤĤƲ⤬롥

In all the continental West Germanic languages the verb has the meaning 'to look at' (compare sense 1), and the complex sense development shown in English, in particular the development of the causative sense 'to cause to be seen' (which may be considered the core meaning of all the later sense branches), is unparalleled. Evidence for this development in Old English is comparatively late (none of the later sense branches is attested before the first half of the 12th cent.); however, similar uses are attested earlier (albeit rarely) for the Old English prefixed form gescēawian, especially in the phrase āre gescēawian to show respect or favour (compare quot. OE at sense 26a(a)), but also in senses 'to present, exhibit' (one isolated and disputed attestation; compare sense 3a) and 'to grant, award' (compare sense 18). The details of the semantic development are not entirely clear; perhaps from 'to look at' to 'to cause to be looked at or seen' (compare branch II.), 'to present, exhibit, display' (compare branches II. and IV.), 'to make known formally', 'to grant, award' (compare branch III.), although all of the latter senses could alternatively show a development via sense 2 ('to look for, seek out, to choose, select'). Compare also quot. OE at showing n. 2a, but it is uncertain whether this can be taken as implying earlier currency of sense 24.


Ѥˤ⤢̤ꡤűѸˤָ롨Ϳפϳ̵ǤϤʤOED 餤ĤäƤߤȡǡǤ롥

[OE Genesis A (1931) 1581 Þær he freondlice on his agenum fæder are ne wolde gesceawian.]
lOE Extracts from Gospels: John (Vesp. D.xiv) xiv. 9 in R. D.-N. Warner Early Eng. Homilies (1917) 77 Se mann þe me gesicð, he gesicð eac minne Fæder. Hwu segst þu, Sceawe us þone Fæder?
lOE Anglo-Saxon Chron. (Laud) anno 1048 Þa..sceawede him mann v nihta grið ut of lande to farenne.


ѸˤʤȡMED sheuen v.(1) ̤ꡤΡָפθĤĤġָפθ⹭äƤ롥Ѹ줫ϵ󤬤äƤ褦
˽פưʤˡ̣ѲθΤꤿȤǤ롥ʤߤˡshow ϡ̣Ǥʤڥ󥰡ȯѤˤĤƤŪ˶̣ѲФƤưʲε򻲾ȡ

#1415. shew show (1) ([2013-03-12-1])
#1416. shew show (2) ([2013-03-13-1])
#1716. shew show (3) ([2014-01-07-1])
#1806. ARCHER shew show ([2014-04-07-1])
#1727. /ju:/ ε ([2014-01-18-1])
#3385. Ѹ˼嶯ܹԤư ([2018-08-03-1])

Hall, John R. C. A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary. Rev. ed. by Herbert T. Merritt. Toronto: U of Toronto P, 1996. 1896.

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2019-03-17 Sun

#3611. ʤ He is to blame. He is to be blamed. ȤʤʤΤ [infinitive][syntax][passive][voice][construction][sobokunagimon]

ɸ He is to blame. ϡդ٤ˤǤפȤ̣Υե졼̩ (voice) θСפϡդΩǤ뤫 He is to be blamed. Ȥˤʤ٤Ȼפ뤫⤷ʤºݡԤǤ̣̤뤷ʸˡŪʤΤŪʥե졼ȤƤԤѤ롥ʤ
ϡư̾ˤĤƲ⤷#3604. ʤ The house is building. ǡֲȤϷǤפȤ̣ˤʤΤ ([2019-03-10-1]) ȡ#3605. This needs explaining. --- need ư̾פιʸ ([2019-03-11-1]) Ȥط롥ư̾Ʊͤ (infinitive) ư̾첽ȤǽäƤ롥ư̾ˤư줬̾첽ȡȤȤư줬äƤ֤Ω¤ǽưưζ̤ʤѤ褦ˤʤ롥to blame ϡäƤηǽưŪˡ񤹤٤פȤʤ뤷ưŪˡ񤵤٤פȤʤΤǤ롥̤¤ƤȤȤϡʸ̮ˤꤤˤᤷȤȤǤ⤢롥He is to blame. ξˤϡ̣塤ȤȤƲᤵȤ櫓There is a house to let. I have something to say. Τ褦ʡַƻŪˡפ⡤֤¤Ȥȯۤͳ褹硤p. 238ˡ
ʤư̾ˤ֤¤ϡޤǤ줬̾ݤäƤħǤ롥ʹߡʤư̾ˤϤषưŪʤ򶯤ƤƤꡤ¤Ƥ֤Ω褷ƤƤ롥η̡ŪǤϤʤȤϤ He is to be blamed. ʸˡŪ˵Ƥ褦ˤʤäɸΤ褦ʹʸϡŤħФΤ褦¸ߤʤΤǤ롥

ʸͺرѸȯãˡǡٴȽŹ2005ǯ

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2019-03-11 Mon

#3605. This needs explaining. --- need ư̾פιʸ [gerund][participle][passive][voice][construction]

ε#3604. ʤ The house is building. ǡֲȤϷǤפȤ̣ˤʤΤ ([2019-03-10-1]) ȴϢ빽ʸꡥɸΤ褦ˡneed ư̾ǽư֡ˤ򽾤빽ʸ롥Ū˹ͤ This explain ٤оݤǤ뤫顤ư̾μư being explained ѤƤ٤Ȥ̤ˤɸ̤Ǥ褤ϡҤ٤褦ˡư̾ˤäƤϡȤưˤäƤ (voice) Ω¤Ƥ뤫Ǥ롥Ĥޤꡤư explain ư̾ explaining ȤʤäȤˤꡤפȡפΰ̣ŪΩޤꡤ̾ explanation ˤƱ褦ˡ֤ˤĤ̵ؿȤʤäƤȹͤФ褤
need Τۤ want, require, deserve, bear, escape ʤɤư䡤ƻ worth ư̾򽾤빽ʸȤ硤p. 232ˡ󤲤褦

This machine wants repairing.
The fence requires painting.
A person who steals deserves punishing.
It doesn't bear thinking about.
Use every man after his desert, and who should 'scape whipping? --- Hamlet, II. ii. 555--6
What is worth doing at all is worth doing well.

ơư̾μư֤ѤƤ⡤Ϥǰ̣ŪˤŪˤŬʤǤϤ뤬ֹʸȤƤζפȤ٤ΤϼΤ⤷ʤˤ˥åĤäƤʸǤ롥

ʸͺرѸȯãˡǡٴȽŹ2005ǯ

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2019-03-10 Sun

#3604. ʤ The house is building. ǡֲȤϷǤפȤ̣ˤʤΤ [syntax][gerund][participle][passive][voice][category][construction][sobokunagimon]

ɸʸϸɽǤϤ뤬ߤǤȤ뤳Ȥ롥ֲȤƤƤȤפȤưŪʰ̣бˤϡưʹԷѤ The house is being built. Ȥʤ٤ǤϤʤΤȵ˻פ뤫⤷ʤεϤäȤǤꡤΤ˸ԤμưʹԷιʸɸŪǤϤ롥Ǥʤɸ The house is building. ϲǽŪˤϤष̤äǽư֤ȼư֤Ȥ (voice) ζ̤ˤ뤵ϤαѸǡʤɸʸΤ
ŪˤϡThe house is building. building ϸʬǤϤʤư̾Ǥ롥Ʊ -ing ʤΤʶ路ξԤϵǽޤäۤʤ롥The house is building. ʳˤ The house is a-building. Ȥʸꡤˤʳˤ The house is on building. ȤʸäĤޤꡤbuilding build ư̾Ǥꡤ줬ֻ on ŪȤʤäƤȤ칽¤ʤΤǤ롥̣ŪˤϤޤˡַפȤȤˤʤ롥ֻ on 岽ƬŪ a- Ȥʤꡤ줬˼岽ǽŪˤϾüƤޤäˡ⸽߿ʹԷʸΤ褦ʸɤˤʤäƤޤäΤǤ롥
ư̾ưͳǤ뤫ưŪǻĤƤȤϤȤƤ̾Ǥ롥֤ȤܼŪưˤʸˡƤǤꡤ̾ˤϴͿʤäơư̾פȤƤ building ǤϡַƤפȡַƤפ֤Ω¤Ƥ롥ޤܸΡַۡפԤä꤯褦ʰ̣äƤΤֻ on ȼäơַפΰդȤʤΤϼ
Τ褦ʹʸϡȤϤߤǤѤ뤳Ȥ뤷Ѹޤ̤Ф褯ߤ줿Ȥơʲ󤲤Ƥ硤pp. 229--30ˡ

The whilst this play is playing --- Hamlet, III. ii. 93.
While grace is saying -- Merch. V., II. ii. 202
What's doing here?
The dinner is cooking.
The book is printing.
The tea is drawing.
The history which is making about us.

ɸ䤤 the house ȡbuilding Τʤ˼ޤäƤȤȤư build ȤϡŪˤľŪطˤ櫓ǤϤʤ򤫤Сbuild the house ȤưȤʸǤϤʤȤȤɸŪ The house is being built. ϡưȤʸǤ롥Ĥޤꡤ2ĤιʸϵޤäۤʤäƤꡤ٤ƹäƤ⤷ʤʪʤΤǤ롥
ʬư̾줬ޤäۤʤ뵡ǽʤ⡤Ʊ -ing ȤʤäƤŪаޤˤĤƤϡ#2421. ʬư̾ζƯŪȯã ([2015-12-13-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

ʸͺرѸȯãˡǡٴȽŹ2005ǯ

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2018-02-18 Sun

#3219. Ѹ˴ؤ˸ [me][pragmatics][historical_pragmatics][syntax][passive][grammaticalisation][invited_inference][implicature][subjunctive][auxiliary_verb][standardisation]

űѸ˴ؤ˸ȤơǶ2Ĥεǿ줿cf. #3208. ݥ饤ȥͥäűѸ ([2018-02-07-1])#3211. ù¤ ([2018-02-10-1])ˡ褽 speech_act, politeness, discourse_analysis, information_structure ˴ؤä Traugott γˤäơѸ˴ؤ˸ȤơɤΤ褦ʤΤ뤫Ƥߤ
Traugott ϡϥɥ֥åƬ3ĤŦƤ (466)

(1) "the shift from information-structure-oriented word order in Old English to 'syntacticized' order in Middle English; this in tern led, at the end of the period, to new strategies for marking topic and focus in special ways."
(2) "the development of auxiliary verbs in contexts where implied abstract temporal, modal, or aspectual meanings of certain concrete verbs became salient"
(3) "the appearance of a large set of new discourse types, from romances to drama, scientific writings, and letters"

(1) ϸΥ󥿡ե˴ؤ̤ȤäƤ褤űѸ줫Ѹˤƶޤष礬경ƤäȤˤꡤŪͳʸѤƾ¤ȤάäƤΤ뤳ȤǤʤʤäˡ̤μʤʤʤФʤʤʤäȤȤǤ롥㤨СѸˡ԰ټԤɸ by ȼư֤ιʸȯãƤȤϡΤ褦ʾ¤˵ʬ뤫⤷ʤ⤷β⤬ΤǤСŪװѲΰȤʤäȸ뤳Ȥˤʤ
(2) Ūʴޤߤ(1) ȴŪ˴ϢȻפ뤬ư줫ưؤȯãʤŵŪʸˡ (grammaticalisation) λˤΤˡʸ̮˽줿ް (implicature) ͶƳ (invited_inference) ʤɤƻΩƤäƤ븦ؤѸˤ϶ޤοˤ³ˡˡοˤꡤŪؼʤȤˡư줬ȯã뤬ȯãˤŪʥᥫ˥बͿƤǽ롥
(3) ϿäνиǤ롥夬ˤĤ졤λˤϤʤäƥȡפƤ뤳ȤѸ˸¤äݤǤϤʤѸǤΤ˿郎߽Ф줿Traugott ϥޥ󥹡ࡤʳŪʸϡȤäŦƤ뤬¾ˤե󥹸ʤӥƥˤαƶ뤤Ϻ礷¿Ѥλʸ䱤ʸʤɤ󤲤
ۤѸˤϱѸν񤭸դɸಽ (standardisation) ⵯϤƤꡤïĤɤɸѼѤΤѤʤäΤȤäҲŪоݤȤʤ

Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. "Middle English: Pragmatics and Discourse" Chapter 30 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 466--80.

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2017-08-11 Fri

#3028. She is believed to have done it. ιʸȸűѸ⡼ sceolde δط [syntax][auxiliary_verb][passive][ecm][passive][information_structure][grammaticalisation]

I believe that she has done it. Ȥʸ that Ѥ I believe her to have done it. ȥѥե졼뤳ȤǤ롥Ԥʸǡ֤ʤ׼Τ she ǤꡤʤʤηäƤ뤬ԤʸǤưμΤƱʪؤʤ her ŪʤηäƤ롥ϡΰ̣μǤϤ³ΤΡ1ʾˤ believe λ۲뤬椨ˡʤǤϤʤŪʤͿΤ롥ǤϡԤΤ褦ʳͿΤȤ Exceptional Case-Marking (= ECM) ȸƤǤ롥ޤbelieve μ뤳Τ褦ʹʸϡгդιʸȤΤ롥
believe ˤߤ褦ʥѥե졼ϡthink declare ɽֻ׹͡פפɽ魯ư¿ǽ̣ΤϡECM ʸϼư֤ѤΤ̤ȤȤǤ롥嵭Ϥǽư֤ʸ夲She is believed to have done it. Τ褦˼ư֤Ǹ뤳ȤΤۤŪ¿º say ʤɤǤϡǽư֤Ǥ ECM ʸϵƤ줺The disease is said to be spreading. Τ褦ˤäѤư֤Ǹ롥
μư֤ؤФϡʤʤΤ
1Ĥˤϡֻ׹͡פפˤƽפʤΤϡƤμǤ롥ʸǤСshe the disease Ǥꡤ줬ʸƬǼȤƸȤΤϡ¤⼫ľǤ롥
⤦1Ĥζ̣ѻϡis believed to ʤ is said to ʬΤȤ evidentiality ɽ魯⡼ʵǽӤӤƤȤΤĤޤꡤreportedly ۤɤ֤뤳ȤǤʵǽǤꡤŤѸǤ sceolde "should" Ȥˡưɽ蘆ƤǽǤ롥Los (151) ˤС

Another interesting aspect of passive ECMs is that they renew a modal meaning of sceolde 'should' that had been lost. Old English sceolde could be used to indicate 'that the reporter does not believe the statement or does not vouch for its truth' . . . :

Þa wæs ðær eac swiðe egeslic geatweard, ðæs nama sceolde bion Caron <Bo 35.102.16>
'Then there was also a very terrible doorkeeper whose name is said to be Caron'


The most felicitous PDE translation has a passive ECM.


̣Ǥϡbe believed to be said to be going to ʤɤƱ褦ˡưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

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2017-08-11 Fri

#3028. She is believed to have done it. ιʸȸűѸ⡼ sceolde δط [syntax][auxiliary_verb][passive][ecm][passive][information_structure][grammaticalisation]

I believe that she has done it. Ȥʸ that Ѥ I believe her to have done it. ȥѥե졼뤳ȤǤ롥Ԥʸǡ֤ʤ׼Τ she ǤꡤʤʤηäƤ뤬ԤʸǤưμΤƱʪؤʤ her ŪʤηäƤ롥ϡΰ̣μǤϤ³ΤΡ1ʾˤ believe λ۲뤬椨ˡʤǤϤʤŪʤͿΤ롥ǤϡԤΤ褦ʳͿΤȤ Exceptional Case-Marking (= ECM) ȸƤǤ롥ޤbelieve μ뤳Τ褦ʹʸϡгդιʸȤΤ롥
believe ˤߤ褦ʥѥե졼ϡthink declare ɽֻ׹͡פפɽ魯ư¿ǽ̣ΤϡECM ʸϼư֤ѤΤ̤ȤȤǤ롥嵭Ϥǽư֤ʸ夲She is believed to have done it. Τ褦˼ư֤Ǹ뤳ȤΤۤŪ¿º say ʤɤǤϡǽư֤Ǥ ECM ʸϵƤ줺The disease is said to be spreading. Τ褦ˤäѤư֤Ǹ롥
μư֤ؤФϡʤʤΤ
1Ĥˤϡֻ׹͡פפˤƽפʤΤϡƤμǤ롥ʸǤСshe the disease Ǥꡤ줬ʸƬǼȤƸȤΤϡ¤⼫ľǤ롥
⤦1Ĥζ̣ѻϡis believed to ʤ is said to ʬΤȤ evidentiality ɽ魯⡼ʵǽӤӤƤȤΤĤޤꡤreportedly ۤɤ֤뤳ȤǤʵǽǤꡤŤѸǤ sceolde "should" Ȥˡưɽ蘆ƤǽǤ롥Los (151) ˤС

Another interesting aspect of passive ECMs is that they renew a modal meaning of sceolde 'should' that had been lost. Old English sceolde could be used to indicate 'that the reporter does not believe the statement or does not vouch for its truth' . . . :

Þa wæs ðær eac swiðe egeslic geatweard, ðæs nama sceolde bion Caron <Bo 35.102.16>
'Then there was also a very terrible doorkeeper whose name is said to be Caron'


The most felicitous PDE translation has a passive ECM.


̣Ǥϡbe believed to be said to be going to ʤɤƱ褦ˡưؤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

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