ε ([2026-06-06-1]) ³ɸ夲롥ȤΤ⡤إᥤȤ ykagata Ȥ note ǺεȿäƤΤ֡θűѸ̾ɽ stān ǻϤޤܡϤޤʤܡ졤űѸʸˡतʣĴơ̾ޤιܤѲ a-stem ̾ stān "stone" ǻϤޤʤΤ뤳ȤŦƤ롥ǤϲǻϤ뤫ȤСѲ n-stem ̾ nama "name" ȤΤȤ
nama 礹ϳΤˤ롥nama - naman - naman - naman; naman - naman - namena - namum ¤ֶɽϡstān - stān - stānes - stāne - stānas - stānas - stāna - stānum Ʊ餤ˡž˺ݤƸϤ褤ޤּѲפȤäƸѲΤǡȤƤôڤstān ǤĤޤؼԤȤƤ⡤nama 餤ʤƧߤȤɤޤ뤫⤷ʤޤnama ɽѲɽϡμѲɽȤۤƱʤΤǡDZѤؽΨɤ
ʸѸ٤СȤâդǡˡֶŪʸפɸ֤űѸɽȤơѲ¤ϼʼѲ̾äƤȤϥϤ롥ޤѸ˻ĤäƤѲκפޤ̾ǡϼǤ롥oxen, children, brethren -en ȤƤȤΤؤλǤ롥εդȻפ뤬stān ζޤϡʣ -s ͭʤ -'s ͳƤȤ롥
̾ǻϤȤ褤ŪϤʤθűѸʸˡɼоݡηʤɡ͡ʥѥȳơνŤդ衤űѸʸˡतǤäȤƤ⡤ӸؤѸʸؤȤƳؽŪʬѤǽ뤳Ȥ¿ästān ǤĤޤ褦ʽؼԤǽ餫ꤷƤʤäȤƤ褤ѸˤűѸؤδؿ椬Ǥ⥸兩ȹäƤʤƻȤƤϹƤ˺षפɼоݡפƹͤƤߤΤȻפɤ̾ϤΤȤ䤤ϡޤ餺⸽Ū䤤ä
μȤäӽ ykagata ˴դޤ
ʤ610ȯͽΡرѸˤDz ʸˡ --- ʤ֣ñ sפĤΤ٤Ǥϡ11Ǥϡפ stān ɽǺܤƤޤ
ӽʰءˤ X OE ̾ޤäƤʤγѲ̾ stān ФƤޤ͡ȤƤä
ΤˤΤȤűѸζʽ̾ޤΥǤϡۤɬ stān "stone" ǽζɽȤú¤Ƥ뤳Ȥ¿ʤΩƤ stān ʤΤʤСפȤ̣ñ줬ȥåץХåФƤΤˤϱѸ˶顦ؽƤȤ櫓ؽԤؤζŪθͳĤⱣƤ褦˻פ롥ʲǵƤߤ֤ʤפФͳΤΤȤ⡤ʤβȤäۤŬڤ⤷ʤ
1طʤȤơʸˡȤҷΤΤŪ롥ϸؤΰŪʷűѸʸˡ˸¤餺褽ʸˡȤˤϡǽ˺줿֤ηΤޤζʽؼѤ䤹Ȥ롥
˲äơӸؤζǤʥطƤ롥Ӹؤˤơޥ̾ޤҤݤˤϡäȤϤζѲ a-stem ̾ζޤϤΤŴ§ȤʤäƤ롥űѸ stān ϡޤˤ a-stem ̾1ĤǤ롥
a-stem ̾Τʤˤϡۤˤ¿ñ줬¸ߤ롥Τʤǡʤˤä stān ФΤȤСñ줬ζޤΤʤǤäȤ⥯ʤȹͤ롥֥ʤפΰ̣5ĤδͤƤߤ
(1) ɽΤʤǸ촴βθؤʤűѸ̾ˤϡñʣ뤤ϳʤΰ㤤ˤäƸ촴˴ޤޤ첻ҲؤΤʤʤȤ dæg "day" ñʷʣʷǤ dagas Ȥʤꡤæ a ؤȸؤ롥ޤmū "mouth" þēof "thief" ʤɤθ촴̵ñʰʳǤϡֻˤϸʤΤΡͭ롥Фơstān ϡñʤʣͿʤ˻ޤǡ촴ֻȯ stān- Ȱɤ뤬ʤ
(2) 촴1Ǥ롥cyning "king" ʤɤ a-stem ̾ν2̾Ǥ뤿ᡤ˶Ĥ3Ȥʤȡžˤ⤿Ĥ촴ñ stān ϡդäȤ⥯ꥢ˸뤷žˤꥺब褤
(3) ޤǤ˰̣ؼоݤѲۤȤɤʤűѸ stān ϸѸ stone бǯ⺣ܵѤ餺СפǤ롥Ʊ褦˥ΤʤñȤ hund 뤬Τ˶ɽȤƤǡɤԤäƤ褦ˤפ뤬Ǥϰ̣֡ʰŪʡ˸ (dog) ĸ (hound) ؤȶޤäƤ롥stn ˤϤΤ褦ʰ̣ѲΥΥʤ⤦1ĻפĤ bāt "boat" ϤʤʤͭϸǤꡤºݤ stān äƺѤƤ붵ʽä褦˻פʶŪʽ̾ϼǰˡ
(4) ֻγؽԤܤˤȤäư۾ǤϤʤȤ fisc "fish" Ȥñ˴ŪγؽԤȡ <sc> /ʃ/ ȯɽ魯ʤɡűѸֻͭ§βӶޤʤФʤʤʤ롥stn ǤС stone Ȥб첻ĹС˰Ǥ롥
(5) ̣ؼоݤ̵ʪ꤬ʤʸˡ§˳ؤʳˤƤϡñ줽ΤΤỊ̇Ṳ̄ʪȤƤʤɡˤϡȤʸˡ (gender) ȺƱƳؽμȤʤ뤳Ȥ⤢뤫⤷ʤ̵ʪΡСפǤСʾʤ꤬ۤʤ⸽ߤ⡤ä˼ҲӤӤƤñǤʤ
ƾʤǤȡstān ȤñϡűѸʸˡ礹ؽԤˤȤäơäȤǡ볦ꥢȤƵǽƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥̣ǤõʤСפȥåץХå̳Ƥظˤϡ嵭ǤζŪηäŽ̤Ƥ褦˻פ롥
ʤߤˡǯ2˿줿90ǯʾˤͭŪʽظűѸ졦ѸǤ⡤ stān ȥåץХåȤƷפƤ뤳ȤդäƤ
Բ ϲ ͭظűѸ졦Ѹҿӡ١ҡ2026ǯ
űѸǤϡ̾г (accusative) ŪưľŪô¾ˤ䤬롥Ūгʡ (adverbial_accusative) ȸƤФˡ1ĤǡѸǤŪŪʡפʤɤȤơ̾Ĥߤ롥ΰ̣ϡФаư³֡٤Ǥ롥
гʤˡϡűѸ˸ꤵ櫓ǤϤʤ¾ΰˤǧˡǤꡤĤޤȤĸλ夫ȯãƤˡȹͤƤ褵Lass (233) ϼΤ褦˽Ҥ٤Ƥ롥
We can for instance reconstruct the IE accusative as primarily the direct object case; but it has a set of extended meanings, having to do with 'attainment of a goal' (a natural move from coding the result of the action of a transitive verb). From this there develop senses coding what one has to do to achieve a goal, e.g. the traversal of space; and from this traversal of time. Thus the accusative marks not only movement (as a derivative of 'goal'), but 'extent' in space or time as well.
űѸŪгʤˡˤĤƤϡMitchell (§§1383--88) ܽҤƤ롥֡֡٤ιؤˡˤĤơȤȤ˰Ѥ
§1382. The accusative of extent is found referring to space, time, and degree. With reference to space, it is found with verbs, e.g. ÆCHom i. 108. 31 Ne glad he ealne weig him ætforan and ÆCHom ii. 506. 14 He arærde him munuclif on micelre digelnysse, twa mila fram ðære ceastre Turoniscre ðeode, and with adjectives, e.g. ÆCHom i. 20. 31 Wyrc þe nu ænne arc, þreo hund fæðma wid, and þritig fæðma heah.
§1383. The accusative of extent in time answers the question 'How long?'. It occurs alone, e.g. ÆCHom ii. 190. 26 (§1382.), ÆCHom ii. 74. 35 To hwi stande ge her ealne dæg ydele?, ÆCHom i. 178. 10 Moyses se heretoga fæste eac feowertig daga and feowertig nihta, and (with the noun repeated or varied) ÆCHom i. 20. 8 and he leofode nigon hund geara and þrittig geara and ÆCHom ii. 330. 17 . . . ren wæs forwyrned ðam wiðerweardum folce to ðreora gera fyrste, an syx monða fæce, or with a preposition, e.g. 1ÆCHom ii. 298. 23 He geheold Cristes setl geond ðrittig geara fæc.
§1385. The accusative singular neuter is used adverbially to express degree. It may refer to an action, e.g. ÆCHom ii. 536. 2 . . . ne derað him nan ðing on ðam ecan eðele, þæt he on wege þyses lifes andlyfene underfeng and ÆCHom ii. 122. 11 Þa ne mihte se papa þæt geðafian, āteah ðe he eall wolde (for this idiom see §3352); to a quality, e.g. ÆCHom 20. 370 seo geoguð . . . wæs þa geweaxen, and to wige ful strang; or to a quantity, e.g. ÆLS 6. 359 and he wunode . . . on his agenum mynstre em feowertig gera.
ѸŪŪʤˡˤޤϢʤ롤ĹˤȤȤ
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Mitchell, Bruce. Old English Syntax. 2 vols. New York: OUP, 1985.
1025ڡˤˡǯ٤ī㡼Υֺ˾äȤԻĤʱñ71ȤƳ֤ޤơޤϡI --- 1;ñ̾ᤰʪפǤï⤬ΤĶܸǤʤ顤Ѹˤδ鸫ȡξñ I ϡû¿ΥɥޤŽ̤Ƥ뤳Ȥʬޤ
ιֺ¤ꡤֻ֤ 15:30--17:00 ؤѹȤʤꡤޤϥ饤ΤߤȤʤޤǤΥȤȤʤޤ¿ˤäտ夲ޤ
ֺ¤ȴϢơ Voicy heldio ˤ#1602. 1025īֺ¤ I --- 1;ñ̾ܡۿޤ hellog ˤơ#6021. 1025ڡˡīֺ¤ν1I --- 1;ñ̾ᤰʪפ֤ޤ ([2025-10-21-1]) ƤƤޤ
1;ñ̾ I ˤϡޤ˱Ѹ˾βѲν̿ޤȤޤűѸ졤ñ ic ȤȤäƤޤѸѸˤƿβѲꡤη˷ҤäƤޤ
7ֺ¤Ƥ markmap ˤޥɥޥåײޤʲåƳˡѤˤȤ

ʤīֺ¤Υ16ˤĤƤޥɥޥåפƤޤ
#5857. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤1she --- 츻䤨ʤ̾פޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-05-10-1])
#5887. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤2through --- ޤ¿ֻͤĸפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-06-09-1])
#5915. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤3autumn --- ³ƤפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-07-07-1])
#5949. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤4but --- Ĥ¿³פޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-08-10-1])
#5977. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤5guy --- ̾饫եʰ̣Ѳ뤲פޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-09-07-1])
#6013. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤6English --- ƤñɤޤǤꤹפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-10-01-1])
μ8ϡ1129ڡˤˡtake --- ⤿餷ĶܸפꤷƳ֤ޤϰ³饤Τߤǡֻ֤ 15:30--17:00 ǤؿΤϡī㡼ɶθHPܺ٤ǧξ塤ߤйǤ

1ī㡼ɶDZѸ˹ֺ¤Ƥޤǯ٤Υϡ˾äȤԻĤʱñפǤѸŪ˸ߤȴߤΤñ1ӡ⤭ơرѸ츻ŵʸҡˤرѸ츻ϥɥ֥åʸҡλͿεҤȤʤ顤αñˡҤƤϱѸΤˤޤ
轵1025ڡˤιֺ¤ϽνȤʤޤϡѸˤơǤûȶñ1ĤǤʤ顤ˤʪ1;ñ̾ I ܤޤï⤬Τ褦˻ȤäƤ뤳ñǤΩߤޤäƹͤƤߤȡ¤¿Ƥ뤳Ȥ˵ŤޤʲI ˤĤƻפĤĤƤߤޤ
űѸǤ ic ֥åפȯƤޤ줬ˤƸΡ֥פȤȯѲΤǤ礦⤽ˤä c λҲϤɤؾäƤޤäΤǤ礦
ʤ I ϡʸǤʸǽΤǤ礦
ʤ I ʤΤˡŪˤϤޤäΰۤʤ me ѤΤǤ礦
It's me. It's I. ϡɤ餬פΤǤ礦ʸˡȼѤδͤƤߤȻפޤ
ǯˤ뤳Ȥ between you and I ȤɽʸˡŪˤɤǤΤǤ礦
ݤäܸˤϡֻס͡סֲפʤɡʤۤ¿1;̾줬ΤǤ礦ѸˤӤ뤳ȤǸƤΤꤽǤ
Τ褦ˡä1ʸñ I ظˤϡѲֻδʸˡ§ƸŪʻȤʬȤäѸuνץơޤŽ̤Ƥޤֺ¤Ǥϡ֤ε¤ʤ٤¿äƤȻפޤ
ֺ¤ؤλˡϡꥪ饤äΤߤȤʤޤꥢ륿Ǥμ֤Τۤ2֤θƨۿӥ⤢ޤΤԹΤ褤ˡǤäйǤޤֻ֤ޤǤȰۤʤ 15:30--17:00 ȤʤäƤޤΤǡդֺ¤ȿߤξܺ٤īڡꤴǧ
٤ιֺ¤ΤҲϡ heldio Ǥ#1602. 1025īֺ¤ I --- 1;ñ̾ܡȤƤäޤΤǡ⤪İ
ʤΥ饤ʥåפϰʲ̤ǤǡֱѸˤνפڤߤޤ礦
- 71025ڡ 15:30?17:00I --- 1;ñ̾ᤰʪ
- 81129ڡ 15:30?17:00take --- ⤿餷Ķܸ
- 91220ڡ 15:30?17:00one --- ñʤ͡ˡعä
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
߷ ͧ ɹ δˡʡ 쵮 ءʹܶϡˡرѸ츻ϥɥ֥å١ҡ2025ǯ
ε#5928. ¿ but ([2025-07-20-1]) ³but ꡥbut ˤϡ~ơפֻ̣줪³ˡ롥ֻǤи³ΤϾŪʤǤꡤ³ǤС줬ƳǤ˱Ƴʤꤵ롤ȤΤǤ롥ϤޤˤȤɤޤꡤɬ⸽¤λȿǤƤ櫓ǤϤʤ㤨СʸΤʤᤵƤʤǤ졤no one but me ⤢ no one but I ⤢롥ϲʤΤ
Jespersen "Preposition and Conjunction" ꤹܤҤ (§6.3) ʲˡεҤκǽʬ1Ѥ롥
6.31. A good deal of confusion arises from some words being both prepositions and conjunctions. A characteristic example is but; cf NED with examples, especially under the heads C. 3 and 4. It should, however, be noted that the confusion in the use of but is not, as said in NED, a consequence of the want of distinct case-endings in the nouns and the use of the obl. case instead of the nom. in other connexions. In my opinion, on the contrary, the existence of such two-sided words as but, etc, is one of the primary causes of mistakes of me for I or vice versa, and careless uses of the cases generally. Even in such a language as German, where the cases are generally kept neatly apart, we find such combinations as "niemand kommt mir entgegen ausser ein unverschämter" (Lessing); "wo ist ein gott ohne der herr" (Luther); "kein gott ist ohne ich," etc. See Pau, Principien4 372; In Danish similar examples abound (ingen uden jeg, etc).
If we use in one place the term preposition and in another conjunction in speaking of such words, the real meaning is that in one case the word concerned is definitely felt as part of the (main) sentence (no one but me),
ѸȾˤ褦ˡȺϡѸˤ̤̾ʶˤγʤζ̤Ūʤ褦ˤʤäȤ롥Jespersen ϤषդιͤƤƤ롥but ֻǤ⤢³Ǥ⤢Ȥ2Ū椨ˡŪʳʤκƱĹ줿ΤȤΤϤƷܤ褫褫
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 7. Syntax. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Ѹ night бűѸñ niht Ǥ롥ϸűѸη֥ƥȤƤѲ̾ʤΤѲ̾¿ɤȤϾۤʤɤΥ롼פ°̾ʤΤդɬפǤ롥
ŪˤС¿ɤǤñʤñгʤȤ٤ȤǡԤ -e դȤۤߤΤɤǤξԤ̵ƱȤʤΤǤ롥ޤɤǤϡʣʡгʤ -a 餺 -e ǰפ Ȥħ⤢롥
ɽ (paradigm) ΤᤤޤѲ̾¿ɤ°2Ĥ̾졤û캬 ġiefu "gift" Ĺ캬 lār "teaching" ζɽ
| Sing. | Pl. | Sing. | Pl. | |
| N. | ġief-u | ġief-a, -e | lār | lār-a, -e |
| A. | ġief-e | ġief-a, -e | lār-e | lār-a, -e |
| G. | ġief-e | ġief-a, -ena | lār-e | lār-a, -ena |
| D. | ġief-e | ġief-um | lār-e | lār-um |
| Sing. | Pl. | |
| N. | niht | niht-e |
| A. | niht | niht-e |
| G. | niht-e | niht-a, -ena |
| D. | niht-e | niht-um |
#5565. ѸŪư̾ι¤6 ([2024-07-22-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡư̾ˤĤƤϡȯãˤ͡ʸѥ
Visser Ȥ-ing ˰̣μ줬ȡ̣Ū줬ˤĤơŪѥƥѥˤĤơVisser ΩƤƤΤǡܼ (Vol. 2, xiii--xiv) ǤΤᤤVisser 夲ƤΤ -ing ˴ؤǤꡤư̾Τߤʤ餺ʬޤޤƤ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥
THE SUBJECT OF THE FORM IN -ING
Type 'They doubted the truth of the boy's being dead'
Type 'It's a curious thing your saying that'
Type 'From the arysing of the sonne'
Type 'At the sun rising'
Type 'I hope it's all right me coming in'
Type 'Everybody was talking about you going over there'
Type 'They knew about it being so serious'
Type 'Don't talk of there being no one to help'
THE OBJECT OF THE FORM IN -ING
A. Object before the form in -ing
Type 'Thou desirest the kynges mordryng'
Type 'Excuse his throwing into the water'
Type 'Restrayne yow of vengeance taking'
Type 'To þi broþur burieng fare''
Type 'Hope-giving phrases'; 'his heart-percing dart'
Type 'The maner of þis arke-making'
Type 'His love-making struck us as unconvincing'
Type 'To be present at the iudgement geuing'
Type 'In dyteys-making she bare the pryse'
B. Object after the form in -ing
Type 'A daye was limited for justifying of the bill'
Type 'Wenches sitt in the shade syngyng of ballads'
Type 'He went prechynge cristes lay'
Type 'I slow Sampsoun in shakynge the piler'
'The reading the book' versus 'the reading of the book'
ư̾ȴϢơ Voicy heldio ۿ2Ĥ⻲ȡ
#1150. ư̾Ȥ --- His/Him speaking Japanese surprised us all.
#1151. ư̾Ϥޤޤä
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
ɸˤĤơ켣 (274) ˤꡤTajima (1985) Ȥ6ι¤Ѹ첽ֻȤȤ˰Ƥ롥
I°Ūư̾졤: at the king's crowning ʲ˲ĺȤ
IIŪư̾졤: other penance doing ʤۤι뤳ȡ
IIIư̾of̾졤: choosing of war (襤뤳)
IVư̾of̾졤: the burying of his bold knights ͦʵΤ뤳ȡ
Vư̾Ū졤: saving their lives ̿뤳ȡ
VIư̾Ū졤: the withholding you from it ʤ뤳ȡ
Ū줬ư̾Ф֤뤳Ȥ⤢и֤뤳Ȥ⤢äԤξˤֻ of ȼ¤⤢ạ̈ޤư̾μ줬°ʡʸνͭʡˤȤ̳ʡʸŪʡˤȤξߤƤΤܤ٤Ǥ롥ˡư̾Τ괧 the ɤȤ⡤˾νפʥݥȤǤ롥

Tajima, Matsuji. The Syntactic Development of the Gerund in Middle English. Tokyo: Nan'un-Do, 1985.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ
ε#5544. űѸζʤεǽ3 ([2024-07-01-1]) ˰³ (instrumental) ˤĤơűѸ괧ʤ뤤Ϸ (definite article or determiner) ζɽ#154. űѸη se ζޡ ([2009-09-28-1]) Ǽˤȡþȳ, þon Ȥäȼη֤ȤʷäȤ狼롥Ʊͤ˵̾˻ (interrogative_pronoun) ˤĤƤ⡤ζɽ#51. 5W1Hפʤ̡6Hס ([2009-06-18-1]) ˼ˤ hwȳ Ȥʷ롥
Lass (144) ˤȡζʷӸŪˤ⡤ľϤǤŤ̤ΤȤʸ츻ͤȤˤ褦դλľ Lass ˸äƤ餪
There are remains of what is usually called an 'instrumental' in the masculine and neuter sg; this term as Campbell remarks 'is traditional, but reflects neither their origin nor their prevailing use' (1959: §708n). The two forms are þon, þȳ, neither of which is historically transparent. In use they are most frequent in comparatives, e.g. þȳ mā 'the more' (cf. ModE the more, the merrier), and as alternatives to the dative in expressions like þȳ gēare '(in) this year'. There is probably some relation to the 'instrumental' interrogative hwȳ 'why?', which in sense is a real one (= 'through/by what?'), but the /y:/ is a problem; hwȳ has an alternative form hwī, which is 'legitimate' in that it can be traced back to the interrogative base */kw-/ + deictic */ei/.
Ӹؤμ˳ݤäƤ⡤٤Ƥθ츻ɤ餫ˤ뤳ȤϻζȤΤ褦
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
űѸˤ̾졤̾졤ƻʤɤμ» (substantive) γ (case) Ȥ (instrumental) ƻĤäƤѸޤǤˤܴۤ˾üƤޤűѸǤϤޤѤ롥
ʤδŪʵǽ3Ĥ롥(1) ʤˡɽ魯ˡ(2) ¾ȤƤˡ(3) ֤ɽ魯ˡǤ롥Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer (47) ꡤʰѤ褦
Instrumental
88. The instrumental denotes means or manner: Gāius se cāsere, ōþre naman Iūlius 'the emperor Gaius, (called) Julius by another name'. It is used to form adverbs, as micle 'much, by far', þȳ 'therefore'.
It often expresses time when: ǣlċe ȝēare 'every year'; þȳ ilcan dæȝe 'on the same day'.
ʤϤǤ˸űѸޤǤ˿षƤƤˡűѸǤи٤Ϲ⤯ʤŪˤͿ (dative) ζ֤뤳Ȥ¿ĤäƤȤƤʤиòΤʤʤ褦˻פ롥ӸŪʴζʤοˤĤƤϡ#3994. űѸͿʷε ([2020-04-03-1]) Ȥ줿ۤ˶ʤȤƤϡ#811. the + ӵ + for/because ([2011-07-17-1]) ȡ#812. The sooner the better ([2011-07-18-1]) ⻲ȡ
Davis, Norman. Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer. 9th ed. Oxford: Clarendon, 1953.
ε#5457. ᤰ ([2024-04-05-1]) ³̤θѸ켭ŵ (subject) ιܤƤߤ褦Crystal Ѹ켭ŵѤ롥
subject (n.) (S, sub, SUB, Subj, SUBJ) A term used in the analysis of GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS to refer to a major CONSTITUENT of SENTENCE or CLAUSE structure, traditionally associated with the 'doer' of an action, as in The cat bit the dog. The oldest approaches make a twofold distinction in sentence analysis between subject and PREDICATE, and this is still common, though not always in this terminology; other approaches distinguish subject from a series of other elements of STRUCTURE (OBJECT, COMPLEMENT, VERB, ADVERBIAL, in particular. Linguistic analyses have emphasized the complexity involved in this notion, distinguishing, for example, the grammatical subject from the UNDERLYING or logical subject of a sentence, as in The cat was chased by the dog, where The cat is the grammatical and the dog the logical subject. Not all subjects, moreover, can be analyzed as doers of an action, as in such sentences as Dirt attracts flies and The books sold well. The definition of subjects in terms of SURFACE grammatical features (using WORD-ORDER or INFLECTIONAL criteria) is usually relatively straightforward, but the specification of their function is more complex, and has attracted much discussion (e.g. in RELATIONAL GRAMMAR). In GENERATIVE grammar, subject is sometimes defined at the NP immediately DOMINATED by S. While NP is the typical formal realization of subject, other categories can have this function, e.g. clause (S-bar), as in That oil floats on water is a fact, and PP as in Between 6 and 9 will suit me. The term is also encountered in such contexts as RAISING and the SPECIFIED-SUBJECTION CONDITION.
ѡȤ McArthur εҤȽŤʤäƤʬ⤢뤬 Crystal εҤϡäΩĸ˱Ƽªۤʤ뤳Ȥ褯ʬ롥طʸˡǤϼβ̤ǽܤƤꡤʸˡǤϤ⤽ȤѸѤʤ餿ƼȤʸˡ˴ŤˤѸǤꡤƤδˤøŬڤ餳ѤƤΤȤȤʬ롥
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.
ؤˤϡг (absolutive) ǽ (ergativity) ȤɽФѤνפʰ㤤롥Ʊ (process) ǤäƤ⡤ơθ̤Ƥߤȡޤäۤʤʤ졤ޤäۤʤɽƤ롥
ȥबܤĤ륷Ȥ褦֥ȥܤĤפ̤뤫֥ȥܤĤפ̤뤫ϻΰ㤤Ȥ롥ܸǤѸǤ⡤ŪˤϤ줾ưʸ¾ưʸȸƤ֤Ȥ¿ʸǤ (Process) ϡĤפǰפƤ뤬ԤʸǤϼʰ̣ȤƤ Agentˤϡ֥ȥܡסԤʸǤϡ֥ȥפȤʤ롥ޤԤʸǤϡ֡ʥȥΡܡפȤŪ (Goal) 롥줬гθѤǤ롥
ȤǽθѤˤȡʸˤƤĤפ (Process) Ǥ뤳Ȥϰۤʤʤ֥ȥܡפ (Medium) ȤƱ̣ôäƤΤȲᤵ롥ϡˤĤפȤΩ뤿ˤʤФʤʤΡפθѤˤСԤʸˤ֥ȥפΤȯư (Agent) Ȥߤʤ롥
Ĥޤꡤ2ĤʸΥڥˤĤơгŪǽŪ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Halliday (341) ꡤĤαѸûʸĤġ2ĤθѤӤƤߤ褦
(a) transitive interpretation
| the boat | sailed | vs. | Mary | sailed | the boat |
| the cloth | tore | vs. | the nail | tore | the cloth |
| Tom's eyes | closed | vs. | Tom | closed | his eyes |
| the rice | cooked | vs. | Pat | cooked | the rice |
| my resolve | weakened | vs. | the news | weakened | my resolve |
| Actor | Process | vs. | Actor | Process | Goal |
|---|
| the boat | sailed | vs. | Mary | sailed | the boat |
| the cloth | tore | vs. | the nail | tore | the cloth |
| Tom's eyes | closed | vs. | Tom | closed | his eyes |
| the rice | cooked | vs. | Pat | cooked | the rice |
| my resolve | weakened | vs. | the news | weakened | my resolve |
| Medium | Process | vs. | Agent | Process | Medium |
|---|
عʸˡǤϡǽưʸʤǤSVOʸˤưʸݤˡȤǽưʸμŪbe ưäꡤưʬˤꡤֻ by äȡʤȤȲ⤵롥
the teacher scolded John
John was scolded by the teacher
ʸˡǤϡΤ褦ǽưʸưʸ뤳ȤϤʤع¤ (D-structure) ˤƤǤȼι¤ꤷŪǤ֤˰ưȤͤ롥
Τ褦˹ͤϼ̤Ǥ롥ع¤Ǥϡǽưʸʤ [V' scolded John] Ȥ¤ꤵƤ롥̾Ǥ scold Ȥ¾ư줬 John гʤͿϤscolded Τ褦˲ʬˤʤȳͿǽϤȹͤ졤John ϳͿʤޤޤ֤Ȥʤ롥ȡJohn Τ褦̾ɬͿʤФʤʤפȤʥե륿 (case filter) θƤޤᡤ뤿 John ϳʤͿƤ館֡Ĥޤ꿼ع¤Ƭ ___ ؤȰưƤΰ֤ϡư was ˤäƼʤͿƤ館֤Ǥ롥ơǤɽع¤Ƴ롥
ʸˡήλųݤˤ͡ߤƤꡤʤ뤳ȤʤΤϡ˵ʤФʤʤ㤫顤ʸˡħ1ĤȤƳͿŻ뤹뤳Ȥʬʾ塤 (79) Ȥ
졡3ϡʸˡסоȡѸؤδá١ʻ 졦⸫ ˡ ס ס ʡ¼ ҡˡˡǡ2013ǯ
she θ츻ˤĤơϢ Laing and Lass ʸ夲Ƥcf. #4769. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ξҲ ([2022-05-18-1])#4770. she θ츻 --- Laing and Lass ˤ "Yod Epenthesis" ɾ ([2022-05-19-1]))
Ʊʸμʴؿ3;ñ̾ʤη֤ˤĤƤгʤͿʤη֤ˤĤƤƤ롥űѸɸŪʥѥˤСгʤ hīeͿʤ hire η֤äˤߤ餫̤ꡤͿʷгʷ߹ǡŪ herפ뤳ȤˤʤäǤС¾3;̾ǤƱȤäƤ롥ñͿʤ him г hine ߹ߡʣͿʤ him г hīe ߹ʸˤ켫Ȥ them ִ줿ˡ
3;̾˴ؤͿʤгʤ߹ȤθݡͿؤгʤοʿˤϤޤܤ줺褽ĺΤȤäΤȵ䤬뤬ñ˴ؤƤ Laing and Lass (209) ˤǫä
By the time ME proper begins to emerge, and to survive in the written record in the mid to late twelfth century, the new 'she' type for the subject pronoun already begins to be found. For the object pronoun the levelling of the 'her/hir' type from the OE DAT/GEN variants is also already the majority for direct object function. For the fem sg personal pronoun used as direct object ($/P13OdF), LAEME CTT has 60 tokens of the 'heo/hi(e)' type across only 7 texts. If one includes hi(e) spellings for IT ($/P13OdI) showing survival of feminine grammatical gender in inanimates, the total rises to 77 tokens across 14 texts. Only 2 texts (with 3 tokens between them) have 'heo/hie' exclusively in direct object function for HER. The other 5 texts show 'her/hir' types beside 'heo/hie' types. Against this are 494 tokens of the 'her/hir' type for HER found across 51 texts. Or, if one includes 'her/hir' type spellings for IT showing the survival of grammatical gender, the total rises to 590 across 58 texts.
פˡгʤͿؤοʿϡճѸʳǤǤ˿ʤǤȤȤˤʤ롥餯ñʣǤ褦ʾä뤬ˤĤƤ̤ɬפ롥
ȴϢƴϢơ#155. űѸο;̾ζޡ ([2009-09-29-1])#975. 3;̾μгʷǤϤޤѤʤä۲ ([2011-12-28-1])#4080. ʤ she νͭʤŪʤ her ƱˤʤΤǤ ([2020-06-28-1]) ȡ
γʸֻʬߤƤ⤽η֤ߤ̾ʶˤǤʸǤƯˤߤȤƵǽƤޤֻ (preposition) ĤƤʬ䤹⤷ޤĤƤޤ̾ʶˤʤΤ˵ǽȤΤϲäƤ褦˻פޤΤ褦ϱѸǤӤˤȤޤޤ
I got up at five this morning.
Every day they run ten kilometers.
He repeated the phrase twice.
She lives just three doors from a supermarket.
We cook French style.
You are all twenty years old.
They travelled first-class.
嵭Τ褦ŪѤ̾ϡŪˤŪг (adverbial_accusative)ŪͿ (adverbial dative)Ū° (adverbial_genitive) ʤɤȸƤФޤܥ֥ǤŪʴ͡˼夲ƤǤ
رˤɽ줿ֱѸƳ2021ΤΥƥֻ줤ʤǤϡ˱Ѹˤδäɤߤ䤹ƳŪƥĤǤűѸλʤ顤Ǹϡ̾줬ƯȤΤϡѲ˭ǤäűѸˡˤĤäΤʤΤǤפäƤޤ
űѸ̾ʶˤѲŪѤƤΤѸʹߤ˳ѲäⲽŪĤäƤȤϡ褽̤ȹͤƤޤǡǤϤʤȤפäƤޤȤ櫓֤֡֡˴ؤ줬̾ʶˤȯãȤȤϡŪʳѲǰƬˤȤ⡤̸ŪˤդƤ褦˻פ뤫ǤܸΡֺסֺסס轵סǯפϤȤû֡סȾס̤ʹפסɭסաפŪˤŵŪ̾Τ褦ˤߤޤǽŪˤѤ뤳Ȥ¿Ǥ礦
嵭ƥ㼨Ƥ褦ˡűѸˤ̾줬гʡͿʡ°ʤ˶ޤȤѤƤ¿ޤ㤨 hwīlum ("sometimes, once"; > PDE whilom) ʤɤϡ츻Ūˤϸ -um ʣͿʤɽ魯ȤϤǤ˸űѸλǸòƤȹͤޤ̾ hwīl (> PDE while) ʶޤΤǤȤռϡűѸüԤˤ鵩äΤǤϤʤΤǤޤοԤơűѸˤ̾ͳ hwīlum ǤȤǧƤʤ⤷ǧ뤳ȤäȤơˤΤǤϤʤȻפޤ
ѸʹߤγѲοबˤĤʤŪ̾ʶˡפγ˹ȤǧĤĤ⡤ŪаޤȤ̵طˡ֤֡֡ʤɤɽ魯̾ʶˤ첽뷹ϰŪˤΤǤϤʤǤ礦
å ofפȸƤФˡ乽ʸˤĤơ#1775. rob A of B ([2014-03-07-1]) εDZѸˤδ龯ͤƤߤʤʤǡѸŪˤ⤭줤ˤϲ褷Ƥʤ褦Ǥ롥
Blake (134) (case) ̣ (semantic_role) δ餳äƤߤĤΤǡѤ
(39) a. The vandals stripped the branches off the tree agent patient source b. The vandals stripped the tree of its branches agent source patient
The roles appropriate for (39a) are noncontroversial. The vandals are clearly the agent, the branches patient and the tree source. Of the two sentences (39a) would appear to be unmarked, since it exhibits a normal association of role and relation: patient with direct object and source with a noncore or peripheral relation. The ascription of roles in (39b) is more problematic. Under a common interpretation of constructions like this the tree in (39b) would still be the source and the branches the patient. But note the different in meaning. (39a) presents the situation from the point of view of the effect of the activity on the branches, whereas (39b) emphasises the fate of the tree. In fact, the phrase of its branches can be omitted from (39b). This makes it problematic for those who claim that every clause has a patient. The problem could be avoided by claiming that the tree in (39b) has been reinterpreted as a patient, but that creates the further problem of finding a different role for the branches.
åιʸˤĤƳʤŪΤ褽䤿ľŪռ̤ȤʤäƤꡤɤΤȤ̤ʤΤǤ롥Ǹ˿Ƥ褦ˡ(39b) ˤ the tree ΰ̣ patient ȤΤǤСof its branches ΰ̣ϲˤʤΤơΰ̣ô碌ֻ of ΰ̣ˡϤʤΤǤꡤ of θ¾μɤΤ褦Τȹͤ٤ʤΤ
1ĵˤʤΤϡξʸѤƤֻ줬Ʊ off of Ǥ뤳ȤʤԤ from ǤˡξƱ쵯ˤĤƤϡ#55. through θ츻 ([2009-06-22-1])#4095. 2Ÿʬ ([2020-07-13-1]) ȡ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
(nominative) ϡ̾Τ⤦褦ˡ̣Ū¾γʤ٤ɸŪŪʳʤǤ롥Ūˤ⸶Ȥ٤Ƥꡤޤ˥ǥեȤγʤȤ롥ʸΩñ줽ΤΤ˸ڤȤˤѤ뤷ΡָФפȤƤѤѥؤǤ (lemma) Ƥ褤ʤˤĤƤϡΤ褦Ū
Τˡ¿θǤϼʷǥեȤη֤θƤꡤ¾μгʷϤѷȤ롥Τ褦ʸǤϡʤΥǥեǧ뤳ȤϤ䤹
Ȥˤ֤ȡʷϼгʷƱͤȼ̤ʶȤʬ롥ĤޤꡤˤĤƤϡʤǥեȷǤȤŪʾڵϤʤѸޤᡤĸ줫ŪǤϡλ¤ˤʤäƤ뤬ʷǥեȷʤȤǡ¤ϰŪˤʤüʸ²ʤΤǤ (Blake 30)
λ¤ȴطƤ뤫ɤʬʤǤϡ̾줬¿쾯ʤŪΩѤˡʰʳη֤Ǹ뤳Ȥ롥ŪˤСε#4312. ƳʡʡгʤδطˤĤư͡ ([2021-02-16-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡгʡʤƳʡˤѤ礬ΤBlake (31) ϡλ¤ŪͭɸˡȤߤƤ롥
. . . the nominative is generally thought of as the case used outside syntax, the case used in naming, the case used in talking about a lexeme, but Rubio argues that in Latin the accusative as well as the nominative is used in isolation and metalinguistically. He sees both of them as case of pure denotation (1966: 95--7). We are reminded of the use of the oblique forms of pronouns in English: Who wants it? Me. Me, I'll get it. De Carvalho also notes that the accusative in Latin is used out of context (1982: 257ff, 1985). He sees the nominative in more positive terms as the case in which one expresses the protagonist (1982: 248, 263).
ϢơѸˤˤгʤʤɤȤȤơ2;̾ youƸѸθˤ1;ñ̾ I ä me Ѥ Me and my sister went shopping. Τ褦ʸȡ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
Rubio, L. Introductión a la sintaxis estructural del Latin. Vol. 1: Casos y preposiciones. Barcelona: Ariel, 1966.
Carvalho, P. de. "Reflexions sur les cas: vers une théorie des cas latins." L'information Grammaticale 7 (1980): 3--11.
ܥ֥ǤϼʸˡѸͳˤĤơ#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1])#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1])#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1])#3307. ʸˡѸȤƤ participle ʬס ([2018-05-17-1])#3983. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (1) ([2020-03-23-1])#3984. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (2) ([2020-03-24-1])#3985. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (3) ([2020-03-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥϡֳʡפʤ "case" ȸƤФΤˤĤơϢȡѤƤ Blake (19--20) 공פѤ롥
The term case is from Latin cāsus, which is in turn a translation of the Greek ptōsis 'fall'. The term originally referred to verbs as well as nouns and the idea seems to have been of falling away from an assumed standard form, a notion also reflected in the term 'declension' used with reference to inflectional classes. It is from dēclīnātiō, literally a 'bending down or aside'. With nouns the nominative was taken to be basic, with verbs the first person singular of the present indicative. For Aristotle the notion of ptōsis extended to adverbial derivations as well as inflections, e.g. dikaiōs 'justly' from the adjective dikaios 'just'. With the Stoics (third century BC) the term became confined to nominal inflection . . . .
The nominative was referred to as the orthē 'straight', 'upright' or eutheia onomastikē 'nominative case'. Here ptōsis takes on the meaning of case as we know it, not just of a falling away from a standard. In other words it came to cover all cases not just the non-nominative cases, which in Ancient Greek were called collectively ptōseis plagiai 'slanting' or 'oblique cases' and for the early Greek grammarians comprised genikē 'genitive', dotikē 'dative' and aitiatikē 'accusative'. The vocative which also occurred in Ancient Greek, was not recognised until Dionysius Thrax (c. 100 BC) admitted it, which is understandable in light of the fact that it does not mark the relation of a nominal dependent to a head . . . . The received case labels are the Latin translations of the Greek ones with the addition of ablative, a case found in Latin but not Greek. The naming of this case has been attributed to Julius Caesar . . . . The label accusative is a mistranslation of the Greek aitiatikē ptōsis which refers to the patient of an action caused to happen (aitia 'cause'). Varro (116 BC--27? BC) is responsible for the term and he appears to have been influenced by the other meaning of aitia, namely 'accusation' . . . .
ʸϤɤǡȹäѸؤޤؤǴŪʥȤʤäƤ case ʳʡˤˤ declension ʸѲˤˤ inflection ʶޡˤˤ衤Ϥ̾դܼޤݤ߹ƤʤäΤ褯ʬäηѲκˤϡޤǥŪ۷ꡤ줬Ū˼¸뤿ˤϡ۷餽ơפ뤤ϡֶʤä֤ؤĤɬפ롤ȤͥƥȯۤΤޤǽˡ֤ꤵƤꡤ¤ȯäΤʤǼ¸Τϡ줿Ǥ롤ȤΤŪªʤΤȻפ
ܸưˤĤƤֳѡפȤѸϡ٤ХݥƥʾʤȤ˥塼ȥˤǤ롥ưˤĤƥǥŪʸꤵƤ뤬ºݤʸ˸ΤϡפǤϤʤޤǥץ饰ޥƥåˡֳѡפǤ롤Ȥȯۤ롥
ΰ㤤ϡŪˤˤ⤷ΤεʸˡˡιͤΰƱȤ⡤⤷ȴط뤫⤷ʤͤƤǤ롥
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
ɸϡŪʷȤƻŦƤ롥ܸʤɤ SO ĸϡ餫ηŪʳɸIJǽ⤤Ȥºݡܸˤϡ֤ס֤ס֤Ρפʤɤγʽ줬ꡤ̾˸ܤ뤳ȤdzʤɸȤߤѸŵȤ SV ĸϡΤ褦ʷŪɸʸˤϡˤ⤿ʤȤѸˤ;̾ˤϤʤγѲϤ뤷̾ˤ 's Ȥͭʤɸʤ뤬ŪˤзŪʳɸλȤߤϼȤäƤ褤ѸŤϸ礬 SV ɬꤵƤ餺SO ʤɤθ⤢Τ嵭ͽ¬̤ꡤϷŪʳɸλȤߤ⸲˵ǽƤ
嵭λŦϡBlake ɤǤܤˤȤޤäΤȤȤ Greenberg ˴ŤΤΤ褦Blake (15) طսѤ롥
It has frequently been observed that there is a correlation between the presence of case marking on noun phrases for the subject-object distinction and flexible word order and this would appear to hold true. From the work of Greenberg it would also appear that there is a tendency for languages that mark the subject-object distinction on noun phrases to have a basic order of subject-object-verb (SOV), and conversely a tendency for languages lacking such a distinction to have the order subject-verb-object (SVO) . . . . The following figures are based on a sample of 100 languages. They show the relationship between case and marking for the 85 languages in the sample that exhibit one of the more commonly attested basic word orders. The notation [+ case] in this context means having some kind of marking, including appositions, on noun phrases to mark the subject-object distinction . . . .
| VSO | [+ case] | 3 | SVO | [+ case] | 9 | SOV | [+ case] | 34 |
| [- case] | 6 | [- case] | 26 | [- case] | 7 |
The SVO 'caseless' languages are concentrated in western Europe (e.g. English), southern Africa (e.g. Swahili) and east and southeast Asia (e.g. Chinese and Vietnamese).
ŪŪʰյϲʤΤ
Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.
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