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grammar - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2023-08-01 Tue

#5209. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ (3) [transitivity][termonology][verb][grammar][syntax][construction][semantic_role][semantics]

¾ư (transitivity) ˤĤơ2ˤ錄äƤ

#5202. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ ([2023-07-25-1])
#5204. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ (2) [2023-07-27-1]

Bussmann (494--95) Ѹ켭ŵ transitivity ιѤ롥

Valence property of verbs which require a direct object, e.g. read, see, hear. Used more broadly, verbs which govern other objects (e.g. dative, genitive) can also be termed 'transitive'; while only verbs which have no object at all (e.g. sleep, rain) would be intransitive. Hopper and Thompson (1980) introduce other factors of transitivity in the framework of universal grammar, which result in a graduated concept of transitivity. In addition to the selection of a direct object, other semantic roles as well as the properties of adverbials, mood, affirmation vs negation, and aspect play a role. A maximally transitive sentence contains a non-negated resultive verb in the indicative which requires at least a subject and direct object; the verb complements function as agent and affected object, are definite and animate . . . . Using data from various languages, Hopper and Thompson demonstrate that each of the factors listed above as affecting transitivity is important for making transivtivity through case, adpositions, or verbal inflection. Thus in many languages (e.g. Lithuanian, Polish, Middle High German) affirmation vs negation correlates with the selection of case for objects in such a way that in affirmative sentences the object is usually in the accusative, while in negated sentences the object of the same verb occurs in the genitive or in another oblique case.


¾ưȤϡ(1) ǡǤ뤳ȡ(2) ˤäƤζ񸽲ˡ͡Ǥ뤳ȡʬäƤŪˤϡгŪ׵᤹롤̤ɽ魯ľˡιư줬¤ "transitive" ǤȤȤ

Bussmann, Hadumod. Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Trans. and ed. Gregory Trauth and Kerstin Kazzizi. London: Routledge, 1996.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-09-23-1]

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2023-07-27 Thu

#5204. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ (2) [transitivity][termonology][verb][grammar][syntax][construction][semantic_role][semantics][philosophy_of_language]

#5202. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ ([2023-07-25-1]) Ұ³¾ư (transitivity) ˤĤơ
Halliday εǽʸˡˤȡ¾ưͤݤˤ3ĤΥѥ᡼פȤʤ롥 (process)Ϳ (participant) (circumstance) 3ĤΤȤ櫓 (process) Ūʥѥ᡼Ȥʤ롥
ֲפȾΤΤˤ礭3Ĥμब롥˾3Ĥμबդ­롥줾󤲤ȡʪŪ (material)Ū (mental)طŪ (relational) ԰Ū (behavioural), Ū (verbal), ¸Ū (existential) 6Ȥʤ롥

Transitivity A term used mainly in systemic functional linguistics to refer to the system of grammatical choices available in language for representing actions, events, experiences and relationships in the world . . . .
   There are three components in a transitivity process: the process type (the process or state represented by the verb phrase in a clause), the participant(s) (people, things or concepts involved in a process or experiencing a state) and the circumstance (elements augmenting the clause, providing information about extent, location, manner, cause, contingency and so on). So in the clause 'Mary and Jim ate fish and chips on Friday', the process is represented by 'ate', the participants are 'Mary and Jim' and the circumstances are 'on Friday'.
   Halliday and Mtthiesen (2004) identify three main process types, material, mental and relational, and three minor types, behavioural, verbal and existential. Associated with each process are certain kinds of participants. 1) Material processes refer to actions and events. The verb in a material process clause is usually a 'doing' word . . .: Elinor grabbed a fire extinguisher; She kicked Marina. Participants in material processes include actor ('Elinor', 'she') and goal ('a fire extinguisher', 'Marina'). 2) Metal processes refer to states of mind or psychological experiences. The verb in a mental process clause is usually a mental verb: I can't remember his name; Our party believes in choice. Participants in mental processes include senser(s) ('I'; 'our party') and phenomenon ('his name'; 'choice'). 3) Relational processes commonly ascribe an attribute to an entity, or identify it: Something smells awful in here; My name is Scruff. The verb in a relational processes include token ('something', 'my name')) and value ('Scruff', 'awful'). 4) Behavioural processes are concerned with the behaviour of a participant who is a conscious entity. They lie somewhere between material and mental processes. The verb in a behavioural process clause is usually intransitive, and semantically it refers to a process of consciousness or a physiological state: Many survivors are sleeping in the open; The baby cried. The participant in a behavioral process is called a behaver. 5) Verbal processes are processes of verbal action: 'Really?', said Septimus Coffin; He told them a story about a gooseberry in a lift. Participants in verbal processes include sayer ('Septimus Coffin', 'he'), verbiage ('really', 'a story') an recipient ('them'). 6) Existential processes report the existence of someone or something. Only one participant is involved in an existential process: the existent. There are two main grammatical forms for this type of process: existential there as subject + copular verb (There are thousands of examples.); and existent as subject + copular verb (Maureen was at home.)


ϡưˤƤȤ櫓Ūʰ̣ط6ӼäΤȤäƤ褤ůŪˤСΥѥ᡼ɤޤǺŪʸ쥫ƥ꡼ΤʬʤͤĤǤ롥
ǽʸˡŪˤ̤Ȥơֲפ졤ˤС¾ưפ٤ޤäƤ롤ȤȤˤʤäƤ롥¾ưȤϤŪʳǰѸǤϤ뤬Τ褦ʸѡʸˡѤȤߤФƤȯۤǤ뤳ȤΤäƤ

Pearce, Michael. The Routledge Dictionary of English Language Studies. Abingdon: Routledge, 2007.

Referrer (Inside): [2023-09-23-1] [2023-08-01-1]

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2023-07-25 Tue

#5202. ¾ư (transitivity) Ȥϲ [transitivity][termonology][verb][mood][grammar][syntax][construction]

ؿѸؼŵ (1267) ˤȡ¾ư (transitivity) Halliday ʸˡˤѸǡˡ (mood) ȼ (theme) ȤȤ Halliday ʸˡˤ3Ĥ礭η֤롥¾ưȤϡ¾ư (transitive verb) ȼư (intransitive verb) ζ̤б복ǰȤ⡤ष˻ͿǴ֤ΡִͿפȤȤ館ۤŬڤ
Sir Chirstopher Wren built this bridge. ȤäŵŪ SVO ʸˤƤϡ԰ټԡɸ3Ԥߤ˴ͿäƤꡤ¾ưŪǤȤ롥ñŵŪˤʤĤλͿԤɤΤ褦˴ͿäƤ뤫Υѥ͡ǤꡤʬƤȺǽŪˤϰĤҤȤĤθ̶Ūʲ̤ʤФʤʤʤκʬμ٤ delicacy ȸƤǤ롥¾ưϡäơư줬Ĥι뤫Ȥ䡤ʸˡˤʸפȤϢƤ롥
ʸˡ˰Ĥƹͤ뤿ˡCrystal θؼŵ transitivity ơȤȤ򤷤Ƥ

transitivity (n.) A category used in the grammatical analysis of clause/sentence constructions, with particular reference to the verb's relationship to dependent elements of structure. The main members of this category are transitive (tr, trans), referring to a verb which can take a direct object (as in he saw the dog), and intransitive (intr, intrans), where it cannot (as in *he arrived a ball). Many verbs can have both a transitive and an intransitive use (cf. we went a mile v. we went), and in some languages this distinction is marked morphologically. More complex relationships between a verb and the elements dependent upon it are usually classified separately. For example, verbs which take two objects are sometimes called ditransitive (as opposed to monotransitive), as in she gave me a pencil. There are also several uses of verbs which are marginal to one or other of these categories, as in pseudo-intranstive constructions (e.g. the eggs are selling well, where an agent is assumed --- 'someone is selling the eggs' --- unlike normal intransitive constructions, which do not have an agent transform: we went, but not *someone went us). Some grammarians also talk about (in)transitive prepositions. For example, with is a transitive preposition, as it must always be accompanied by a noun phrase complement (object), and along can be transitive or intransitive: cf. She arrived with a dog v. *She arrived with and She was walking along the river v. She was walking along.


¾ưˤĤƤϡͤƤ

⿮ ʸͺʴƽˡؿѸؼŵ١ҡ1982ǯ
Crystal, David, ed. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. 6th ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2008. 295--96.

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2023-07-06 Thu

#5183. ʤʸˡפΤ [sobokunagimon][grammar]

Calude and Bauer ˤ Mysteries of English Grammar: A Guide to Complexities of the English Language ȤܤνϤˡ"Why are there grammatical mysteries?" Ȥ1᤬롥ؼԤδߤơʸˡפˤ4ΤǧȤ
(7--8)

We don't know what is going on; perhaps we are unable to determine any regular pattern --- things are messy; perhaps we can see some regularities, but do not understand what drives the patterns we find; perhaps we just do not yet know what the relevant patterns are. If there are genuinely no patterns, the system is presumably unknowable, so this is a situation we do not expect to f ind, and do not want to find. In such cases, we must try to find something that makes it in principle possible to learn the grammar. There is a big difference between the unknown and the unknowable.
We know what is going on, but it does not seem to be predictable. This might be because speakers can manipulate the patterns in subtle ways that we cannot fully discern.
We know what is going on, but we do not know how the mind determines what will actually be said.
We know more or less what is going on, but we do not know how to successfully capture the patterns we see within a neat theoretical framework (a grammatical model).


줾˥ȥĤȤС(1) ޤäĤʤ桤(2) ͽ¬ԲǽȤ̣Ǥ桤(3) Ư˴ؤ桤(4) ŪˤޤǤʤȤ̣Ǥ桤Ȥʤ

does_spelling_matter_front_cover


Calude, Andreea S. and Laurie Bauer. Mysteries of English Grammar: A Guide to Complexities of the English Language. Abingdon: Routledge, 2022.

Referrer (Inside): [2024-01-01-1]

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2022-10-02 Sun

#4906. ʤʸˡؤ֤Τ --- David Crystal 󤲤6Ĥͳ [grammar]

Crystal (203) ֤ʤʸˡؤ֤ΤפˤĤơ˱ѸüԸˤǤϤ뤬6ĤβͿƤ롥

WHY STUDY GRAMMAR?

'Because it's there'. People are constantly curious about the world in which they live, and wish to understand it and (as with mountains) master it. Grammar is no different from any other domain of knowledge in this respect.
But more than mountains, language is involved with almost everything we do as human beings. We cannot live without language. To understand the linguistic dimension of our existence would be no mean achievement. And grammar is the fundamental organizing principle of language.
Our grammatical ability is extraordinary. It is probably the most creative ability we have. There is no limit to what we can say or write, yet all of this potential is controlled by a finite number of rules. How is this done?
Nonetheless, our language can let us down. We encounter ambiguity, imprecision, and unintelligible speech or writing. To deal with these problems, we need to put grammar under the microscope, and work out what went wrong. This is especially critical when children are learning to emulate the standards used by educated adult members of their community.
Learning about English grammar provides a basis for learning other language. Much of the apparatus we need to study English turns out to be of general usefulness. Other languages have clauses, tenses, and adjectives too. And the differences they display will be all the clearer if we have first grasped what is unique to our mother tongue.
After studying grammar, we should be more alert to the strength, flexibility, and variety of our language, and thus be in a better position to use it and to evaluate others' use of it. Whether our own usage in fact improves, as a result, is less predictable. Our awareness must improve, but turning that awareness into better practice --- by speaking and writing more effectively --- requires an additional set of skills. Even after a course on car mechanics, we can still drive carelessly.


¿ѸؽԤǤ⤢ܥ֥ɼԤγϡǼǤ礦뤤ϡλ׹ͤȤȤơ֤ʤʸˡؤ֤ΤפФȼβͤƤߤޤ󤫡

Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.

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2022-08-29 Mon

#4872. ʸȽů [grammar][semantics]

ؾ塤ƤʤʸæʸʸȸƤФ롥ʸʸˡŪ˰æƤΤ̣Ū˰æƤΤȽǤ񤷤롥ˤĤ Cruse (1--8) ε˰͵򤷤ƹͤƤߤ
The green idea sleep. ȤʸϤɤ3ñ -s ȴƤȤ餫ʸˡʸǤȽǤǤǤϡThe green idea is sleeping. ʤɤʸˡŪСʸǤϤʤʤΤǤϰ̣ΰæͿƤ褦˴롥ñ򺹤ؤ The green lizard is sleeping. ȤСʸǤϤʤʤĤޤꡤȤ The green idea sleep. ʸϡ1ʸˡŪǤꡤ2˰̣ŪǤ⤢ȤȤˤʤ롥
The cake was baken. Ϥɤޤʬ줬ְäƤȤʸˡʸȲ᤹뤳ȤǽǤŤ baken ʬäȤϤƤˡξ硤The cake was baked. Ф褤
򺹤ؤ The cake was taken. ȤưæȤˡ⤢뤫⤷ʤθỤ̄Ūʴʸϡʴ롥ʸ̮ taken ǤʤȤ shaken, forsaken ʤɤǤäƤޤ˶ΤϡȤư bake take, shake, forsake ʤɤδ֤˰̣Ūʶʤ˺ݤơŪؤμͳ٤⤹ΤǤϤʤȤФ롥
Cruse Ͼ嵭Τ褦ʹͻФǡʸˡŪʸȽỌ̇̄ŪʸȽˤĤƼΤ褦ʴ󼨤Ƥ롥

(i) an anomaly which can only be removed by replacing one or more open set items is semantic;
(ii) an anomaly which cannot be removed by replacing one or more open set items, but can be removed by changing one or more closed set items, is purely grammatical;
(iii) an anomaly which can be cured either by changing one or more closed set items or by replacing one or more open set items is semantic (albeit with grammatical implications) if the open set replacements are distinguished by the possession of certain semantic properties; otherwise, it is purely grammatical.


Cruse ΰϢεɤߡؼԤδ֤ˤʸȽůؤΤ褦ʤΤͭƤΤǤϤʤȴϡʸμæǾΰæȤʤ褦ˤʸᤷ褦ȤˤǤ롥СʸΤˤʤ٤ʤǤ褦ʡΤ褦ʸȽꤷ褦Ȥ٤æƤ褦˸Ƥ⡤ʤ٤ʸȤϤߤʤꥮޤʸȤƲǤƻõꡤǤæȤߤʤʤˤϡæ٤ǾȤʤ褦ʲõȡϡդβǽʤ٤Ĥʤ줿ΤݤäƤȤ̤ۤͤΤ褦˻פ롥

Cruse, D. A. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1986.

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2021-02-20 Sat

#4317. ʤֳʡפ "case" ʤΤ [terminology][case][grammar][history_of_linguistics][etymology][dionysius_thrax][sobokunagimon][latin][greek][vocative]

ܥ֥ǤϼʸˡѸͳˤĤơ#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1])#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1])#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1])#3307. ʸˡѸȤƤ participle ʬס ([2018-05-17-1])#3983. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (1) ([2020-03-23-1])#3984. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (2) ([2020-03-24-1])#3985. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (3) ([2020-03-25-1]) ʤɤǼ夲Ƥϡֳʡפʤ "case" ȸƤФΤˤĤơϢȡѤƤ Blake (19--20) 공פѤ롥

The term case is from Latin cāsus, which is in turn a translation of the Greek ptōsis 'fall'. The term originally referred to verbs as well as nouns and the idea seems to have been of falling away from an assumed standard form, a notion also reflected in the term 'declension' used with reference to inflectional classes. It is from dēclīnātiō, literally a 'bending down or aside'. With nouns the nominative was taken to be basic, with verbs the first person singular of the present indicative. For Aristotle the notion of ptōsis extended to adverbial derivations as well as inflections, e.g. dikaiōs 'justly' from the adjective dikaios 'just'. With the Stoics (third century BC) the term became confined to nominal inflection . . . .
   The nominative was referred to as the orthē 'straight', 'upright' or eutheia onomastikē 'nominative case'. Here ptōsis takes on the meaning of case as we know it, not just of a falling away from a standard. In other words it came to cover all cases not just the non-nominative cases, which in Ancient Greek were called collectively ptōseis plagiai 'slanting' or 'oblique cases' and for the early Greek grammarians comprised genikē 'genitive', dotikē 'dative' and aitiatikē 'accusative'. The vocative which also occurred in Ancient Greek, was not recognised until Dionysius Thrax (c. 100 BC) admitted it, which is understandable in light of the fact that it does not mark the relation of a nominal dependent to a head . . . . The received case labels are the Latin translations of the Greek ones with the addition of ablative, a case found in Latin but not Greek. The naming of this case has been attributed to Julius Caesar . . . . The label accusative is a mistranslation of the Greek aitiatikē ptōsis which refers to the patient of an action caused to happen (aitia 'cause'). Varro (116 BC--27? BC) is responsible for the term and he appears to have been influenced by the other meaning of aitia, namely 'accusation' . . . .


ʸϤɤǡȹäѸؤޤؤǴŪʥȤʤäƤ case ʳʡˤˤ declension ʸѲˤˤ inflection ʶޡˤˤ衤Ϥ̾դܼޤݤ߹ƤʤäΤ褯ʬäηѲκˤϡޤǥŪ۷ꡤ줬Ū˼¸뤿ˤϡ۷餽ơפ뤤ϡֶʤä׷֤ؤĤɬפ롤ȤͥƥȯۤΤޤǽˡ׷֤ꤵƤꡤ¤ȯäΤʤǼ¸Τϡ줿׷Ǥ롤ȤΤŪªʤΤȻפ
ܸưˤĤƤֳѡפȤѸϡ٤ХݥƥʾʤȤ˥塼ȥˤǤ롥ưˤĤƥǥŪʸꤵƤ뤬ºݤʸ˸ΤϡפǤϤʤޤǥץ饰ޥƥåˡֳѡפǤ롤Ȥȯۤ롥
ΰ㤤ϡŪˤˤ⤷ΤεʸˡˡιͤΰƱȤ⡤⤷ȴط뤫⤷ʤͤƤǤ롥

Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-03-06-1]

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2021-02-14 Sun

#4311. ʤȤϲ [case][terminology][inflection][category][noun][grammar][sobokunagimon][semantic_role]

(case) ϡŪȤäƤ褤ʸˡƥ꡼Ǥ롥ΰۤʤɤδ֤ˤ⡤ʤˤĤƤϻ褦ʸݤʬ֤ۤѻ뤳Ȥ顤ϸηϤˤΤ˰㤤ʤ
عʸˡǤʡŪʡͭʤʤɤѸ줬˽ФƤۤɤǡ¿γؽԤˤʤ߿ΤǤϤ뤬⤽ʤȤϲʤΤΤ뤳Ȥ񤷤Ф Case ȤȥƬ Blake (1) ͿƤѤ

Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship they bear to their heads. Traditionally the term refers to inflectional marking, and, typically, case marks the relationship of a noun to a verb at the clause level or of a noun to a preposition, postposition or another noun at the phrase level.


ʸ̮ǤϡμưȤȤˤʤꡤμֻ졤ֻ졤뤤̤̾ȤȤˤʤ롥ʿСʸˡŪ˻ۤ롦δطˤȤۤ¦Ω̾줬ʤɸȤˤʤʤۤ¦ʤɸ⵩ʥ⤢ˡ
ǻŦƤ褦ˡŪˤгʤȤжޤˤɸĤޤŪʼʤؤƤΤνˤƤϰפʸˡطȤäŪʼʡ뤤ϰ̣Ȥạ̈ŪʼʤؤȤ⤢ΤǡϴñǤϤʤ
ΤʤθؤεΤʤѤֳʡפȤѸλؤΤϡȤηϤȤƤγ (case system) ǤꡤȤ˳ʸʤɤγɸ (case marker) ǤꡤȤ˳ʷ (case form) äꤹ롥ˡȤ̣Ūʥ˥奢󥹤ӤӤơŪгʡפʤɤΤ褦Ѥ⤢롥ȤƤϡռƤˤ "case" ʳʡˤȤѸѤ̣ռƤˤ "grammatical relation" ʸˡطˤȤѸѤΤ褤ȹͤƤ롥ԤϡBlake (3) Ƥ˽äѸǤ롥Ԥˤ "case relation" Ȥɽ⤢ΤBlake ϶̤Ƥ롥

It is also necessary to make a further distinction between the cases and the case relations or grammatical relations they express. These terms refer to purely syntactic relations such as subject, direct object and indirect object, each of which encompasses more than one semantic role, and they also refer directly to semantic roles such as source and location, where these are not subsumed by a syntactic relation and where these are separable according to some formal criteria. Of the two competing terms, case relations and grammatical relations, the latter will be adopted in the present text as the term for the set of widely accepted relations that includes subject, object and indirect object and the term case relations will be confined to the theory-particular relations posited in certain frameworks such as Localist Case Grammar . . . and Lexicase . . . .


Blake, Barry J. Case. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2001.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-02-15-1]

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2018-12-19 Wed

#3523. ʸʸˡˤ빽ʸȤϡ [construction_grammar][terminology][grammar][lexicon]

ʸʸˡ (Construction Grammar) ˤʸ (construction) Ȥϡ¾γɤ̤Ǥ빽ʸȤϰۤʤäγǰѸǤ롥Goldberg (4) ˤСΤ褦롥

C is a CONSTRUCTION iffdef C is a form-meaning pair <Fi, Si> such that some aspect of Fi or some aspect of Si is not strictly predictable from C's component parts or from other previously established constructions.


Goldberg (4) ϼΤ褦³롥

Constructions are taken to be the basic units of language. Phrasal patterns are considered constructions if something about their form or meaning is not strictly predictable from the properties of their component parts or from other constructions. That is, a construction is posited in the grammar if it can be shown that its meaning and/or its form is not compositionally derived from other constructions existing in the language . . . .


פˡȵǽˤơθδ¸νǤŪƤȤߤʤʤС٤ƹʸǤȤȤˤʤ롥ȤȤϡGoldberg (4) ³褦ˡΤ褦ʷ˵夹롥

In addition, expanding the pretheoretical notion of construction somewhat, morphemes are clear instances of constructions in that they are pairings of meaning and form that are not predictable from anything else . . . . It is a consequence of this definition that the lexicon is not neatly differentiated from the rest of grammar.


ˤСǤ⡤Ǥιʤ¿⡤Τ˳ƹǤ餽η䵡ǽͽ¬ǤʤΤ顤ʸȤȤˤʤ롥Τ褦˹ʸʸˡħ1ĤϡʸˡʤɤȰۤʤꡤ (lexicon) ʸˡ (grammar) Τʬʤˤ롥

Goldberg, Adele E. Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument Structure. Chicago: U of Chicago P, 1995.

Referrer (Inside): [2018-12-20-1]

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2018-07-20 Fri

#3371. ѸμҲѲϱѸθäʸˡˤɤΤ褦ʱƶڤܤ [emode][renaissance][printing][speed_of_change][lexicology][grammar][reading][historiography]

ѸλϤޤ16ˤϡθαѸˤ˱ƶͿμҲѲ#1407. Ѹ3Ĥ ([2013-03-04-1]) ǾҲ𤷤ȤꡤBaugh and Cable ʡ156ˤϰʲ5󤲤Ƥ롥

1. the printing press
2. the rapid spread of popular education
3. the increased communication and means of communication
4. the growth of specialized knowledge
5. the emergence of various forms of self-consciousness about language

װϡФŤʤäơѸʸˡȸä˴ŪʤʱƶڤܤȤˤʤäBaugh and Cable ʡ157, pp. 200--01) ˤСαƶϤϵ޿ŪǤ⤢ꡤƱݼŪǤ⤢äȤɤȤȤСäˤĤƤϵ޿ŪǤꡤʸˡˤĤƤݼŪǤäȤȤ

A radical force is defined as anything that promotes change in language; conservative forces tend to preserve the existing status. Now it is obvious that the printing press, the reading habit, the advances of learning and science, and all forms of communication are favorable to the spread of ideas and stimulating to the growth of the vocabulary, while these same agencies, together with social consciousness . . . work actively toward the promotion and maintenance of a standard, especially in grammar and usage. . . . We shall accordingly be prepared to find that in modern times, changes in grammar have been relatively slight and changes in vocabulary extensive. This is just the reverse of what was true in the Middle English period. Then the changes in grammar were revolutionary, but, apart from the special effects of the Norman Conquest, those in vocabulary were not so great.


ʤۤɡŪʼҲϡ줿ǤäФƤϡषä¥ΤĤǤʸˡФƤϵŪʰϤä˺ѤʡֶŪʡפָŪʡפɤؤƤ⤽ΤޤƤϤޤꤽʤΤǡ䤿ˤʬ䤹ˡ
ΰѤǤ⤷ΤϡǸ˶ѸѸ椷ƤȤѸǤϡ嵭Τ褦ʽ郎ʤäˡषä˴ؤݼŪǤꡤʸˡ˴ؤƵ޿ŪäȽҤ٤Ƥ롥֥Υޥˤե󥹸̤ʱƶƤϡפȤȤԤѸθûȤƤϡ˥ե󥹸줫̤μѸ줬פ⤫ӡ褷ơݼŪפȤϤʤϤϤޤüʻǤȤƤ֤ƤСΤ˾嵭δѻϤ褽äƤ褦˻פ롥Baugh and Cable ϡŪŪ˵ҡʬϤɾ뤬Ȥɤ˺Τ褦ΰ̲ߤ륱⤢ꡤɤǤȯ롥

Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 6th ed. London: Routledge, 2013.

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2018-05-17 Thu

#3307. ʸˡѸȤƤ participle ʬ [terminology][grammar][etymology][sobokunagimon][loan_translation][participle]

ʬ (present participle) Ȳʬ (past participle) ϡѸư줬֤Τ2Ϳ줿̾Ǥ롥ʬ participle Ȥ͡ߥ󥰤ϲʤΤʬפƤȤΤ part ȤΤϡʸˡѸäƤߤ
θľܤˤϥե󥹸줫μѸǤꡤѸǤ a1398 Trevisa ˤơƥ participii ʼñ participiumˤбե󥹸첽 participles ȤƽФƤ롥ǽ餫ʸˡѸȤѤƤ롥
Ǥϡƥ participium ȤϤɤΤ褦ʸ츻ʤΤñ pars "part" + capere "to take" Ȥ2Ĥθ캬鹽ƤꡤʬפǤ롥ư participate ƱǤꡤֻäפΰ̣ϡʬסʬ礦ס֤νĤ˲ääƤפȤȯۤȯŸpartake take partparticipate ΤʤǤ롥ˤСƥ participium Τ⡤ƱΥꥷ metokhḗ ΤʤäΤǤ롥
ơʸˡѸˤơʬסʬ礦סֻäפȤϲΤȤؤΤȤСưȷƻεǽʬ礦פȤȤ餷1ĤñǤʤ顤­ưˡ­ƻͤùǤ뤳Ȥ participle ʬפɽ櫓ʤߤǤѵparticiple ˤϡİʾΰۤʤä碌Ŀ͡ưʪΡϡפȤ⤢ä2ĤʻƱ˻ä2Ĥ碌ĸ졤줬ʬפäΤǤ롥
ʤ嵭ϡűѸǥƥʸˡ路 Ælfric ˤǤ˸Ƥ롥OED participle, n. and adj. ˺ܤƤѤƷǤ褦ʤƥξˤ̾ȷƻƱʤΤǡÆlfric βǤϡ碌ĤΤư̾ȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥա

OE Ælfric Gram. (St. John's Oxf.) 9 [sic]PARTICIPIVM ys dæl nimend. He nymð anne dæl of naman and oðerne of worde. Of naman he nymð CASVS, þæt is, declinunge, and of worde he nymð tide and getacnunge. Of him bam he nymð getel and hiw. Amans lufiende cymð of ðam worde amo ic lufige.


¾ʸˡѸˤĤƤϡ#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ ([2012-10-06-1])#1520. ʤư֤Ρ֡פ voice ʤΤ ([2013-06-25-1]) ⻲ȡ

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2017-01-02 Mon

#2807. ֿؤϱѸ춵ΩĤפȤ䤤 [elt][grammar][generative_grammar]

°ˡ20ؤϲ⤿餷٤7ϤˡֿؤȱѸ춵ȤΤפꤹϤꡤɸ䤤Ƥ롥ǤؤȤϡʸˡ (generative_grammar) ؤƤ롥ͤƤΤǡҲ𤷤
ޤ䤤ϤƤȤƤǤϤʤȿȤȯΤȤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ĤޤꡤȤơֿؤϱѸ춵ΩʤפȤȯۤȤȤФϡŪʳعʸˡˤʤ櫓ϡΤ鷺Ѹ춵򡤤ȤäƤΤǤ롥褫줢졤ΤʤΤǤäΤǤ롥ݤؤΤʤΤФơΩĤפȤΩʤפ䤦Ȥϡޤạ̈ʤʤȤȤϤʤ¤ߤ˷礱뤳ȤˤʤΤǤϤʤȻפ롥פΤ褦ʰ֤Ťˤعʸˡ֤ۤɤαѸ춵ʸˡˤϡϴñ˸ʤΰ̣ǤϡʸˡȤơ¾ΡʸˡȤơɤƤ­Ǥ롥
ǤϡѸ춵ʸˡˤȤϤɤΤ褦ʾƤɬפΤ° (152) ۩2Ǥ롥ΤȤ櫓פʤΤϡѸ춵塤ġФ뤳ȤǤʤΤϻʤȤƤ⡤ѸΤ򰷤ʤ褦ǤϡʸˡȤƼʤǤ롥عʸˡϡ򤪤˵ˤʤ⡤ϳݤ褦ؤƤФơȤȤ϶ŪȯŸ櫓ǤϤʤʸˡϡŪʼǤϾ뤬ؿꡤäȸˤФäƤ뤿ᡤϤʤäơѸ춵餬Ż뤹ΤǤʾ塤ƤʸˡϳعʸˡˤʤʤȤäƤ褤
ʸˡϤȤʸˡϡŪǤϤʤ¤줿ΰ˴ؤƤΤߤǤϤˤ衤عʸˡμ㤵äơ٤򤤤餫뤳ȤˤϹ׸عʸˡϡˡϽᤫ餢٤ȤȤΩäƤ뤬ʸˡΤ줿ʬˤĤƤϵۼ򾯤Ǥ뤳ȤǤͭΩˤΤǤ롥
° (155--56) η

ؤοθϡŪʸˡȤ߹ޤ줿ִ֤顤ʸˡΰˤʤꤦΤǤ롥ˡμ⤿ʤʸˡϡηǡФȤơؤθʬŪˤǤ⡤˴ޤߤȤߤäƤΤǤ롥פˡؤϱѸ춵ΩĤȤ䤤ϡŪعʸˡϱѸ춵ΩĤȤ䤤ɽ΢ʤΤǤäơŪ˸СξԤȤޤä̵ѤǤȤϡξԤȤ⡤ǽ­ƤȤƱͤ˸ǤꡤѸ춵طԤΩ줫餹ʤ顤ʶŪ˸ڤ;͵򼺤äͭѤʤΤǤ¤ꡤŪعʸˡǤѷʸˡǤȤ鷺ΤѤ٤ǤȤʰ˿Ԥ뤳ȤˤʤȻפ롥


° ̭20ؤϲ⤿餷١ҡ2011ǯ

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2012-10-06 Sat

#1258. ʤ¾ưפ "transitive verb" ʤΤ [terminology][verb][grammar][history_of_linguistics][etymology][dionysius_thrax][sobokunagimon]

ε#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ ([2012-10-05-1]) ˰³ʸˡѸˤĤơѸ̤ˤ뤳ȤʸˡѸˤϰ̣ǤʤΤ¿㤨С¾ư "transitive verb" ư "intransitive verb" ȸƤǤ뤬transitive ȤϲΤȤؤΤ
transitive ϡ츻Ūˤϥƥ transitīvus ̤ꡤδΤȤʤư transīre (trans- "over" + īre "to go") Ǥ롥transitive ϡΤȤ "going over, passing over" ۤɤΰ̣Ȥʤ롥OED "transitive, a. (n.)" θӤʸ1ĤǧȡΤ褦ˤä

2. a. Gram. Of verbs and their construction: Expressing an action which passes over to an object; taking a direct object to complete the sense.
. . . .
1590 J. Stockwood Rules Constr. 64 A verbe transitiue .. is such .. as passeth ouer his signification into some other thing, as when I say, 'I loue God'.


顤ưɽ魯ưαƶ¾ΤΡŪλؼΡˤءֵڤ֡ספȤǡ"going over, passing over" ʤΤȤ狼롥
verbum transitīvum "transitive verb" ȤѸ줽ΤΤǤϤʤȤ⡤ưΤΤȤ館ϡ2˸奮ꥷʸˡ路 Apollonius Dyscolus ˵롥Dionysius Thrax Techne Grammatike Ѿ Priscian Υƥʸˡˤ礭ʱƶͿʸˡؼԤǤ롥Dyscolus ϡ̾ʤγʡˤưδطܤưˡ transitive, intransitive, passive ؤʬषػˤˤ Dyscolus ɾRobins (47) ѤƤ

Syntax was dealt with extensively by Apollonius Dyscolus writing in Alexandria in the second century A. D. He wrote a large number of books, only some of which survive, and it would appear that despite earlier writings on Greek syntax his was the first attempt at a comprehensive syntactic description and analysis of the Greek language. His importance, together with that of the Téchnē, was realized by his successors, and the great Latin grammarian, Priscian, some three centuries later referred to him as 'the greatest authority on grammar', and explicitly imposed Apollonian methods on his own full-scale description of the Latin language.


Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.

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2012-10-05 Fri

#1257. ʤгʡפ "accusative case" ʤΤ [terminology][case][greek][latin][grammar][history_of_linguistics][etymology][sobokunagimon]

űѸޤʸˡǤϡ͡ʳ (case) ŪʸƾΤͿƤ롥ĸ˺Ʒ8ʤǤС줾 (nominative) г (accusative) ° (genitive) Ϳ (dative) (instrumental) å (ablative) ̳ (locative) Ƴ (vocative) ȸƤФ롥줾αñϤƥͳƥȤƤߤС褽γʤɽŪʰ̣ˡȿǤ줿Ƥ̾ȤʤäƤ롥
genitive ϡ狼ˤƥ genitus ߽Ф줿פͳ褷ŵŪˡޤ졤פɽ魯°ʤˡ褯ȿǤƤ롥षܸ꤬Τ⤷ʤ
accusative 򤷤ˤʤ줬гʡʤ뤤ϤεǽˤбΤaccuse ϡʤ롤񤹤פΰդǡƱΥƥ accūsāre ͳ褹롥гʤľܤȤϻפʤ
accusative θ츻Ĵ٤ƤߤȡȽ롥ʤ̾Τϸ奮ꥷʸˡѸͳ褷Ǥ aitiātikḕ (ptōsis) "(the case) of that which is caused or affected" ȸƤФƤaitíā "cause" θäΤǤ롥Ȥ aitiā ̤ "accusation, charge" θ碌äƤᡤԤѸƥذܤؤݤξƱƤޤ"accusation" θȤƤޤäϥƥ causātivus դ꤬ȤƤդ路äΤǤꡤǷѾСѸǤгʤ causative (case) ȤʤäƤȤ (Robins 44)
θǤԤϡޤɽŪʶܿͤǡޤǺǤŪʳؼԤäȤɾ Varro (116--27 B.C.) ǤȤ롥ƥʸˡ Varro ϡ4 Donatus 6 Priscian ˤƶϤΤäƥʸˡαƤǡˤȤäƤ¸ߤޤΩʤꥷʸˡ郎λˤäơŪʻŻ򤷤㤨СޤǤΤ˶̤Ƥʤä޷ʬӤϡVarro ˵ (Robins 63)

Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.

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2012-10-04 Thu

#1256. Τʻʬ [dionysius_thrax][grammar][greek][latin][pos][history_of_linguistics]

ΤʸˡȤ櫓ʻˤϡ2400ǯϢʤ³ˤ롥5Ⱦ˸줿 Plato (427?--?348 B.C.) ʸιǤ ónoma (name, subject) rhēma (what is said, predicate) ̤뤳ȤüȯʬϡAristotle (384--322 B.C.) ˤ sýndesmos (link) äƸؼѤ줿
3ꡤȥɤγؼԤ3ʳˤ錄ꡤónoma, rhēma, sýndesmos 3ʬ򤵤˺ʬƤäβϸ̤ͭ̾̾ʤɤο⤿餷ؤϷѾʤäȥɤʻμήȤϤʤ餺˥쥯ɥꥢɤƬ100ǯ˽Ф Dionysius Thrax ϥ쥯ɥꥢɤήबȥɤ̵ϤƤ餺षΩ椫顤[2011-10-06-1]εǼ夲ꥷʸˡĶ󥰥顼 Techne Grammatike 路8ʻθĤǤ롥ʸˡϡꥹȶλ˥˥奷ꥢؤ줿ӥƥɾȤŵԤоݥƥȤȤʤꡤ¤13ΤǰŪʸҤؤ뤳Ȥˤʤ (Robins 38) ơϡꥷ졤ƥʤɤθŵΤߤʤ餺Ѹޤ᤿ʸˡˤ줩ŤƤ롥
ȤϤäƤ⡤Techne Grammatike ʸˡ˲Ѥ줺طѾ줿櫓ǤϤʤ㤨СǤȤʸˡǤ̾ȷƻ϶̤Ƥ뤬Techne Ǥ ónoma ȤƤޤȤƤ롥Ǥ "substantive" ȤѸ줬ʹ뤳Ȥ뤬̾ȷƻ礹ѸǤ롥դˡʸˡǤϡʬưβ̶ʬȤΩŪTechne ǤưȤΩ1ĤƤƤ
奮ꥷʹߤʻRobins (42) ˿޼Ƥ̤˺ƸΤǡͤޤǤˡʥådzˡ

History of POS Categorisation since Greek

Robins, R. H. A Short History of Linguistics. 4th ed. Longman: London and New York, 1997.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-10-13-1] [2012-12-02-1]

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2012-01-04 Wed

#982. ꥫѸθѽФ flat adverb [adverb][adjective][register][corpus][ame_bre][americanisation][colloquialisation][grammar][flat_adverb]

ε#981. ȷƻζ ([2012-01-03-1]) κǸ˿줿ñ (flat adverb) 夲롥б -ly ¸Ƥ硤flat adverb ϰ̤άŪ뤤ϸŪǤ뤳Ȥ¿Ȥ롥Ūʴϡ-ly ȼɸǤꡤflat adverb оݤȤΤǻѤ򹵤٤Ȥ뤬LGSWE (Section 7.12.2) ˤСʲΤ褦ϲåѥǤ̤˸Ȥ

The big one went so slow. (CONV)
Well it was hot but it didn't come out quick. (CONV)
They want to make sure it runs smooth first. (CONV)


ä good real ȤѤˡϡAmE θǹʹ롥LGSWE (Section 7.12.2.1) εҤˤСgood well ΰ̣ѤϡAmE βäǰŪˤ褯졤ǽ񤭸դ BrE ǤϵǤ롥really ѤȤƤ real ˤĤƤϡAmE βäǤ really Ⱦʬۤɤ٤ǻѤƤȤ顤٤ѥ٤ǤС BrE βäˤ really ٤ɤŨȤʤBrE Ǥ real Τˡϳ̵ǤϤʤǤ롥ξԤ LGSWE 餤Ĥ󤲤褦

It just worked out good, didn't it? (AmE CONV)
Bruce Jackson, In Excess' trainer said, "He ran good, but he runs good all the time. It was easy." (AmE NEWS)
It would have been real [bad] news. (AmE CONV)
I have a really [good] video with a real [good] soundtrack. (AmE CONV)


Τ褦ˡgood ưȹ¤ʤƽˡreal ϷƻĴˡ̤Ǥ롥
ʾΤ褦ˡѸˤ flat adverb ϥꥫѸθѤ뷹Ȥѥ餫ȤʤäƤ뤬ηȴϢ[2011-01-12-1]ε#625. ѸʸˡѲ˸뷹פǿ줿ꥫѸ첽 (Americanisation) ȸ첽 (colloquialisation) Ĭή۵ˤʤ塤goodreal ˸¤餺ѸΤȤ flat adverb λѤ礷Ƥ椯ȤǽȤȤ碌ơ[2010-03-05-1]ε#312. ʸˡαƺפ (5) ⻲Ȥ줿

Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.

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2011-10-06 Thu

#892. ʸˡ Dionysius Thrax η [derivative][compound][grammar][greek][word_formation][dionysius_thrax]

[2011-09-27-1]ε#883. Algeo ο쥽ʬ (1)פǡΤˤηʸˡȾΤ륮ꥷʸˡؼ Dionysius Thrax (c100BC) ˸ڤ路 Techne Grammatike ϡҤʤ⡤ǯʾδɸƥȤȤѤ줿ˤդΥ󥰥顼Ǥ롥ϡDavidson ˤˤꡤThrax ˤĤƽҤ٤ƤսɤǤߤꥷμѤ碌ƤʤΤǡThrax θʬϿʬä˸뤬ѸθͤDzͤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤΤǡפ򵭤
Thrax ϡSection 14 ̾ˤ2Ĥ Species Ƥ롥1Ĥ primitive ǡ⤦1Ĥ derivative Ǥ롥ηѸǤСԤϸ캬뤤 simplexԤ줢뤤 complex 7ब̤Ƥ뤬δϰ̣ä굡ǽäǻʬ줬ʤ7ĤȤϡPatronymics, Possessives, Comparatives, Diminutives, Nominals, Superlatives, Verbals Ǥ롥ˤ̾줬Ф뤳Ȥˤʤ롥
Thrax ̾ˤ3Ĥ Forms Ƥ롥1ܤ simple ǡ2ܤ compound ǡ3Ĥ super-compound Ǥ롥줾ȤơMemnon, Agamemnon, Agamemnonides 󤲤Ƥ롥compound ˤ4ब̤ƤꡤȤƤ϶̣(1) 2Ĥδ줫ʤ (ex. Cheirisophos), (2) 2ĤԴ줫ʤ (ex. Sophokles, (3) 1ĤԴ1Ĥδ줫ʤ (ex. Philodemos), (4) 1Ĥδ1ĤԴ줫ʤ (ex. Periklês)
Thrax θäǤꡤľܤѸ˱ѤǤ櫓ǤϤʤͳǤȹ«Ǥζ̤ռƤܤͤ롥primitive simple ȤѸ⡤ѸƳǤ롥
ʣΤ˶̤ Thrax ϡѸˤ⳵ͼѤƤ褦

Davidson, Thomas, trans. "The Grammar of Dionysios Thrax." Journal of Speculative Philosophy 8 (1874): 326--39.

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2011-03-12 Sat

#684. semantic prosody ʸˡƥ꡼ [semantic_prosody][grammar][corpus][intensifier]

äʿβϿ̤ˤĤޤơҼԤ˿ꤪ񤤿夲ޤ
[2011-03-03-1]εǡsemantic prosody ʸˡƥ꡼Ȥδ֤˴ϢȤǽ˸ڤϡhappenutterly ޤදո semantic prosody 򥳡ѥˤäĴ Partington ʸǻŦƤ뤳ȤǤ롥
Partington happen, set in, occur, come about, take place Ĵθ췲ˤ٤κϤ졤Τ unfavourable semantic prosody տ路ƤȤڵ󤲤ʺǤ unfavourable ʤΤ set in Ȥ(144) Ʊͤˡutterly, absolutely, perfectly, totally, completely, entirely, thoroughly Ĵ줾 semantic prosody 뤤 semantic preference Ф (148) ơĤθտ路Ƥ벻ˤϡfavourable vs. unfavourable ȤñʲʹΩǤϤʤ̤ˤʸˡƥ꡼ȤƸڤ褦ħΩͿƤȤȤ狼ä
Ū˸Сhappen non-factuality 򼨤ˡ䡤Ȥäʸˡƥ꡼ȤδͿǧ졤it is unclear why to see what ʤɤɽȤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ (140--41) ǡtake place Ϥष factuality 򼨤ͽꤵƤ뤳ȤºݤȤްդѤ뤳Ȥ¿ (143)
ոǤϡutterly unfavourable semantic prosody 򼨤ǤʤħԺߤѲɽ魯򽤾뷹 ( ex. utterly helpless / unable /forgotten / changed / different / destroyed ) Ʊϡtotally, completely, entirely ˤ⸫롥entirely ˤ (in)dependency Ȥƥ꡼ͿƤꡤentirely dependent / self-sufficient / isolated ʤɤѤ뤳Ȥ¿absolutely superlative ްդ򽤾 ( ex. absolutely delighted / splendid / appalling )
factuality, absence, change, dependence, superlative Ȥɤϡ̾ʸˡƥ꡼˴ϢƸڤ٥ΰ̣ä semantic prosody semantic preference ȤƸڤ̣ȿؤäƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
ͤƤߤСäʸˡηӤĤȤϡʤʤ㤨СưϼȤǤѤʤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿ʤɤȤ¤Τ褦˻ŦƤؽѼ˹ȿǤƤ롥ΰ̣ΰɽ魯줬³ that ư subjunctive ׵᤹ȤʸˡܤĹƤ ([2010-04-07-1]) äʸˡδطϱѸؤǤϤ褯ΤƤ¤ѥؤȤ٤Ʊ¤ˤɤ夤ȤȤѥؤι׸ϡfactuality absence ʤɤΥƥ꡼ 0 1 binary ȤƤǤϤʤprobabilistic ȤƼ갷ȤǤˤ褦˻פ롥
Ѹˤ뤤̻ؤδϡ줬ʸˡƥ꡼ȷӤĤǧˡġɤΤ褦ˤηӤĤΤ˶̣롥㤨 happen ϱѸˤΤĺ unfavourable non-factual ʴߤΤ⤷ˤΤ褦ʴߤӤӻϤ᤿ΤǤСΰ̣ξ ( semantic field ) ¾Ȥδط碌ƹͤɬפ롥ơȤδطȤȤˤʤСoccur ʤɼѸΰϤθʤФʤʤѸˤ̣ξκ semantic prosody ʸˡƥ꡼ؤηӤĤȤή줬ȤС⤷speculation ˤʤ㤨[2009-08-17-1]εǿ줿ȲˡߤȤδطˤή줬ʤ

Partington, A. "'Utterly content in each other's company': Semantic Prosody and Semantic Preference." International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 9.1 (2004): 131--56.

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2010-03-05 Fri

#312. ʸˡαƺ [ame_bre][grammar]

ֻαƺ([2009-12-27-1][2009-12-23-1])ȯαƺ([2009-11-24-1])³ʸˡαƺˤĤƼפʤΤ10󤲤롥

(1) gotten (AmE) / got (BrE)

AmE: She's gotten into trouble in school.
BrE: She's got into trouble in school.

(2) from ... through ... (AmE) / from ... to ... (BrE)AmE through Ȥ8ޤ̣ˤʤ롥BrE ǤϤδѤʤᡤto Ǥ8ޤΤݤBrE ǡִޤɤߤˤˤϡŪ inclusive ȤȤ¿

AmE: The tour lasted from May through August.
AmE and BrE: The tour lasted from May to August.
BrE: The tour lasted from May to August inclusive.

(3) ̾οΰסAmE ǤϷ֤ñǤ¤ñBrE ǤϷ֤ñǤ̣ʣǤиԤŻ뤷ʣteam, audience, board, committee, government, the public ʤɡ

AmE: The Government has been considering further tax cuts.
BrE: The Government have been considering further tax cuts.

(4) insist, recommend, suggest ʤɤ뽾°ˤ벾ˡ (AmE) should (BrE) λѡBrE Ǥ AmE αƶDzˡλѤ̤ˤʤäƤƤ롥(see [2009-08-17-1])

AmE: They insist that she accept the offer. (also increasing in BrE)
BrE: They insist that she should accept the offer. (getting unacceptable in AmE)
BrE (colloquial): They insist that she accepts the offer. (not accepted in AmE)

(5) AmE ѤȤƤηƻ졥good, slow, awful, sure ʤɡ

AmE: They pay them pretty good. (non-standard in BrE)
BrE: They pay them pretty well.

(6) AmE like ³ȤƤλѡBrE Ǥ as if ̡

AmE: It seems like we've made another mistake. (non-standard in BrE)
BrE: It seems as if we've made another mistake.

(7) AmE ΤĤѼŪ;ʣ̾ you all, y'all, yous(e) ѡ

AmE: I'll see y'all later. (South)
AmE: How much did yous want? (Northeast, esp. New York City)
AmE: We'll see you guys Sunday, okay? (informal)

(8) ߴλȲAmE ǤϤФвѤ롥

AmE: Dolly just finished her homework.
BrE: Dolly has just finished her homework.

(9) AmE out ֻȤƤλѡBrE Ǥ out of Ѥ롥

AmE: I always look out the window.
BrE: I always look out of the window.

(10) AmE Ѥưβΰ۷BrE Ǥϳη֤ȤʤAmE θǤξȤꤦ롥

dove ( dived ), fit ( fitted ), pled ( pleaded ), rung ( rang ), sung ( sang ), sunk ( sank ), snuck ( sneaked ), swum ( swam )

Svartvik, Jan and Geoffrey Leech. English: One Tongue, Many Voices. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 166--69.

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