#5656. 2°ɽ a friend of mine ᤰάˡ ([2024-10-21-1]) ³ԡ2° (double_genitive) θˤäɤƤ롥³βսȤơJespersen (§§1.52 [pp. 15--16]) Ѥ褦
1.52. Kellner recognizes three historical stages:
I. a castell of hers (from 14th c., Chaucer, &c.).
II. a knight of the dukes (not yet Chaucer, frequent in Caxton)
III. that berde of thyne (rare in Caxton, frequent later).
But he overlooks the fact that stage II is really found just as early as I (see Chaucer G 368 an officere of the prefectes), nor is it easy to see why stages I and II should not have sprung into existence at the same time, while there is nothing strange in the later occurrence of III. But Kellner rightly lays stress on the fact that only a few of the constructions admit the partitive explanation; he therefore suggests the name 'pseudo-partitive genitive', but both he and other scholars evidently think that those applications which cannot be explained partitively have developed through analogical extension starting fro the partitive use.
The partitive explanation is the only one recognized by Professor Sonnenschein, who says, §184: 'In sentences like He is a friend of John's there is a noun understood: of John's means of John's friends, so that the sentence is equivalent to He is one of John's friends. Here of means out of the number of.
Sonnenschein does not mention constructions like that long nose of his; but even if we omit them for the moment, the explanation cannot be strictly maintained, for an enemy of ours cannot be the equivalent of an enemy of our enemies, which would be taken in a different sense, just as an enemy of the French is not to be explained as an enemy of the French enemies. And if I say he is a friend of mine, I need not at all imply that I have more than the one friend, though of course it will often be understood in this way. To express the partitive sense we have the unambiguous expression one of my friends. There is a difference between the two sentences 'The General and some of his friends left the house' and 'The General and some friends of his left the house': while the former implies that he had other friends, the latter means only: 'the General and some people who were on friendly terms with him'.
If Einenkel is right that the English expression a friend of his is due to direct imitation of French, where he has found examples like un chevalier des siens, the ultimate beginning of the idiom is partitive, as shown by the French plural. Unfortunately there seems to be no English example old enough to go back to a period when it was possible to distinguish between the singular and the plural of the pronoun: in Old English it would have been, for instance, an dohtor of minum with the plural, and therefore, necessarily, a partitive sense, or an dohtor of minre with the singular, and therefore not partitive. The modern a daughter of mine may be either, as far as the forms is concerned.
But it is not at all certain that the construction came to England from France: it may just as well have come into existence independently of the French idiom. The construction with the genitive of a substantive, as in a friend of my wife's cannot, at any rate, be due directly to French influence, for the French have no such genitive.
εФȡΤ褦ˤʤ
1. ʬ°⤬ή
Kellner 3ĤŪʳŦ
Kellner ʬϤˤϵĤ
¿θԤʬ°ʤˡ¾ˡŪȯŸȹͤƤ
2. ʬ°θ³
Sonnenschein ʬ°ΤߤǧƤ
Ϥ٤ƤˡˤŬѤǤʤ
a friend of mine mine ɬʣͧͤްդʤ
3. ¾
ե줫αƶ
ΩȯŸǽӽǤʤ
⤽ a friend of my wife's Τ褦 of θ̾ǤϤʤ̾礬빽ʸ˴ؤƤϥեαƶϤʤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part III. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1954.
Ϣ2° (double_genitive) ˤĤơ
Jespersen (§§1.51--1.59 [pp. 15--23]) "An old friend of Tom's" ꤹܤͻ롥Ȥ櫓Ƭ 1.51 Ǥϡɽ˴ؤ븦˾ν⤬ؤ˾Ҳ𤵤ƤͭѤǤ롥
1.51. These constructions are treated here, because the genitive is here as in the preceding sections a primary; but here, in contradistinction to the constructions mentioned hitherto, a possessive may be used in the same way, for we may say, "an old friend of yours | that old friend of yours." Much has been written on these constructions, which are so characteristic of English, see E. Beckmann, ESt 8.412 (who explains them from an imaginary and seemingly impossible combination a friend mine); L. Kellner in his ed. of Caxton B. XIX; Einenkel, Anglia 33.504; Trampe Bødtker, Christiania Vidsk. Selsk. 1908 no. 6.34; cf also my own GS §194, PG 111, S.P.E. Tract XXV. This tract was occasioned by Mr. Fowler's mention (in MEU 399), where he ranks that nose of his with certain other constructions as 'plainly illogical' and says: 'a friend of mine, i.e. among my friends, but surely not that nose of his, i.e. among his noses; so the logic-chopper is fain to correct or damn; but even he is likely in unguarded moments to let the forbidden phrases slip out'; so even Mr. Fowler reckons it among recognized idioms, sturdy indefensibles, as he terms them. The belief that there is something illogical in this idiom evidently rests on the assumption that of here has to be taken in its partitive sense, one of or among several. But of has several other meanings---in the N.E.D. they are entered under no less than sixty-three numbers---and it may be worth while to examine if another explanation than the partitive might not be admissible.
ε ([2024-10-20-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡJespersen ϡ Growth and Structure of the English Language Ǥϡɽʬ°ʤˡΤȤߤƤΰѤǤϤǤϤʤǽ˸ڤƤꡤºݤˤεɤ߿ʤƤȡǤϤʤȷ˻äƤΤϲΤ
2°ɽϳˤδⶽ̣
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part III. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1954.
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982 [1905].
Ϣ a friend of mine Υפ2° (double_genitive) ɽܤƤ롥
#5647. a friend of mine --- 2°ʡ ([2024-10-12-1])
#5653. 2°ɽ a friend of mine 2Ĥΰ̣Ūħ ([2024-10-18-1])
#5654. a friend of mine vs. one of my friends ([2024-10-19-1])
衤of mine ̤Ƥ뵡ǽˤĤơʬˡ (partitive) ȸƱˡ (appositive) ȸäԤǤ "a friend of my friends" ȡԤǤ "a friend, who is mine" ȥѥե졼Ǥ롥Ԥβ֤פ⤢뤫⤷ʤε ([2024-10-19-1]) ǾҲ𤷤 "this hand of mine" Τ褦ɽˤԹ礬褤
ػ˾塤2ĤβᤰäƵʤƤ㤨 Jespersen §194 [pp. 173--74]) ϡʬˡȤĤĤ⡤ƱˡˤڤƤ롥ΤȤƻڤΰʲ˰Ѥ褦
194. Speaking of the genitive, we ought also to mention the curious use in phrases like 'a friend of my brother's'. This began in the fourteenth century with such instances as 'an officere of the prefectes' (Chaucer G 368), where officers might be supplied (= one of the prefect's officers) and 'if that any neighebor of mine (= any of my neighbours) Wol nat in chirche to my wyf enclyne' (ib. B 3091). In the course of a few centuries, the construction became more and more frequent, so that it has now long been one of the fixtures of the English language. A partitive sense is still conceivable in such phrases as 'an olde religious unckle of mine' (Sh.. As III, 3, 362) = one of my uncles, though it will be seen that it is impossible to analyse it as being equal to 'one of my old religious uncles'. But it is not at all certain that of here from the first was partitive; it is rather to be classed with the appositional use in the three of us = 'the three who are we'; the City of Rome = 'the City which is Rome'. The construction is used chiefly to avoid the juxtaposition of two pronouns, 'this hat of mine, that ring of yours' being preferred to 'this my hat, that your ring', or of a pronoun and a genitive, as in 'any ring of Jane's', where 'any Jane's ring' or 'Jane's any ring' would be impossible; compare also 'I make it a rule of mine', 'this is no fault of Frank's', etc. In all such cases the construction was found so convenient that it is no wonder that it should soon be used extensively where no partitive sense is logically possible, as in 'nor shall [we] ever see That face of hers againe' (Shakespeare, Lear I, 1, 267), 'that flattering tongue of yours' (As IV, 1, 195), 'If I had such a tyre, this face of mine Were full as lovely as is this of hers' (Gent. IV, 4, 190), 'this uneasy heart of ours' (Wordsworth), 'that poor old mother of his', etc. When we now say 'he has a house of his own', no one could think of this as meaning 'he has one of his own houses'.
2°ʤϡʬˡȤʤ⡤ˤ椫ƱˡȯãƤ褦ˤߤ롥ԤȯãηϲäΤ夯路Ĵ٤Ƥ
Jespersen, Otto. Growth and Structure of the English Language. 10th ed. Chicago: U of Chicago, 1982 [1905].
ε#5653. 2°ɽ a friend of mine 2Ĥΰ̣Ūħ ([2024-10-18-1]) ˰³double_genitive 뤤 post-genitive ΰ̣롥 a friend of mine ȤɽȤ one of my friends Ȥΰ̣Ūʺۤ뤫ɤܤ롥
Quirk et al. (17.46) ˤСξɽ̾Ʊʸ̮ˤäƤϰۤʤް (entailment) ӤӤȤ
The two constructions a friend of his father's and one of his father's friends are usually identical in meaning. One difference, however, is that the former construction may be used whether his father had one or more friends, whereas the latter necessarily entails more than one friend. Thus:
Mrs Brown's daughter [8] Mrs Brown's daughter Mary [9] Mary, (the) daughter of Mrs Brown [10] Mary, a daughter of Mrs Brown's [11]
[8] implies 'sole daughter', whereas [9] and [10] carry no such implication; [11] entails 'not sole daughter'.
Since there is only one composition called the War Requiem by Britten, we have [12] but not [13] or [14]:
The War Requiem of/by Britten (is a splendid work.) [12] *The War Requiem of Britten's [13] *One of Britten's War Requiems [14]
̯ʰ㤤褦Ƕ̣ȤǺǸ˽Ҥ٤ƤӺεǿ줿ħˤȿ㤬롥㤨 "that wife of mine", "this war Requiem of Britten's", "this hand of mine", "the/that daughter of Mrs Brown's", "that son of yours" ʤɤ
Quirk et al. ϡΤ褦롥"this hand of mine" ϡǤ "this one of my (two) hands" ΰ̣ǤϤʤ "this part of my body that I call 'hand'" ΰ̣Ǥ롥ޤԤʸ̮ǰ "a daughter of Mrs Brown's" ƤСȤݤ "the/that daughter of Mrs Brown's (that I mentioned)" ۤɤΰ̣ǻȤ뤳Ȥ롥ˡŪŪʰ̣礤 "that son of yours" ʤɤȤ⤢롥Ĥޤꡤ㳰Ū˷줬դ륱Ǥϡ餫Ρʰ̣ŪǤʤ˸ŪʴްդäƤȤȤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
#5647. a friend of mine --- 2°ʡ ([2024-10-12-1]) ³double_genitive 뤤 post-genitive ȸƤФ롤̯ɽΰ̣ŪħͤƤߤ
Quirk et al. (17.46) ˤа̣Ūħ2Ĥ롥(1) of θ̾礬Ū (definite) Ǥʹ (human) Ǥ뤳ȡ(2) of Ū (indefinite) Ǥ뤳Ȥ
. . . It will be observed that the postmodifier must be definite and human:
an opera of Verdi's BUT NOT: *an opera of a composer's an opera of my friend's BUT NOT: *a funnel of the ships
There are conditions that also affect the head of the whole noun phrase. The head must be essentially indefinite: that is, the head must be seen as one of an unspecified number of items attributed to the postmodifier. Thus [1--3] but not [4]:
A friend of the doctor's has arrived. [1] A daughter of Mrs Brown's has arrived. [2] Any daughter of Mrs Brown's is welcome. [3] *The daughter of Mrs Brown's has arrived. [4]
As a consequence of the condition that the head must be indefinite, the head cannot be a proper noun . . . . Thus while we have [5], we cannot have [6] and [7]:
Mrs Brown's Mary [5] *Mary of Mrs Brown [6] *Mary of Mrs Brown's [7]
ʤۤ a friend of mine Υפ2°ɽγǤꡦ (definiteness) δʬϤȡ嵭2Ĥħ뤳ȤϤ狼äͤƤߤСɽǤ one of my friends ˤĤƤƤϤޤ̣ŪħǤ롥2ɽ̣Ū˰ۤʤʤȤС¸ƤյϲʤΤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Ѹˤϴ̯ʽͭɽ롥my friend Ǥ one of my friends Ǥʤa friend of mine ȤäƤޤäŪˤ2° (double_genitive) ȸƤФɽǤpost-genitive ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ⤢ˡ
ŪˤߤƤⶽ̣ʸǡѸ˽뤬μϸűѸˤäȼĥԤ⤤롥ޤϢ빽ʸȤơűѸǤ괧°̾줬֤̾¤ΤäѸˤ *a my friend, *his a man तιʸűѸǤϵƤƤΤΡ˵ƤʤʤäȤȤϡ a friend of mine פιʸνиȴطƤǽ롥
2°ʤϡΤ褦˱ѸˤǤ⤿ӤܤƤޤ椬¿ĤƤ롥ŪõäƤäơޤιʸ˴ؤƸѸλİƤɬפ롥Τ Quirk et al. γȴФƤߤ褦
The 'post-genitive'
5.126 An of-construction can be combined with a genitive to produce a construction known as the POST-GENITIVE (or 'double genitive'). In this construction, the independent genitive acts as prepositional complement following of:
some friends of Jim's ['some of Jim's friends']
that irritating habit of her father's
an invention of Gutenberg's
several pupils of his
But the independent genitive is not in this case elliptical. Rather, the post-genitive contrasts in terms of indefiniteness or unfamiliarity with the normal determinative genitive. Whereas [1] and [2] presuppose definiteness, the presupposition in [1a] and [2a] is one of indefiniteness:
Jim's friend [1] a friend of Jim's [1a] Joseph Haydn's pupil [2] a pupil of Joseph Haydn's [2a]
ܥ֥Ǥϡ2°ʤˤĤơ#2082. 夷ʤä° *the knight of his ([2015-01-08-1]) Ǥäȿ줿ˤʤܲhelwa Discord ߥ˥ƥ夬äƤʸˡǤ⤢ꡤܤƤơޤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
Ѹο;̾ˤϡ~ΤΡפΩɽ碌ͭ̾ (possessive pronoun) Ȥब롥 mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs 6Ȥʤ롥˸Ťᤫ2;ñ thou бͭ̾ thine äƤ褤ޤ3;ñ it бͭ̾Ϸ礱ƤȤ뤬ˤĤƤϡ#198. its ε ([2009-11-11-1]) ӡ#197. its Ωˡä! ([2009-11-10-1]) Ȥ줿
¿ -s ǽꡤͭʤ -'s Ȥδط۵뤬mine thine ˤĤƤä -ne ߤΩġ -ne ϤɤƤΤ
ͭ̾η֤ζ̣ˤˤĤƤϡMustanoja (164--65) INDEPENDENT POSSESSIVE ꤹDz⤷ƤƤΤǡѤƤ
INDEPENDENT POSSESSIVE
FORM: --- As mentioned earlier in the present discussion (p. 157), the dependent and independent possessives are alike in OE and early ME. In the first and second persons singular (min and thin) the dependent possessive loses the final -n in the course of ME, but the independent possessive, being emphatic, retains it: --- Robert renne-aboute shal nowȝe have of myne (PPl. B vi 150). In the South and the Midlands, -n begins to be attached to other independent possessives as well (hisen, hiren, ouren, youren, heren) after the analogy of min and thin about the middle of the 14th century: --- restore thou to hir alle thingis þat ben hern (Purvey 2 Kings viii 6). In the third person singular and in the plural, forms with -s (hires, oures, youres, heres, theirs) emerge towards the end of the 13th century, first in the North and then in the Midlands: --- and youres (Havelok 2798); --- þai lete þairs was þe land (Cursor 2507, Cotton MS); --- my gold is youres (Ch. CT B Sh. 1474); --- it schal ben hires (Gower CA v 4770). In the southern dialects forms without -s prevail all through the ME period: --- your fader dyde assaylle our by treyson (Caxton Aymon 545).
The old dative ending is preserved in vayre zone, he zayþ, 'do guod of þinen' (Ayenb. 194).
Imitations of French Usage. --- The use of the definite article before an independent possessive, recorded in Caxton, is obviously an imitation of French le nostre, la sienne: --- to approvel better the his than that other (En. 23); --- that your worshypp and the oures be kepte (Aymon 72).
The occurrence of the independent possessive pronoun (and the rare occurrence of a noun in the genitive) after the quasi-preposition magré 'in spite of' is a direct imitation of OF magré mien (tien, sien, etc.): --- and God wot that is magré myn (Gower CA iv 59); --- maugré his, he dos him lute (Cursor 4305, Cotton MS). Cf. NED maugre, and R. L. G. Ritchie, Studies Presented to Mildred K. Pope, Manchester 1939, p. 317.
ͭ̾˴ؤϡʲ hellog Ǥ夲ƤΤǡ碌ƤȤ
#2734. ͭ̾ hers, his, ours, yours, theirs -s ([2016-10-21-1])
#2737. 奤ꥹѸˤͭ̾ hern ʬۡ ([2016-10-24-1])
#3495. Jespersen ˤФ ([2018-11-21-1])
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
#5565. ѸŪư̾ι¤6 ([2024-07-22-1]) Ǽ夲褦ˡư̾ˤĤƤϡȯãˤ͡ʸѥ
Visser Ȥ-ing ˰̣μ줬ȡ̣Ū줬ˤĤơŪѥƥѥˤĤơVisser ΩƤƤΤǡܼ (Vol. 2, xiii--xiv) ǤΤᤤVisser 夲ƤΤ -ing ˴ؤǤꡤư̾Τߤʤ餺ʬޤޤƤ뤳ȤդɬפǤ롥
THE SUBJECT OF THE FORM IN -ING
Type 'They doubted the truth of the boy's being dead'
Type 'It's a curious thing your saying that'
Type 'From the arysing of the sonne'
Type 'At the sun rising'
Type 'I hope it's all right me coming in'
Type 'Everybody was talking about you going over there'
Type 'They knew about it being so serious'
Type 'Don't talk of there being no one to help'
THE OBJECT OF THE FORM IN -ING
A. Object before the form in -ing
Type 'Thou desirest the kynges mordryng'
Type 'Excuse his throwing into the water'
Type 'Restrayne yow of vengeance taking'
Type 'To þi broþur burieng fare''
Type 'Hope-giving phrases'; 'his heart-percing dart'
Type 'The maner of þis arke-making'
Type 'His love-making struck us as unconvincing'
Type 'To be present at the iudgement geuing'
Type 'In dyteys-making she bare the pryse'
B. Object after the form in -ing
Type 'A daye was limited for justifying of the bill'
Type 'Wenches sitt in the shade syngyng of ballads'
Type 'He went prechynge cristes lay'
Type 'I slow Sampsoun in shakynge the piler'
'The reading the book' versus 'the reading of the book'
ư̾ȴϢơ Voicy heldio ۿ2Ĥ⻲ȡ
#1150. ư̾Ȥ --- His/Him speaking Japanese surprised us all.
#1151. ư̾Ϥޤޤä
Visser, F. Th. An Historical Syntax of the English Language. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1963--1973.
ɸˤĤơ켣 (274) ˤꡤTajima (1985) Ȥ6ι¤Ѹ첽ֻȤȤ˰Ƥ롥
I°Ūư̾졤: at the king's crowning ʲ˲ĺȤ
IIŪư̾졤: other penance doing ʤۤι뤳ȡ
IIIư̾of̾졤: choosing of war (襤뤳)
IVư̾of̾졤: the burying of his bold knights ͦʵΤ뤳ȡ
Vư̾Ū졤: saving their lives ̿뤳ȡ
VIư̾Ū졤: the withholding you from it ʤ뤳ȡ
Ū줬ư̾Ф֤뤳Ȥ⤢и֤뤳Ȥ⤢äԤξˤֻ of ȼ¤⤢ạ̈ޤư̾μ줬°ʡʸνͭʡˤȤ̳ʡʸŪʡˤȤξߤƤΤܤ٤Ǥ롥ˡư̾Τ괧 the ɤȤ⡤˾νפʥݥȤǤ롥

Tajima, Matsuji. The Syntactic Development of the Gerund in Middle English. Tokyo: Nan'un-Do, 1985.
켣 رѸˡ١ҡ2000ǯ
ϱѸ줿Ҳ𤷤ޤɸϤϤѤʵ (sobokunagimon) ΰĶƤꡤ٤ʱѸ˥ƥ饷äƤƽ뵿Ȼפޤ
ޤŪ¤Ȥơ١ٿ once twice -ce ϸűѸñ°ʸ -es ̤ޤŪˤŪ°ʤŵȤʤޤηˤĤƤϡ#84. once, twice, thrice ([2009-07-20-1]) ȡ#4081. once twice -ce Ȥϲ (2) ([2020-06-29-1]) ˤޤ
once θҲűѸ°ʤ -esʸѸνͭʤ 's ˤ˵ĤΤǤСonce ȯϸ one's /wʌnz/ ƱˤʤꤽʤΤǤºݤˤϸҲ̵ /wʌns/ ȤʤޤϤɤȤȤ٤ʵǤ
ѤʵˤĤƤϡ˵2Ĥ hellog #4081. once twice -ce Ȥϲ (2) ([2020-06-29-1]) θȾǤ⾯ƤޤʬѤȡΤñ
ѸǤ ones, twies, thrise ʤɤ s ֤Τ̤ǤꡤȯȤƤ2ä14ޤǤñᲽ s ȯͭäȼäơ̵Τɽ綠Ȥᤫ16ʹߤ <s> ä <ce> ֻǵ뤳ȤŪˤʤä
ǸȤƤ뤳Ȥϡ once, twice, thrice ϡεδ°ʤȷӤĤΤΡ餯ѸˤϤǤˤȯۤ˺졤one + -es ȤƤϡʾʤȤΤˤϡʬϤʤ褦ˤʤꡤΤ1Ĥθ촴ǤȰռ˻äΤȤȤǤޤѸˤ -es 첻岽üñΤ1ȤʤäȤˤꡤ1Ĥθ촴ȤƤΰռޤޤʤäȻפޤ餳³ѸˤϡϤ۵ -<(e)s> ֤ΤϤդ路ʤƱʬޤǸ촴ΰǤȤ¥ -<ce> ȤֻؤȺؤ줿ΤǤϤʤǤ礦
Ǹ˸Ҳ̵ͭˤĤƿޤűѸ줫ѸˤơȤƲᤵ줿 -(e)s /(ə)s/ Τ褦̵ҲƤޤȤѸˤơζ /s/ /z/ ؤͭޤʤˤĤƤϡ#858. Verner's Law ȻҲͭ ([2011-09-02-1]) ȡˡˤꡤǤϡʸŪʻˤꡤͭԤ˸¤äƤȤʤޤ˽ͭʸ -'s /z/ ȯ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤ
once तϡΰŪʲѲή,ɤʤä褦ʤΤǤϡˤҤ٤褦ˡᤤʳ顤θǤϤʤ촴ΰȤǧ褦ˤʤäƤȡޤñ줬1˽̤ޤäƤȤطƤȻפޤ
̾˸ťΥɸͳ褹ǤޤޤƤˤĤƤϡ#818. ɤ˻ĤťΥɸ̾ ([2011-07-24-1]) #1938. Ϣ -by ˤ̾ϸťΥɸΤΤ ([2014-08-17-1]) Ǽ夲Ƥ
̾ǤˤϿ̾ʤɤ°ʷ륱¿֡ĮפȤä̾դťΥɸǤ̾ñ°ʷˤθ롥o 촴̾Ǥ -ss ā 촴ν̾Ǥ -aR Τ§θʤѷΡˤºݤ Danelaw θűѸ̾˳ǧ롥
Clark (483) ĤƤΤdzǧ
In the districts most densely settled by Vikings --- mainly, that is, in Lincolnshire and Yorkshire --- survival in some specifics of Scand. gen. sing. inflexions bears witness to prolonged currency of Scandinavian speech in the milieux concerned . . . . Both with personal names and with topographical terms, genitives in -ar occur chiefly in the North-West: e.g. Lancs. Amounderness < Agmundar nes 'A.'s headland' and Litherland < hliðar (hlið 'hill-side') + -land . . . . Non-syllabic Scandinavian-style genitives in [s] are more widespread: e.g. Yorks. Haxby < DB Haxebi 'Hákr's estate' and Lincs. Brauncewell < ME Branzwell 'Brandr's spring'.
ܿζŪ˻¸ƤΤϸͭ̾餳̸ǤϤΤ褦ʻϤۤȤɤߤʤȻפ롥Τ褦¦̤̾ (onomastics) ̥ϤǤ롥
Clark, Cecily. "Onomastics." The Cambridge History of the English Language. Vol. 1. Ed. Richard M. Hogg. Cambridge: CUP, 1992. 452--89.
#4147. ̾ ([2020-09-03-1])#4148. ʤ each other ֤ߤפΰ̣ˤʤΤǤ ([2020-09-04-1]) εǡ̾ (reciprocal_pronoun) 夲Ѹˤ̾Ūˤϡ̣Τ롥Quirk et al. (6.31) Ȥơ2ۤƤߤ褦
Each other and one another are both written as word sequences, but it is better to treat them as compound pronouns rather than as combinations of two pronouns. At the same time, they correspond the correlative use of each . . . other and one . . . another (cf 6.58) in sentences such as:
They each blamed the other.
The passengers disembarked one after another
ε ([2020-09-04-1]) Dz⤷褦ˡŪˤϾʸˤ褦ʹǤΥФʤعʸˤꡤˤʤäƤüʷȤƹǤܤ each other, one another ȤȤä
ˡ̣Ūˡ̾줬֤ˤΩˤˤĤơ
Each other and one another resemble reflexive pronouns in that they cannot be used naturally in subject position. Instead of [1], [1a] is preferred.
?The twins wanted to know what each other were/was doing. [1]
Each of the twins wanted to know what the other was doing. [1a]
There appears to be no such constraint on reciprocals as subject in nonfinite verb clauses:
The twins wanted each other to be present at all times.
However, the rule which excludes occurrence in subject position holds not only for independent pronominal use but also for genitival reciprocals in subject noun phrases. The reciprocals must have coreference with antecedent phrases which have some other genitive or possessive modification. Compare:
*Each other's letters ----------
?The letters to each other ---------- were delivered by a servant.
Their letters to each other ----------
ʸˡǤϡդξȱϽפȤʤäƤ뤳Ȥ̣̾ˤϼ¤˹äƤ롥
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
hellog 饸13Ǥٿɽ魯 once, twice one, two ȴϢ뤳ȤϤʬȻפޤǤʤС -ce ١פ̣ˤʤľǤ礦3ʾǤ three times, four times ʤɤɽΤǡ -ce = times ʤΤȡ
̣ŪˤϤ褽̤Ǥ -ce Ϥäɤ褿ΤǤ礦ϡΥڥ٤ƤޤΤǤʤ -s ʤΤǤʣ -s ǤϤޤݥȥեĤνͭʤ -'s ΤȤǤǤϡ?Ρפɽ魯ͭʤθʤŪѤٿܿȴطΤǤ礦ʲİ
ŪˤϡͭʡʱѸˤѸǤϡ°ʡסˤϡñ˽ͭɽ魯ˤȤɤޤ餺ŪʵǽôƤޤäʤ졤Ѹ always, sometimes, needs ʤɤˤߤ -s ŪˤϸŤ°ʸͳ褹ΤǤʣ -s ͳ褹ΤǤϤʤΤǤդ
ˤĤƤϡ##81,84,1793,2135,723,1306,1554,4081εåǿƤޤΤǡȤ
ɸϡ#81. once twice -ce Ȥϲ ([2009-07-18-1]) Ϥ#84. once, twice, thrice ([2009-07-20-1])#1793. -<ce> 꽤 ([2014-03-25-1]) Ǽ夲ƤεФơ⤦ΤʤȤ
űѸǤϡѸ once, twice, thrice б1١ס2١ס3١פΰ̣ϡбβŪѰǤȤ٤ æne, twiga, þrīwa Ȥˤäɽ蘆Ƥæne ˤĤƤСη֤ϴ ān (one) ζʷͳ褹롥οϸűѸ˻ϤޤꡤѸˤѤ줿OED ꡤơñȤѤ줿ǽȺǽ㡤Ӹ츻εҤѤ褦
ene, adv.
. . . .
Etymology: Old English ǽne, instrumental case of án one. Compare Middle High German eine.
. . . .
OE Beowulf 3019 Ac sceal..oft nalles æne elland tredan.
. . . .
c1325 Chron. Eng. in Ritson Met. Rom. II. 304 Ene heo [the Danes] him [Edmund] overcome.
twie | twye, adv.
. . . .
Etymology: Old English twiga, etc. (also twiwa, tuwa, etc.) = Old Frisian twîa, tuiia, Old Saxon tuuio (Middle Low German twie, twige), adverb < stem twi- , TWI- comb. form: compare the etymological note to THRIE adv.
. . . .
a900 tr. Bede Eccl. Hist. iv. iv. 278 (Tanner MS.) Þætte twigea on gere seonoð gesomnode.
. . . .
a1450 J. Myrc Instr. to Par. Priests 119 Folowe thow not þe chylde twye.
thrie | thrye, adv.
. . . .
Etymology: Old English þríwa, ðríga = Old Frisian thrî(i)a, Old Saxon thrîuuo, thrîio. Like twíwa, etc., not found outside the Saxon-Frisian group of West Germanic, and of obscure formation. They seem to have the form of genitival adverbs, twi-a, þri-a, with the gap between i and a variously filled up by w and g (again lost in Middle English), and lengthened by assimilation to þrí, THREE adj. and n. See further under TWIE adv.
. . . .
c950 Lindisf. Gosp. Mark xiv. 30 Ðria [Rushw. ðrige] mec ðu bist onsæcc.
. . . .
?a1500 Chester Pl. (Shaks. Soc.) II. 25 Or the cocke have crowen thrye Thou shalte forsake my companye.
Τ褦˾嵭η֤ο줬űѸ줫ѸޤǹԤʤƤѸˤʤȡ°ʸͳ褹 -es դϢʤ֤ФŪ -es ʤθ֤ƤȤˤʤäŪ°ʡ (adverbial_genitive) ˤꡤٿɽ魯Ǥ뤳ȤΤ˼ζäΤ
ѸǤ ones, twies, thrise ʤɤ s ֤Τ̤ǤꡤȯȤƤ2ä14ޤǤñᲽ s ȯͭäȼäơ̵Τɽ綠Ȥᤫ16ʹߤ <s> ä <ce> ֻǵ뤳ȤŪˤʤä
ʾޤȤȡonce, twice, thrice -ce Ū°ʤ -es ͳ褹뤳ȤϤޤǽŪ°ʤ -esפ褦ʡºݤ˸űѸѤƤ -es դɽľͳ褹ȤŬǤϤʤűѸˡȤƤ æne, twiga, þrīwa ԤʤƤξˡѸˤƶĴ뤿°ʸ -es դȤΤ¤Ǥ롥
#3656. kings' Τ褦ʣͭʤΥݥȥեθˤϲάƤΤǤ ([2019-05-01-1]) ꤹѤʵ夲ŪʴβȤơüŪˡֲάƤʤפŪĤޤСkings Ȥʣˡ˽ͭʤ 's դֻ塤 s's Ȥ뤵ʤꤽʤΤǡάɽΤǤϤʤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ (cf. haplology) ºݡΤ褦ȯۤΤȤǶѸ˸Ԥζˡ (punctuation) ޤäƤǽϹ⤤ΤǤϤʤȻפ롥⤷äȤ顤Ūʻ¤˴ŤȤϡŪ˴ŤˡγΩäȤȤˤʤ롥ĤʤεǽҤ٤褦ʣ kingsñͭʷ king'sʣͭʷ kings' 3Ĥɽ϶̤뤳Ȥˤʤä櫓顤̤ȤˤʤäȹͤƤ롥ŪˤϤ櫓ǤϤʤäȤȤǤϼĥƤ
դˤĤƤϡJespersen (272) ޤ˼夲Ƥ롥ѤΤüᤤ
16.86. These forms [genitive plurals with -es] (in which e was still pronounced) show that the origin of the ModE gen pl is the old gen pl in -a (which in ME became e) + the ending s from the gen sg, which was added analogically for the sake of greater distinctiveness. The s' in kings' thus is not to be considered a haplological pronunciation of -ses, though some of the early grammarians look upon it as an abbreviation: Bullokar Æsop 225 writes the gen pl ravenzz and crowzz with his two z-letters, which do not denote two different sounds, but are purely grammatical signs, one for the plural and the other for the genitive.---Wallis 1653 writes "the Lord's [sic] House, the House of Lords . . pro the Lords's House", with the remark "duo s in unum coincident." Lane, Key to the Art of Lettters 1700 p. 27: "Es Possessive is often omitted for easiness of pronunciation as . . . the Horses bridles, for the Horsesses bridles."
In dialects and in vg speech the ending -ses is found: Franklin 152 (vg) before gentle folkses doors | GE M 1.10 other folks's children; thus also 1.293, 1.325, 2.7 | id A 251 gentlefolks's servants; ib 403; all in dialect | London schoolboy, in Orig. English 25: I wish my head was same as other boyses. Cf Murray D 164 the bairns's cleose, the færmers's kye, the doags's lugs; Elworthy, Somers. 155 voaksez (not other words, cf GE)
Τ褦ʲɤǤȡɸΡˡפȤƤ -s's 뤵 -s' ˤȤϺѤǤʤΤΡɸˤȤߤȡ⤢ʤְäƤȤϸڤʤΤʤȻפľꤹ롥
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
»1εϡѤʵ䥷ꡥԤѤʵǤ
ѸǤɽ kings ʲ, king's ʲΡˡkings' ʲΡˤȡ̣˱3ν̤ޤȯϤ٤ /kɪŋz/ ƱʤΤǤֻˡϤäȶ̤뤳ȤˤʤäƤΤǤɽζ̤ϲͳ褹ΤǤ礦
ݥȥե (apostrophe) ϡŵŪ˾άɽ魯Ѥޤit's it is ξάǤI'm I am ξάyou're you are ξάǤݥȥեϾάΤѤȤϸ¤ޤ#582. apostrophe ([2010-11-30-1])#1772. greengrocer's apostrophe ([2014-03-04-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡŪˤϾάɽ魯Ѥޤ¾ŪˤȤޤɸε⡤δߤɬפꤽǤkings, king's, kings' γơΩҲ𤷤Ƥޤ礦
űѸǡֲפɽ魯ֲפʣʼʡгʡˤ cyningas Ǥ줬ʣ kings ˤʤ櫓ǤϸűѸ cyningas Ѹ kinges Ѹ kings ȤѲβФ̤Ǥܤȡ-as -es ȤŤʣ첻ü-s Ȥʤä櫓ǤΤ褦̻Ūˤʣۣ첻 /ə/ ־üפȤȤ館ޤŪˤ첻־άפ줿褦ˤߤޤʣֻ kings ϼ¤ϤΤ褦ˡ־άפǤˤ⤫餺륢ݥȥեѤ˺ѤޤƤȤ櫓Ǥ
ˡֲΡפɽ魯ñͭʷֻ king's ˤĤƹͤޤ礦űѸǤϡñ°ʡʽͭʤΤȤűѸǤϤƤӤޤ˷ cyninges ֤졤줬ѸˤΤޤ kinges ȤƼѤޤѸˤơʣξȥѥ˸ۣ첻äᡤƱ kings ֤ƤޤΤޤޤǤ褵ʤΤǤˤֻ϶̤褦ȤȤʤΤñͭʷΤۤ king's ɽ뤳Ȥˤʤޤۣ첻 /ə/ ־άפƤΤ顤ɸ뤿 king's ȤݥȥեդνˤʤäΤĤ뤳ȤǤޤ
ǸˡֲΡפɽ魯ʣ°ʷ kings' ǤˤϤܤŪɬפǤűѸǤʣ°ʷ cyninga Τ褦 -a äƤޤѸˤƤ -a æäñ°ʸ -es ʸ첻üФ -sˤʣ°ʸȤƤѤ褦ˤʤäΤǤĤޤꡤking(e)s Ȥ֤ǡֲΡפȡֲΡסʤȡֲסˤƱɽ路иΤǤơʹߡˤȯ϶̤ǤʤΤǤƽդˤƤ϶̤褦ȡñͭʷ king'sʣͭʤ kings' ȤʬȯãΤǤ
ʾޤȤмΤ褦ˤʤޤʣʼʡˤ kings Ѹ kinges ͳ褷 e ־άפ줿Ȥߤ뤳ȤǤޤξάɽ魯Τ˥ݥȥեդ뤳ȤޤǤŬäƤʤ褦ˤߤޤñͭʷ king's ϡʣƱѸ kinges ͳ褷 e ־άפ줿̤η֤ǤΤǡݥȥեդֻŬäƤȤǤǸʣͭʷ kings' ϡñͭʷȹ줷֤ˤΰ̣ǤΥݥȥեθ˲άƤ櫓ǤϤޤ
(1) άƤΤ˥ݥȥեդƤʤʣ kings
(2) άƤ뤫ʤȤͳǡ˥ݥȥեդƤʤȲñͭʷ king's
(3) άƤʤΤ˥ݥȥեդƤʣͭʷ kings'
㥯ȤʤΤǤɽ3Ԥ̤ȤˤäΤǤ礦ΰտޤǤޤˤ衤줬ѸˡʤΤǤ
;̾˿줬³ we two ֻ䤿2͡סyou three֤ʤ3͡פʤɤ̾礬뤬̾ͭʤȤˤϤɤʤΤJespersen (17.15) ȤƤߤ褦
ޤѸǤϡ;̾ͭʤ˶ޤ̵ޤΤޤޤȤ㤬롥㤨СShakespeare Ǥ your three motiues, your two helpes, their two estates, our two histories ʤɤߤ롥ξˤϡϰ̣Ū˸̾ˤäƤȤǤ
ˡ줬ͭʥޡȼäƸ⤢롥㤨С Bullokar ʤɤˡour twooz chanc' Ȥɽߤ롥
ơˡѤ of us two, of you three ȤˡϾ˻ĤƤ롥
ǤϤʤall, both ʤɤѤ we all you both Τ褦ɽξˤ⡤ŪˤϾ嵭3郎ǽäθϡ;̾θǤϤʤ֤ all our . . . both your . . . ʤɤѤΤξȤϰۤʤǤ롥ޤall ˤĤƤϡűѸθǤŪ٤ޤ aller alder ʤɤ°ʷ¸ƤᡤѸ Chaucer Ǥ hir aller cappe, our alder dede ʤɤɽǽäȤյƤ
ѸǤϡŪƨ롤뤤Ϥ¾ɽפƲʤɤǤ⥹ޡȤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.
3֤ˤ錄ɸȯŸƤ ([2018-05-08-1], [2018-05-09-1], [2018-05-10-1]) 4ơʺǽˤȤơˤ⤦Ҥͤä
wolves ʤӴŪ wivesˤطʤˤϡűѸѲ̾ζޥѥˤơʣʡʡгʡ˷Ȥ -as ղäȤ𤬤äˤűѸ wulf wulfas Ȥʤꡤf ͭ˶ޤ뤿ͭΤƤwīf ˤĤƤ⡤ѲȤ̤Υ롼פ°Ƥꡤˤ wives ؤȯãʤ wulf/wulfas פ˱ƶ졤 (analogy) ˤ wives ؤȵ夷СʤǼ
Τ褦ˡ-ves ʣˤĤƤϤΤŪǽϻѤñ°ʷܤƤߤǽŪˤϸѸνͭʤ -'s ϢʤޤǤ롥ʲñ°ʷĴʤ顤űѸ wulf wīf ζɽ餿ƷǤ褦
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#2654. a six-foot man a ten-mile drive ˻ĤʻĤäƤʤ˸űѸʣ°ʷ ([2016-08-02-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡѸǤ̵ˤߤΤΡϤĤƤζμ岽üФ̤η֤ǤȤ褦㤬Ȥ˳ǧ롥a six-foot man foot whilom, seldom Lady Chapel, ladybird ʤɤˤ1 lady츫ȶޤʤɤƤʤη֤Ȥߤ뤬줾줫ĤƤʣ°ʷʣͿʷñ°ʷͳ褹롥˸ޤä꼺줿ꤷơŪ̵Ǥ뤫Τ褦ˤȤ館褦ˤʤäΤǤ롥
Ƕᡤmother tongue ˤ⤽Τ褦1Ĥ餷ΤäѸǤʣȤǧ츻Ūˤ1 mother ϤΤޤޤñ°ʷȤĤޤꡤѸȯ֤ۤСޤ "mother's tongue" ȸäƤ褦ʤΤäΤ#703. űѸο²̾ζɽ ([2011-03-31-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡmother üʶޤ̾1Ĥǡñʷ mōdor Ʊñ°ʷȤʤꤦ롥mother tongue ȤɽνϡѸ Wyclif moder tonge ȤƽиۤƱ modir langage ⸽Ƥ롥η֤űѸ̵ȿǡƧƤȤ櫓ޤḽŪΤ°ʸȼä modiris langage ƱʸڤƤ뤳ȤդäƤ
ȤϤΤΡˤʤ롥 "mother" űѸ̵Ѳ°ʷ̤ȸѶŪʺϲѸǽФ餫顤ѸƱФǡʣȤƤȤ館줿ȤǽϤʤΤ嵭Τ褦 modiris langage ʻ¸ƤȤȤϡ1ĤΥݥȤˤʤ뤫⤷ʤθǤۤɶϤʤ褦ˤפ롥OED Ǥ⡤°ʷͳ褹Ȥˤ "Probably" źƤ롥դϡѸʣΥѥˤĤƤ褯ؤФʤȡȽǤǤʤ
ε#2974. 2Ū칽ʸ to ʸء ([2017-06-18-1]) κǸ˿줿褦ˡޤοȸθ경ϡʸˡˤɽ㡼Ǥ롥˶ޤοबˤäƼ줿ʸˡǽŶ뤿˸夫礬경뤳ȤˤʤäΤ뤤˸礬경η̡פȤʤäޤ夫षϤΤ⤷ϡ3θˤȡξݤΰ̴طϰŪʤΤǤϤʤ줾줬ƶ礤ʤ饹ѥ˿ʹԤƤäΤȤ⤤롥ޤ˥˥ȥǤ롥
ϲ3θ¤ȻפäƤ뤬ϢȤƤ Allen ⤳ιͤǤ롥Allen ϡ2Ū칽ʸˤ2ĤŪθǤʤ°̾Ȥ˽Ȥΰִط˴ؤѸѲˤĤƤĴƤꡤޤοबθ경ͣװǤϤʤȤƳǧƤ롥Allen (220) ۩
The two case studies [= the fixing of the order of two nominal NP/DP objects and the genitives] examined here do not support the view that the fixing of word order in English was driven solely by the loss of case inflections or the assumption that at every stage of English, there was a simple correlation between less inflection and more fixed word order. This is not to say that deflexion did not play an important role in the disappearance of some previously possible word orders. It is reasonable to suggest that although it may have been pragmatic considerations which gave the initial impetus to making certain word orders more dominant than others, deflexion played a role in making these orders increasingly dominant. It seems likely that the two developments worked hand in hand; more fixed word order allowed for less overt case marking, which in turn increased the reliance on word order.
ΰ̴طֶޤοࢪθ경פäȤǽꤳƤʤդΡָθ경ޤοפΰ̴ط椫ƤɤΤȤξݤ˼äƿʹԤȹͤΤǤȷƤ롥ޤξԤδطפƤۤñʴطǤϤʤȤϡѸˤƤʤ˶ޤλĤäƤʤɤǤ⡤űѸθ礬Τޤ¸Ƥ櫓ǤϤʤդ˶ޤषƤƤűѸŪʸ礬¸Ƥ㤬뤳Ȥ⸫Ƽ뤳ȤǤ
Allen, Cynthia L. "Case Syncretism and Word Order Change." Chapter 9 of The Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Ans van Kemenade and Bettelou Los. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2006. 201--23.
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