hellogѸ˥֥     ChangeLog ǿ     ƥǿ     1 2 ڡ / page 1 (2)

clitic - hellogѸ˥֥

ǽ: 2026-07-15 01:27

2021-07-01 Thu

#4448. ѸΥ󥰥ɳ߽ο;̾ es ϥ줫μѤ [personal_pronoun][me_dialect][dutch][borrowing][clitic]

ɸϡ#3701. Ѹ3;ʣг̾ es ϥ줫μѤ (1) ([2019-06-15-1]) ӡ#3702. Ѹ3;ʣг̾ es ϥ줫μѤ (2) ([2019-06-16-1]) Ǽ夲ƤǤ롥
̤˥줬Ѹ˵ڤܤʸˡŪƶϤۤȤɤʤȤ뤬βǽ뵩ʸܤȤơѸΥ󥰥ɳ߽ǹԤʤƤ;̾ es ŦƤʤۤˡ#140. եޥ줫Ѥؾ -kin ([2009-09-14-1])⻲ȡˡ
ΥƶˤĤơThomason and Kaufman (323) ʳ̣θĴǾҲ𤷲⤷ƤΤǡѤ褦

[T]here was a striking grammatical influence of Low Dutch on ME that is little known, because though introduced sometime before 1150, it is found in certain dialects only and disappeared by the end of the fourteenth century . . . .
   In the Lindsey (Grimsby?), Norfolk, Essex, Kent (Canterbury and Shoreham), East Wessex (Southampton?), and West Wessex (Bristol?) dialects of ME, attested from just before 1200 down to at least 1375, there occurs a pronoun form that serves as the enclitic/unstressed object form of SHE and THEY. Its normal written shape is <(h)is> or <(h)es>, presumably /əs/; one text occasionally spells <hise>. This pronoun has no origin in OE. It does have one in Low Dutch, where the unstressed object form for SHE and THEY is /sə/, spelled <se> (this is cognate with High German sie). If the ME <h> was ever pronounced it was no doubt on the analogy of all the other third person pronoun forms of English. We do not know whether Low Dutch speakers settled in sizable numbers in all of the dialect areas where this pronoun occurs, but there is one striking correlation: all these dialect areas abut on the sea . . ., and after 1070 the seas near Britain, along with their ports, were the stomping grounds of the Flemings, Hollanders, and Low German traders. These facts should remove all doubt as to whether this pronoun is foreign or indigenous (and just happened not to show up in any OE texts!).


ѤκǸǽҤ٤Ƥ̤ꡤֵʤפȤʤ궯Ω줬ɽƤ롥p. 325 Ǥ "this clear instance of structural borrowing from Low Dutch into Middle English" ȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ȤƤϤȤƤ⤪⤷λεǤ⿨줿褦ˡ⤦ŤɬפȻפ롥West Midland ΦǤ㤬ĤäƤꡤƱñ˻ٻ뤳ȤϤǤʤϢѤƤ Hendriks (1668) ⡤Thomason and Kaufman ΤˤϲŪΩäƤꡤȤƼ夲ƤʤȤոƤ

Thomason, Sarah Grey and Terrence Kaufman. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. Berkeley: U of California P, 1988.
Hendriks, Jennifer. "English in Contact: German and Dutch." Chapter 105 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1659--70.

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2020-11-22 Sun

#4227. ʤɽ魯ˤ n- ǻϤޤΤ¿ΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][indo-european][etymology][negative][prefix][clitic]

Ѹˤ no ɮƬ not, none, nothing, no one, nobody, never, neither, nor ʤɡn- ǻϤޤΤ¿¸ߤޤ˼դνϤСno бե󥹸 non ǤɥĸǤ nein Ǥ϶ǤϤޤ󡥤νεǤĸˤƤ꤬ *ne ɽ蘆졤줬¹θˤѤ줿ȤȤʤΤǤʤܸΡ֤ʤפ n ǻϤޤΤϡޤäζǤˡǤϡİ



űѸǺǤ̤ϡĸȱĤ ne ȤǤƬΤ褦ˤѤ줿ᡤ¿ n(e)- 줬¸ߤޤȤȤ󤲤Ƥߤޤ礦

ne + ought = nought, naught, not
ne + one = none, no
ne + ever = never
ne + either = neither
ne + or = nor

ΤۤƬǤ un- ʥޥϡ, in- ʥƥϡ, non- ʥƥϡ, a- ʥꥷϡˤ⡤Ϥĸ *ne ̤ޤ (ex. unhappy, unable, unimportant; inaccurate, incomplete, infinite; non-smoker, non-stop, non-rhotic; agnostic, asymmetry, amoral)
ˤĤƤϡ#1904. ƻ no no ϰۤʤ츻 ([2014-07-14-1]) ⤴Ȥ

Referrer (Inside): [2023-05-31-1] [2023-02-25-1]

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2020-10-28 Wed

#4202. ʤ Are you a student? Ф *Yes, I'm. ǤϥʤΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][sobokunagimon][interrogative][syntax][word_order][clitic][information_structure]

2֤ۤ̾ hellog #4186. ʤ Are you a student? Ф *Yes, I'm. ǤϥʤΤǤ ([2020-10-12-1]) Ǽ夲ФѤʵǤȯ˴ؤǤ⤢ޤΤǥ饸ʤ٤άƤߤޤμǤİǤǤ礦



ݥȤϡñΤʤˤϼȶȤۤʤȯĤΤȤȤǤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤʸˡṲ̄¿ߤޤñϥǥեȤǤϼȯޤ Yes, I am. 褦ˡ˲άƤơʸĤ̤ʾˤ϶ޤʤȤ⡤ʤФʤޤˡѽФʸˡŪʸ餳ΡäݤʸݤǤϤޤȶ2ĤȤ򤼤ҳФƤƤ
ϢˤĤƤ##4186,3713,3776εå

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2020-10-12 Mon

#4186. ʤ Are you a student? Ф *Yes, I'm. ǤϥʤΤǤ [sobokunagimon][interrogative][syntax][word_order][clitic][information_structure]

󤻤줿ѤʵǤɸΤ褦 yes/no ʸؤβǡNo, I'm not. ϵƤޤ*Yes, I'm. ϵƤ줺Yes, I am. ȴʤФʤޤ󡥱Ѹؽκǽ I am ξά I'm ǤȽ櫓ǤάȤʤ礬ΤǤϤʤʤΤǤ礦
ϡʸ˾ά֤ȤϤǤʤפȤʸˡ§뤫Ǥ⤦ΤˤСĸ˴ؤƤϡǤ϶Ǽ¸ʤФʤʤȤȤǤĸȤΤϡȤʤäƤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤɤޤޤޤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])#3776. ǽζȼ岻 (2) ([2019-08-29-1])ˡȤʸˡŪʵǽ̤ΤȤǤ
θϡ̾ʸ̮Ǥϼ夯ȯ졤ά뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤñȤȯˤϡֶפȤʤޤam ǤСɸβΤ褦ʸˤˤϡ̾μ /əm, m/ ǤϤʤ̤ʶ /æm/ ȤƼ¸ʤФʤޤ
ǤϡʤǶȤʤʤФʤʤΤǤ礦̾be ưˤưˤֻˤ衤졤ư졤Ūʤ̤Ǥ³뤿ᡤ켫Τ뤳ȤϤޤ󡥤Ūʾά (ellipsis) ư (movement) ؤˤϡ˵뤳Ȥ⤢ޤ

Are you a student? --- Yes, I am (a student).
I am taller than you are (tall).
She doesn't know who the man is.
Sam kicked the ball harder than Dennis did (kick the ball hard).
They ran home as fast as they could (run fast).
What are you looking at?
This is the very book I was looking for.

Τ褦üΤȤǤϡˤäεǽ϶Ǽ¸ޤϡ̾ξ¤δפ̤Ƥ뤿ᡤȤƤۤ¸뤫ȹͤޤYes, I am (a student). ΥǤСbe ưˤϡ a student άƤȤȤɸ䤬դƤꡤ̾ I'm a student. be ưֽաפôäƤȤΤǤ
ʤNo, I'm not. ƤΤϡbe ư줬櫓ǤϤʤȹͤƤޤ뤤ϡbe ư + notפ蘆äƸ³Ǥξάɸ뵡ǽôäƤΤǤϤʤȤͤޤ (cf. No, it isn't.)

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2020-08-19 Wed

#4132. ʤ괧 the 첻Ǥ the apple Τ褦ˡ֥פȯΤǤ --- hellog 饸 [hellog-radio][sobokunagimon][hel_education][pronunciation][article][clitic][euphony][vowel][prescriptive_grammar][sociolinguistics]

hellog 饸17ϡ괧 the ȯ˴ؤǤ̤ the θ첻³ˤ [ði ˈæpl] Τ褦ȯ졤[ðə ˈæpl] ȤȯʤȽޤȯΤ䤹ȤȤ뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤ㴳ε䤬ޤԤȯˤΤǤ礦ȤƤäʤ褦˻פΤǤºݡĴ٤ƤߤȸαѸüԤǤ [ðə ˈæpl] ȯ륱ʤΤǤ
Ǥϡʤ [ði ˈæpl] ŪȯȤƤΤǤ礦ʲβޤ᤿İ



ήǤƤСѸˤ̤ä th'apple, th'orange ʤɤ elision ȯѤƤޤ˵ϼŪʸѤΤȤ the apple ʤ⤽ȯñζܤȤΤˤʤ褦 [ði ˈæpl]ˤʷפȤơֿͰŪ줿פΤǤϤʤȵäƤޤȯˤ貿ˤ衤ټȯãǴάά줿ΤƤӤȤʣĹȤΤϡQǤϹͤˤǤˤϵŪŪͰŪȸƤӤŪϤƯȻפޤ嵭ϤޤDzǤͤޤǤˡ
ȴϢơ##906,907,2236εåɤߤ

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2019-07-12 Fri

#3728. o'clock [etymology][preposition][clitic]

It's two o'clock. ʺ2ˤΤ褦Ѥ o'clock ϡof the clock ޤäΤȤ롥?ʤ礦ɡˡפ̣?5ʬפʤʬüФˤѤʤ
̤˸ζֻ of ǤȤ뤬ºݤˤϤɽѸ˽Фֻ͡줬ѤƤOED clock, n.1 θ3ˤСֻȼäȤƤν "c1386 Chaucer Parson's Prol. 5 Ten of the clokke it was tho as I gesse." ǤꡤǤϳΤ of Ƥ뤬¾Ǥ a, o', at ѤƤ롥ޤ MED clok(ke (n.) 򻲾Ȥ "at (the) ~, atte ~, of (the) ~, on the ~, the ~" ʤɤ괧̵ͭޤƥꥨ˭٤ʤ褦 MED Ǥ aclokke (adv.) θФ "(?1471) Stonor 1.121 : I must be with my lord by vij a kloke." 󤲤ƤꡤѸޤǤֻ줬ܼ (proclitic) ԤʤƤȤ狼롥
ʤǽΥȤäƤ褤 Chaucer CT. ML. l. 14 ǤϡRobinson ǤǤ It was ten of the clokke ȤʤäƤ뤬Hengwrt, Ellesmere ξܤ˼ºݤ˸Τ at the clokke Ǥ롥
ɸɽ˸¤餺 of θܼ o' Ȥ֤ΤϽǤ̤ΤȤä˿षơjack-o'-lantern ʥܥΤ礦, will-o'-the-wisp ʵС Tom o' Bedlam ʶ͡ˤʤɤθɽ˻ĤФȤʤäƤޤä

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2019-06-16 Sun

#3702. Ѹ3;ʣг̾ es ϥ줫μѤ (2) [personal_pronoun][laeme][lalme][me_dialect][clitic][map][dutch]

ε ([2019-06-15-1]) ˰³Ѹ them Ѥ es Ȥ;֤̾ˤĤơBennett and Smithers Ѥơ褽 "SE or EMidl" ˻ѤФäƤȽҤ٤LAEME eLALME ѤơѸˤǧƤ
LAEME Ǥ Map No. 00064420 Ȥ "THEM dir obj: 's' forms (sometimes cliticised), e.g. as, es, is, ys, hes, his." 󤲤ƤʲޡˡeLALME Ǥ Item 8 Ȥ "THEM: 'his' type (incl as, es, is and enclitic -(e)s)." 󤲤ƤʲޡˡǤϽ̾ƷǤƤΤǡܤϥåƳ

LAEME_and_eLALME_es_for_them_small.png



ΤȤ㤬¿櫓ǤϤʤѸ̤ East Midland Southeastern 濴ȤơʬŪˤΦ West Midland ˤ⻶Ȥäʬۤ򼨤Ƥ뤳Ȥʬ롥
ȤδϢ뤿ˤϡΥüԽĤΥ󥰥ɤؤΰ̱ʤɤ˼ҲŪطʤĴ٤ɬפ롥ŪˤС#3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1]) Ǥߤ褦ˡ14դˤӿʪǰפȯŸˤեɥ쥤󥰥ɤδط϶̩ˤʤäȤ顤East Midland ˤ es ֤ʬۤ˴ؤƤϡƶϤ뤳ȤǤ뤫⤷ʤWest Midland λȯŪʻˤĤƤϡ̤˹ͤʤФʤʤ

Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-01-1]

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2019-06-15 Sat

#3701. Ѹ3;ʣг̾ es ϥ줫μѤ (1) [personal_pronoun][me_dialect][dutch][borrowing][havelok][clitic]

Bennett and Smithers Ǥ14ƬκʤȤ Havelok ɤǤ롥East Midland ǽ񤫤ƤꡤťΥɸ줫μѸ¿ޤǤ뤳ȤΤƤ뤬East Midland ϥ줫αƶ꺻ϰǤ롥
Havelok ll. 45--52 ΤѤ褦

Þanne he com þenne he were bliþe,
For hom he brouthe fele siþe
Wastels, simenels with þe horn,
Hise pokes fulle of mele an korn,
Netes flesh, shepes, and swines,
And hemp to maken of gode lines,
And stronge ropes to hise netes
(In þe se-weres he ofte setes).


ǸιԤ he often set them in the sea-weir ̣setes -es Ԥ hise netes (= "his nets") ؼܸ첽줿3;ʣгʤ̾ȲǤ롥פ "them" ȤѤ -es Ȥ櫓η֤ˤĤ Bennett and Smithers (293) ǼΤ褦˲⤷Ƥ롥

setes: i.e. sette es 'placed them'. Es, is (ys in Hav. 1174), hes, his, hise are first recorded in England c. 1200, as the acc.pl. or fem. sg. of the pronoun of the third person, and (apart from 'Robt. of Gloucester's' Chronicle are restricted to SE or EMidl texts. This pronoun is best explained as an adoption of the comparable MDu pronoun se, which is likewise used enclitically in the reduced form -s; for a pronoun (as an essential and prominent element in the grammatical machinery of a language) would hardly have escaped record till 1200 if it had been a native word.


Ĥޤꡤ -es б֤ѤΤȤȤǤ롥ɾäƤϴϢ򿵽ŤĴƤɬפ뤬ѸˤˤƥαƶᾮɾƤȤͤȡ̥ŪǤϤ롥
ѸˤȥδؤˤĤƤϡ#3435. ѸˤˤϽ줫αƶϲᾮɾƤ ([2018-09-22-1])#3436. 󥰥ɤӤȤܿˡ ([2018-09-23-1])#126. 7ˤѸؤαƶӡ ([2009-08-31-1])#2645. 줫Ѥ줿ߤΤñ ([2016-07-24-1])#2646. Ѹ˴ؤס ([2016-07-25-1])#140. եޥ줫Ѥؾ -kin ([2009-09-14-1]) ޤ dutch ε򻲾

Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.

Referrer (Inside): [2021-07-01-1] [2019-06-16-1]

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2018-05-15 Tue

#3305. ʤ can cannot 1֤Τ [sobokunagimon][negative][spelling][auxiliary_verb][clitic][punctuation][pronunciation]

ɸε䤬󤻤줿ºݤˤϡư can ȤƤɸ cannot Τۤcan't can not 3ब롥̤ˤ1Ǥ뤫Τ褦֤ can't cannot Ū¿ʬ񤭤줿 can not ⤢ˤϤ롥ԤѤΤϡŪʸϤ뤤϶ĴоȡտޤƤΤߤǤ롥
ޤ Fowler's 򻲾Ȥcan't cannot ˤĤƸѸǤλ¤ǧƤcan't ȯϡꥹѸ /kɑːnt/, ꥫѸ /kænt/ Ȥʤ뤬ä˻ҲǤϤФи t ơ/kɑːn/, /kæn/ Τ褦ˤʤ롥 can ȤϰۤʤꡤǤϼ¸ߤʤcannot ϱƲǤ줾 /ˈkæn ɒt/, /ˈkæn ɑːt/ Ȥʤ뤬ºݤˤ can't Ȥȯ⤢롥
can't cannot λȤʬäˤʤ줫Ѥ뤫ϸĿͤνˤȤ礭Ȥ롥§Ȥ cannot Ȥ륱Ȥơ?ʤפ̣ cannot but do cannot help doing ιʸ롥դˡǡϤƤϤߤ?뤳ȤǤʤ褦פ̣ can't seem to do ǤϡäѤ can't Ѥ롥
Ūˤ cannot ΤۤŤѸ줫㤬OED Ǥ a1425 Сˡcan't ѸǻȤƤǽϻĤ뤬ޤȤ˽иƤΤ17Τ褦can't Shakespeare ǤȤƤʤ
ơɸεºݤΤȤ褯ʬʤΤ1Ĺͤ줽ʤȤҤ٤Ƥcan't ϻҲ t 뷹ȾҤȤ櫓³ t, d, n Τ褦ʻԲξˤϡηȿ¬롥ȡƱȤʤäƤޤȤˤ̤ޤѲǽ⤷ʤ򾷤䤹Ǥϡcannot 2ȯϡʤȤ2ܤ첻¸ߤǤ뤳ȤݾڤƤ뤿ˡͭǤ롥ޤ can not ȤϷŪˤⵡǽŪˤ̤٤άˤϰ㤤ʤᡤֻάˤդ路1Ǥ뤫Τ褦˽񤫤롤ȤȤǤϤʤ¾νưβ֤ȤˤӤƤߤɬפꤽ

Burchfield, Robert, ed. Fowler's Modern English Usage. Rev. 3rd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1998.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-05-22-1]

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2018-05-11 Fri

#3301. ʤ wolf ʣ wolves ʤΤ (4) [sobokunagimon][genitive][plural][consonant][phonetics][fricative_voicing][analogy][number][inflection][paradigm][clitic]

3֤ˤ錄ɸȯŸƤ ([2018-05-08-1], [2018-05-09-1], [2018-05-10-1]) 4ơʺǽˤȤơˤ⤦Ҥͤä
wolves ʤӴŪ wivesˤطʤˤϡűѸѲ̾ζޥѥˤơʣʡʡгʡ˷Ȥ -as ղäȤ𤬤äˤűѸ wulf wulfas Ȥʤꡤf ͭ˶ޤ뤿ͭΤƤwīf ˤĤƤ⡤ѲȤ̤Υ롼פ°Ƥꡤˤ wives ؤȯãʤ wulf/wulfas פ˱ƶ졤 (analogy) ˤ wives ؤȵ夷СʤǼ
Τ褦ˡ-ves ʣˤĤƤϤΤŪǽϻѤñ°ʷܤƤߤǽŪˤϸѸνͭʤ -'s ϢʤޤǤ롥ʲñ°ʷĴʤ顤űѸ wulf wīf ζɽ򤢤餿ƷǤ褦

Ѳ̾ñʣ
wulfwulfas
гwulfwulfas
°wulfeswulfa
Ϳwulfewulfum
Ѳ̾ñʣ
wīfwīf
гwīfwīf
°wīfeswīfa
Ϳwīfewīfum


ξޥѥϡʣʡгʤǤۤʤȤäƤñ°ʤǤ϶̤ -es ȤäƤ롥ơñ° -es ղäȡ촴 f ξɤͭ˶ޤ뤿ᡤȯ /v/ ȤʤäϤȤʤСѸǤñͭʤϡ줾 *wolve's, *wive's ȤʤäƤƤ褫äϤǤϤʤȤºݤˤ wolf's, wife's ʤΤǤ롥ʣñ°ʷϡűѸ衤ۤƱŪΤȤȯŸƤϤȹͤˤ⤫餺ʤ̤Ȥ wolves Ф wolf'swives Ф wife's Ȥ̤ƤޤäΤʤʤѸǤϽͭʷ ' (apostrophe) դ϶ˤʤäƤδǤꡤܾβѤˤʤΤǡεˤϤޤäͿʤȹͤƤ褤ʡ#582. apostrophe ([2010-11-30-1]) 򻲾ȡˡ
1Ĥˤϡ°ɸʣɸ٤ƴΤȤδط¤ȤʤäƤäȤ롥Ѹ줫Ѹˤơ°ɸ -es ϶޸Ȥܸ (clitic) ȤƲᤵ褦ˤʤäƤcf. #1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])ˡС-es ϷŪñ̤ȤŪñ̤ȤʤꡤΤڤΥƤȤ館褦ˤʤäƤΤǤ롥ˤꡤҲ̵ͭؤưŤ夯ʤäƤäΤ°ɽˤƴҲϸꤵ뤳ȤȤʤä
ǤѸ줫Ѹˤơޤ -ves η֤ⴰ˼ƤϤ餺Фˤ̵Ѱ۷ȤȤ¸ƤJespersen (16.51, pp. 264--65) ˤСChaucer Ϥ Shakespeare ˻äƤ wiues ʤɤ§Ūä18ޤ¸³Τcalues Shakespeare ̤ˤߤ줿äʣ1Ǥ°ʤѤƤˤ -ves ŪĤ䤹wive's-jointure, staves-end, knives-point, calves-head ʤɤ϶ǤѤ줿
ȤƸѸޤǤϻĤʤä°ʤ -ves ϡɸǤϤĤƤޤäΤǤ롥ޤʣ wolves ʤɾθΤߤűѸβ§ǸĤȤƻƤ롥

Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part VI. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1942.

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2018-04-24 Tue

#3284. be ưü [be][inflection][inflection][clitic][verb][auxiliary_verb][sobokunagimon]

be ư줬üưǤ뤳ȤϡƸޤǤʤ褦˻פ롥¾ưˤʤ褦ʣʶޤ򼨤Ūˤϼ¤ˤؤƤưºݤˡ#3279. ǯٽΡѤʵפ3 ([2018-04-19-1]) 3ܤˤ󤲤褦ˡbe ư¿αѸؽԤ˷㤷֤ʤפ
be ư˼ٹˤä Crystal The Story of Be ν (p. xi--xii) Ǥϡbe ưü󤵤Ƥ롥

(1) be ưϡѸ¾Τư¿ͤѲġwalk ʤ walk, walks, walked, walked 4ΰۤʤ򼨤go ʤ go, goes, going, gone, went 5ΰۤʤ򼨤be Ǥ be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been 8ब̤롥ŪˤСbe ¿ܤΤۤɤǤ롥
(2) ٤Ƥ¾ưǤϡ߷ˤͭɸη֤ĤΤ3;ñ -s Τߤbe ưǤϾ嵭Τ褦123;ΤΤ줾ˤưۤʤ֤򼨤
(3) be ǤϡΤȯ (be, been) ȶΤʤȯ (bi, bin, bn) ̤롥
(4) ܸŪ̾³ơtwas (< it was), wast (< was it) Τ褦ͻ礹롥ޤyou're, I'm, aren't, weren't ʤɤν򼨤Ʊͤν򼨤Τϡۤ have do ΤߤǤ (ex. hasn't, don't)
(5) be ư3Ĥ˰ۤʤʸˡǽġ1ܤˡ¸ߤפ̣ưȤơ2ܤ˿ʹԷư֤ưȤơ3ܤϢ (copula) ȤƤǤ롥¾ưǤޤ¿̤ʵǽͭΤϤʤ

Crystal ᤯ϡǡ

It is thus hardly surprising to find that, over the past 1,500 years, be has developed a wide range of meanings and uses, and a wider range of variant forms than any other English verb. It is the second most frequent word in English, after the. If any verb deserves its own story, it is this one.


Crystal, David. The Story of Be. Oxford: OUP, 2017.

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2017-08-13 Sun

#3030. on foot afoot ؤʸˡȽز [grammaticalisation][clitic]

ɽϡ#2723. ֻ on ˤ n æ ([2016-10-10-1]) ȡ#2948. Ϣ5alive ˸ءס ([2017-05-23-1])Ϣܵalive ˸ءǼ夲Ƥʸˡ (grammaticalisation) 1ȤƤȤ館뤳ȤҲ𤷤
Los (43) ˤСon foot afoot ؤѲϡΧ֡졤äΤ٤Ƥ¦̤ˤơʸˡŵŪˤߤħ򼨤

 on foot > afoot
Prosodystress is reduced
Phonology[on] > [ə]: final -n is lost, vowel is reduced
Morphologyon is a free word, a- a bound morpheme
Syntaxon foot is a phrase (a PP), afoot is a head (an adverb)
Lexiconon has a concrete spatial meaning, a- has a very abstract, almost aspectual meaning ('in progress'); afoot no longer refers to people being on their feet, i.e. active, but to things being in operation: the game is afoot


ʸˡˤƶ̣Ȥϡon foot afoot ʸˡȸȤƤ⡤on foot ä˻ĤäƤ뤳ȤĤޤꡤֻ on foot afoot ִ줿櫓ǤϤʤֻ礫줬ΩȤ٤Ǥꡤ̤Ȥξɽ㤨ƶ¸ƤΤǤ롥ƱȤϡɽΤˤĤƤǤϤʤñ̤ˤĤƤ⤤롥ֻ on ܸ (clitic) a- ִ줿櫓ǤϤʤֻ줫ܸ줬ΩȤȤֻ on Τ̵ǻĤäƤ롥
ʸˡθǡȤȤɽȿɽǽ㤨ƶ¸Ƥϡʸˡˤز (layering) θݤȤΤƤ롥ۤ󤲤С#2490. λʸhave + ʬפεȯã ([2016-02-20-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡλưȤƤ have ϡƱư줬ʸˡΤ̤ȤưȽư줬2Ĥؤʤƶ¸Ƥ롥٤Ƥʸˡλ㤬˰Ūʽز⤿餹櫓ǤϤʤŤǽѤƤޤ¿뤳ȤϳΤʸˡǽزȤݤˤդƤ

Los, Bettelou. A Historical Syntax of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2015.

Referrer (Inside): [2019-01-16-1]

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2016-05-15 Sun

#2575. Ѳΰ [unidirectionality][language_change][grammaticalisation][bleaching][semantic_change][cognitive_linguistics][conversion][clitic]

ɸˤĤƤϡȤʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ή (drift) Ȥδطˤ unidirectionality γƵǰäƤϡԡԡ (227) 򻲾ȤơʸˡȴϢƵƤѲñˤĤơŪ򤪤餤ԤˤСΤ褦ˤ롥

ʸˡ ȤϡŪǤδĶǷ֤Ȥ졤ʸˡŪʵǽ̤ǤؤѲʸˡŪʵǽŪʤΡ㡧ֻˤ餵˷ŪʤΡ㡧ܼˤؿʤळȤؤʸˡΥץʤʤŪ > Ū > ŪǡˤդؤϿʤޤʤȤñפβȸ


㤨Сmeans Ȥ̾ޤ by means of ʤɽ魯ʸˡŪǤˤʤ뤳ȤϤäƤ⡤ǤʸˡŪǤǤ with 㤨 "tool" ΰդ̾ȯŸ뤳ȤϤʤȤˤʤ롥ifs, ands, buts ʤɤ³줬̾첽Ƥ뤷ְߴפΰ̣ư down ֻͳǤꡤȿ餷ΡĤޤæʸˡ (degrammaticalisation) ⸫롥
ʸΩ줫ΡΤ褦ʡֵפФȿȤơʸˡȤιʸǹͤ٤ΤǤȤĥ롥㤨С̤ɽ魯 be going to ϡgo ñȤʸˡ櫓ǤϤʤbe to ȼäιʸΤʤʸˡΤȹͤ롥ifs, down ʤɤϡñȯʻž (conversion) ˤΤ褦äưؤȿȤߤʤȤϤǤʤ롥ޤѲΥץŪǤ뤫ݤȤǤ be going to ifs ϰۤʤäƤꡤƱɶǤʤΤȤ⡥
Ǥ⡤ȿȸƤ٤ϵ¸ߤ롥°ʤɽ魯޸ä -es -'s Ȥܸ (clitic) ѲϡŪǤŪǤؤѲǤꡤؤȿȤʤ (cf. #819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1])#1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])#1479. his °ʤο ([2013-05-15-1]))
βϡѲΤߤʤ餺ŤκƷܻؤӸؤ䡤θλѤ餫ˤ褦Ȥ쵯θˤƤʴߤġΤᡤȿ㤿æʸˡθݤȹ碌ơǮ깭Ƥ롥

סԡˡؿԡǧθإɻŵ١ҡ2013ǯ

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2015-10-29 Thu

#2376. myself, thyself ˤ my- thy- [reflexive_pronoun][personal_pronoun][case][clitic]

Ƶ̾ oneself ȾǤˡ;̾νͭʷƤƤ뤫 (ex. myself, thyself)ŪʷƤƤ뤫 (ex. himself, themselves) ϡѸˤĹ餯Ƥ1ĤǤ롥ܥ֥Ǥ⡤#47. ͭʤŪʤmyself himself ([2009-06-14-1])#1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1]) ǰäƤ
myself, thyself ǽͭʤѤ뤳ȤˤĤơεǤ self ̾Ȳᤵ줿Ȥȥȸ줫αƶȤҲ𤷤⤦1ͭϤʤΤϡMustanoja (146) ʤɤΤȤͿʷ첻岽Ǥ롥ѸǤϡ12;ΤǤ self ֤Τ3;ΤξƱͤͿʷǤꡤme self, þe self ʤɤɽ蘆Ƥ me þe ܼ (proclitic) Τ褦˵ǽϤȲŪ˼岽e ɽ蘆첻 i ؤѲ13 miself, þiself Ȥʤ˵ڤӡmi, þi ϽͭʤȤơself ̾ȤƤȤƺʬϤ졤12;ʣ˱Ѥ our selve(n), your selve(n) ⸽褦ˤʤäȤܼβ岽ϡbiforen, bitwene ˤ be- > bi- ʤɤˤФдѻ롤褯븽ݤǤ롥
Keenan (344) ⡤Τ褦˽Ҥ٤ Mustanoja β岽ٻƤ롥

I claim these forms [= mi + self and þi + self] are just phonologically reduced forms of the procliticized dative pronouns me and þe. The correspondence of Old English long close e to Middle English short i is well attested . . . . Me and þe are the only dative pronouns that consist of a single light syllable. The others are either closed (him, us, hem or disyllabic or diphthongal (hire, eow). So it is natural that phonological reduction takes place first in 1st and 2nd sg. Once reduced we may identify them with possessive adjectives, surely the basis of the Pattern Generalization to your + self and our + self in 1st and 2nd pl (modern spelling) in the mid-1300s, which facilitates interpreting self as a N.


ϡme þi ΤߤñǤȤŦˤơϤ褦˻פ롥ޤ;̾Τ褦ʸˤơ˾塤٤֤ⷫμ岽ȶƤȤϡ#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1]) Ǥ⸫ƤȤǤ롥

Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Keenan, Edward. "Explaining the Creation of Reflexive Pronouns in English." Studies in the History of the English Language: A Millennial Perspective. Ed. D. Minkova and R. Stockwell. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 2002. 325--54.

Referrer (Inside): [2022-02-25-1] [2015-11-01-1]

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2014-12-02 Tue

#2045. ʤ mayn't ȤʤΤ (2) [auxiliary_verb][negative][clitic][corpus][emode][lmode][eebo][clmet][sobokunagimon]

ε#2044. ʤ mayn't ȤʤΤ (1) ([2014-12-01-1]) ˰³ɸꡥŪʻ¤󼨤롥OED ˤȡû̷ mayn't 16㤬ߤȤȤƺǤᤤΤ17 Milton ΤΤ

1631 Milton On Univ. Carrier ii. 18 If I mayn't carry, sure I'll ne'er be fetched.


OED ˴Ťȡܤ٤ϽѸʸȤȤˤʤ롥 EEBO (Early English Books Online) ١ǸĿŪ˺äƤƥȡǡ١ˤ٤ԤäȤΤ褦ʷ̤Фmai nat ʤɤΰ۷ޤƸˡƻΥ֥ѥεϤۤʤΤǡ100 (wpm) Ӥ줿

Period (subcorpus size)mayn'tmay not
1451--1500 (244,602 words)0 wpm (0 times)474.24 wpm (116 times)
1501--1550 (328,7691 words)0 (0)133.22 (438)
1551--1600 (13,166,673 words)0 (0)107.01 (1,409)
1601--1650 (48,784,537 words)0.020 (1)131.85 (6,432)
1651--1700 (83,777,910 words)1.03 (86)131.54 (11,020)
1701--1750 (90,945 words)0 (0)109.96 (10)


û̷ mayn't û̷ may not ٤ơ˰ŪɤǤäȤϵ٤ʤû̷16ϸĤʤä17˾ĸФͻҤϤĤळȤǤ18㤬ʤΤϡ֥ѥεϤ餫⤷ʤ#1948. Addison clipping Ƚ ([2014-08-27-1]) Ǹ褦ˡAddison 18Ƭ mayn't ޤû̷񤷤Ƥۤɤ顤ǤϤ褯ԤƤΤ
³ƸѸΥѥ CLMET3.0 ƱͤĴ٤Ƥߤ18--19ˤ⡤mayn't Ū˾ʤʤΤ˻ѤƤꡤ19Ⱦˤ٤ޤäƤ褦mayn't may not δ֤ɤ򼨤ƥȤ⾯ʤʤ

Period (subcorpus size)mayn'tmay not
1710--1780 (10,480,431 words)33859
1780--1850 (11,285,587)21703
1850--1920 (12,620,207)68601


19Ⱦ mayn't λѤƤͻҤϡḽ奢ꥫѸ쥳ѥ COHA ǤǧǤ롥



20äƤξ̤Ĵ#677. Ѹˤˡưο ([2011-03-05-1]) 鼨褦ˡmay Τ˿α̿򤿤ɤ뤳Ȥˤʤä櫓顤mayn't α̿䤷Τ٤εǿ줿褦ä˸奢ꥫѸǤ shan't shall ȤȤ˿षƤȤȹͤ碌ȡû̷οϽưΡʹˤοȴϢŤ򤹤ɬפ褦˻פ롥may ΤŤ줷ưȤʤСեޥʶܼղä mayn't Τʤϡդˡmayn't ԻѤ1ĤͳΤǤϤʤ⤦1ĻפĤmayn't ԻѤϡɸŪǼҲŪ㤤ͤͿƤ ain't Ȳ뤳ȤȴϢ뤫⤷ʤⲾʳƤˤʤͤޤǤˡ

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2014-08-27 Wed

#1948. Addison clipping Ƚ [clipping][shortening][slang][prescriptive_grammar][shortening][clipping][swift][genitive][clitic][complaint_tradition]

εǤϡ#1947. Swift clipping Ƚ([2014-08-26-1]) ˤĤƸSwift ƱͤǤ Joseph Addison (1672--1719) ⡤򤸤ˤۤƱ򷫤깭Ƥ롥

Joseph Addison launched an attack on monosyllables in the Spectator (135, 4 August 1711):

The English Language . . . abound[s] in monosyllables, which gives an Opportunity of delivering our Thoughts in few Sounds. This indeed takes off from the Elegance of our Tongue, but at the same time expresses our Ideas in the readiest manner.


He observes that some past-tense forms --- e.g. drown'd, walk'd, arriv'd --- in which the -ed had formerly been pronounced as a separate syllable (as we still do in the adjectives blessed and aged) had become monosyllables. A similar situation is found in the case of drowns, walks, arrives, 'which in the Pronunciation of our Forefathers were drowneth, walketh, arriveth'. He objects to the genitive 's, which he incorrectly assumes to be a reduction of his and her, and for which he in any case gives no examples. He asserts that the contractions mayn't, can't, sha'n't, wo'n't have 'much untuned our Language, and clogged it with Consonants'. He dismisses abbreviations such as mob., rep., pos., incog. as ridiculous, and complains about the use of short nicknames such as Nick and Jack.


ư -ed ˲ä -es Ჽͭʤ 'sܼ n't ̤˵󤬤äƤ롥 Nick Jack ˤޤ̷褬ڤǤ뤫顤ϤϤθȤΤȤˤʤäƤ롥
Addison ˤȤäƤԹʤȤˡ񤵤Ƥܤ¿ϸɸѸdzΩ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥Addison ˤ Swift ˤڳñ첽ɤޤܵǷäƤΤϤ狼ʤषˤϤӤֱѸפɤ٤ǥߡΩ뤿θ¤Ȥơ̤˵󤲤Τñ첽䤽¾κ٤ʹܤȤȤʤΤ⤷ʤ⤷ȤȡǤϤΤΡܼŪưŪäȤȤˤʤϼŪʸϡƤȤޤǤDzȤ餽þ뱿̿Ǥ롥ϡͤŤƤ뤫ݤ̤Ȥơ礭ŪΤμʤȤѤ뤳Ȥ¿褦˻פ (cf. #468. ꥫȤ Webster ([2010-08-08-1]))
ʤͭʤ 's his ξάǤȤ Addison λŦˤĤƤϡѸˤΩ줫϶̣˴ؤơ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1])#1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])#1479. his °ʤο ([2013-05-15-1]) 򻲾Ȥ줿

Knowles, Gerry. A Cultural History of the English Language. London: Arnold, 1997.

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2013-05-15 Wed

#1479. his °ʤο [genitive][clitic][synthesis_to_analysis][syntax][metanalysis]

his °ʤˤĤƤϡ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1]) Ǽ夲αѸ˾ν#1417. °ȯã ([2013-03-14-1])
ԤǤϡJanda Allen θΰ㤤˸ڤJanda ܸ̾ (enclitic) ȤƤ -'s ȯã޲𤷤¤Ȥơhis °ʤ򤪤ɾΤФơAllen Ū -es °ʤŪʬ (metanalysis) ˤ꽽ʬȤơhis °ʤδͿɾʤξԤεˤϰĹû뤬his °ʤѤ褦ˤʤäʳǰʬϤȤȤϴְ㤤ʤ
his °ʤνиȯãˤĤƤϤ˵ɬפhis °ʤοˤĤƤϤޤܤʤhis °ʤϡűѸѸ˨꤬졤15ʹߤˤʤꡤ17ޤ¸³18溢ޤǤˤѤ줿ѤȤʤäطʤˤϲäΤ
Janda (247--48) ϡΤ褦Ƥ롥

Though 'very rare in the North and infrequent in the rest of the country, [it] gains ground considerably in the 15th century and remains a popular means of expression right down to the 17th' (M:161). 'The use of his . . . as a sign of the genitive . . . had its widest currency in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries' (P:196). Use of the construction declined gradually thereafter, so that it was virtually lost by the mid-eighteenth century. It has been conjectured that '[t]he pronoun form dropped out partly perhaps because of the antipathy of most stylists from the sixteenth century on to "pleonastic" or repetitive pronouns' (T:125)--and, in general, to any analyticity (periphrasis) in English where it diverged from Latin syntheticity. (247--48)


Ĥޤꡤ16ʹߤʸԤ (1) his °ʤΤľĹ(2) ƥΤ֤ѸʬäǤϤʤȤޤJanda ̤βս (250) ǡ-'s Ȥɽδ㤬ΩȡǽŪˤ⡤h 첻μ岽ˤ벻ξṳ̈ơ˲Ūˤ his °ʤʬŪ˲᤹ʤʤäΤǤϤʤȤݤΤȤҤ٤Ƥ롥ʸŪӲŪʾȤ߹碌ˤꡤhis °ʤ -'s ΤۤŪ˹ޤ褦ˤʤäȤȤβ뤿ˤϡξˤĤƤܺ٤ʸڤɬפ

Janda, Richard. "On the Decline of Declensional Systems: The Overall Loss of OE Nominal Case Inflections and the ME Reanalysis of -es as his." Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Ed. Elizabeth C. Traugott, Rebecca Labrum, and Susan Shepherd. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1980. 243--52.
Allen, Cynthia L. "The Origins of the 'Group Genitive' in English." Transactions of the Philological Society 95 (1997): 111--31.

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2013-03-14 Thu

#1417. °ȯã [genitive][clitic][synthesis_to_analysis][metanalysis][corpus][ppcme2][syntax]

Ѹʹߤ apostrophe s ϡ̾ˤĤȤߤʤϡ̾ˤĤܸ (enclitic) ȤߤʤۤΤǤ롥ȤΤϡthe king of England's daughter Τ褦° (group genitive) ȤƤˡǧ뤫Ǥ롥apostrophe s ϡ³˷Ūñ̤Ȥϡ췲³Ūñ̡ʤܸ (clitic) Ȥߤʤɬפ롥
apostrophe s εȹͤ -es ϡѸˤϡΤ̾ˤĤ޸ä줬̾ܤ°ʤˡΤϤʤηϲäΤѸˤǤ˵ƤǤ롥
Ĥθ (Janda) ˤС°ʤؤȯŸʳǡ#819. his °ʡ ([2011-07-25-1]) ޲ȤƺѤΤǤϤʤȤñ㲽ƼС(1) °ʸ -es ȿ;̾ñ° his Ȥ̵ƱȤʤ¤ȡ(2) ľ̾̾ȤƤ his °ʤȤ2ؤäơΤ褦㼰ǽȤʤäΤǤϤʤȤ

king his doughter : king of England his doughter = kinges doughter : X
X = king of Englandes doughter


Allen ϤƱդʤPPCME2 䤽¾ѸƥȤͿ뤢Ƥ̡his °ʤ޲ȤʤäƷ°ʤȤ븫ˤϡڵ塤̵Ȥ롥Allen ϡȤ櫓"attached genitive" Ū -es °ʡˤ "separated genitive" his °ʡˤȤδ֤ˡĶ˱Ƥʬ۾κʤȤ򺬵ˡѸ his °ʤ "just an orthographical variant of the inflection" (118) Ǥȷ롥
Ǥϡ°ʤȯã his °ʤ޲ȤΤǤϤʤäȤȡ¾ˤɤΤ褦ʷꤨΤAllen ϤȤơ"the gradual extension of the ending -es to all classes of nouns, making what used to be an inflection indistinguishable from a clitic" (120) ƤƤ롥14ޤǤ°ʸΧ -(e)s 褦ˤʤꡤ줬Ϥ޸ȤƤǤϤʤ̵Ѳܸª˻äΤǤϤʤȤޤǽη°ʤϡThe grete god of Loves name (Chaucer, HF 1489) þe kyng of Frances men (Trevisa's Polychronicon, VIII, 349.380) ˸褦ʡм򼨤 of ȼä귿Ǥꡤʣ̾ȤǤ褦ɽǤ롥줬Ȳ򤵤졤ľ˽ͭ򼨤 -(e)s ĤȤΤϤޤäԻ׵ĤǤϤʤ
Allen ϡ16Ⱦ鸽 his °ʤʿŪ her °ʤ their °ʤˤĤƤϡǤ-(e)s ˤ뷲°ʤΩʬ (metanalysis) η̤ǤꡤŪɽˤʤȸƤ롥ΰʬϤ"spelling pronunciation" ʤ "spelling syntax" (124) ȸڤƤΤ̣
Allen ηѤ褦 (124)

A closer examination of the relationship between case-marking syncretism and the rise of the 'group genitive' than has previously been carried out provides evidence that the increase in syncretism led to the reanalysis of -es as a clitic. There is evidence that this change of status from inflection to clitic was not accomplished all at once; inflectional genitives coexisted with the clitic genitive in late ME and the clitic seems to have attached to conjoined nouns and appositives before it attached to NPs which did not end in a possessor noun. The evidence strongly suggests that the separated genitive of ME did not serve as the model for the introduction of the group genitive, and I have suggested that the separated genitive was an orthographic variant of the inflectional genitive, but that after the group genitive was firmly established there were attempts to treat it as a genitive pronoun.


Allen Appendix I ˤơMustanoja (160) his °ʤȤƵ󤲤ƤűѸѸ줫[2011-07-25-1]ǵ󤲤ˤ¿路ǤƤ롥
ʤ°ʤˤĤƤϡBaugh and Cable (241) ˤñʸڤ롥

Janda , Richard. "On the Decline of Declensional Systems: The Overall Loss of OE Nominal Case Inflections and the ME Reanalysis of -es as his." Papers from the Fourth International Conference on Historical Linguistics. Ed. Elizabeth C. Traugott, Rebecca Labrum, and Susan Shepherd. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 243--52.
Allen, Cynthia L. "The Origins of the 'Group Genitive' in English." Transactions of the Philological Society 95 (1997): 111--31.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
Baugh, Albert C. and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002.

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2011-10-21 Fri

#907. 첻 the εŪȯ [pronunciation][article][clitic][spelling_pronunciation][lmode]

ε#906. the ΰۤʤȯ ([2011-10-20-1]) ³Ȥơä첻εŪȯ [ði] ˤĤդäε񤤤ƤȤˤޤɤǤ Foster ˡüԤľ˴Ťͤˤʤڤä

When the ensuing word begins with a vowel, as 'the apple'. (This seems to be something which has deliberately to be instilled into schoolchildren, who left to themselves will happily pronounce 'th' apple' in Shakespearean fashion.) . . . An odd belief of many naïve speakers is that 'thee' is somehow more easily understood than 'the', so that it is especially favoured when carefully enunciating a name or address, thus producing 'Thee Pines' or 'Thee Mount', to the bewilderment of at least one listener [the author himself]. (259)


ѸѸޤǤ첻 the Ȥ첻Ȥܼ (proclitic) ȤѤƤȤˤĤƤϺˤϼʲȯãΤ褦˻פ롥ȤŪˤĺ餫꤫ǤϤʤ褽Ѹ顤ȿ褦 [ði] ǧ褦ˤʤäƤ롥ȿ褦ήȤС֤Ƥ̤ȯȤ spelling pronunciation Ĭή˻פ⤫֤֡ߤʤֻ̤˲άȯޤ礦Ǥ<the apple> ȯ [ðæpl] ǤϤʤ [ði ˈæpl] ǤפȤʥꥫΡ˾عζʤΤʤи⤷ζۤˤ줬ȤСߤ첻 the ȯ⡤¿ʸˡܤƱͤˡѸˤ뵬ŪʱѸѤν껺ȤȤˤʤΤ⤷ʤ

Foster, Brian. The Changing English Language. London: Macmillan, 1968. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970.

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2011-10-20 Thu

#906. the ΰۤʤȯ [pronunciation][article][clitic]

ѸεŪȯǤϡthe ˤ3ȯ̤롥Ҳ˸Ȥ [ðə]첻˸Ȥ [ði]ĶȤ̵ط˶ȤƤ [ðiː] Ǥ롥ʤΤ褦ʬۤˤʤäƤΤŪʵǤۤ񤷤ŪĴͤ롥ϡˤϻäƤʤĴ٤줿ϰϤǷаޤ𤷤
Dobson (457) ˤȡthe ˤϽѸ줫ȯ줿褦Ǥ롥κ[ðe] ŪʼäȤƤ [ðiː] ϤۤɰŪǤϤʤäԤĹƺ줿 [ðeː] 䡤Ԥûƺ줿 [ði] ⸽ƤĶˤƷʬۤˤĤƤ Dobson ϸڤƤʤȤƤ [ðe] 첻岽Ƹߤ [ðə] ȹͤ뤬줬ĺΤȤäΤϤ褯ʬʤμ嶯Ω礹ʤǡǽŪ˸ߤʬۤ夤ȤȤʤΤ
첻 [ði] ˤĤƤܤаޤǤ롥Ѹ첻 the 첻æ (elision) 뷹äȤ𤵤Ƥ롥ϡѸˤ̤˸줿 proclitic ʸݤǤ[2011-06-22-1]ε#786. ܸܸפ򻲾ȡˡJespersen (187--88) ꡤϢʬѤ褦

6.13 A final e was soon lost before a word beginning with a vowel . . . . A special case of this is the loss . . . in the, e.g. th' array, th' angel, th' engyn (Ch.), þarrke (Orrm). The elision in the was very frequent in early ModE; it occurs constantly in Hart's phonetically written prose texts (see H.'s Pron. p. 112, 122), and is shown on any page of Elizabethan poetry, where it is more frequently indicated in the original editions than in most modern ones. D 1640 speaks of the elision as used especially by lawyers. It is curious that Milton elided the chiefly before stressed vowels, and Pope chiefly before unstressed ones (Abbott, Concordance to Pope XIV); the reason lies perhaps in the growing tendency to a full pronunciation of the before a vowel in natural prose, though E 1765 recognizes th' Omnipotent as less stiff than 'thyomnipotent' used by some (thy = [ðj]). Now the elided form is sometimes used archaically in poetry, but not in colloquial language, except perhaps vulgarly; the Cockney stories "Thenks awf'ly" have th'air, th'ether (other), th'id (head), etc.


th' Omnipotent 'thyomnipotent' ӤƤȤȤϡ첻Ǥ [ði] ̤ʹƤȤξںȤʤºݤˤϡ첻 [i] ǤϤʤȾ첻 [j] ȯ줿ȤСelision Ʊ̡ʤΤ1ᾯʤȤ̤뤳Ȥˤʤ롥θ̤ϡ[i] ι첻ΤǤꡤ첻 [ðə] ʤդˡ첻 [ði] ޤ줿ͳΤǤϤʤ
ƲνиȯãʬۤˤĤƤϡŪˤʬʤȤ¿˸ߤʬۤ夯˻äȤ򤷤櫓ָߤʬۡפȤϡֵŪʸߤʬۡפˤʤҼǤ椯ΤǤСѸΩ֤뤤Ω֤ϡѸˤѤƤȸ롥LPD3 εҤ򻲾Ȥ줿

The English as a foreign language learner is advised to use ðə before a consonant sound (the boy, the house), ði before a vowel sound (the egg, the hour). Native speakers, however, sometimes ignore this distribution, in particular by using ðə before a vowel (which in turn is usually reinforced by a preceding ʔ), or by using ðiː in any environment, though especially before a hesitation pause. Furthermore, some speakers use stressed ðə as a strong form, rather than the usual ðiː.


Dobson, E. J. English Pronunciation 1500-1700. 2nd ed. Vol. 2. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. 1954. London: Routledge, 2007.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.

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