ܿ (contact) ʸˡ (grammaticalisation) δؤˤĤơHeine and Kuteva ʸϢȤƤ롥¿ΰˤϡ줬ܵν°³ȤƤѤȤħ롥㤨СѸľܵʸ Who came? Фơܵʸ I don't know who came. ʤɤǧ뤬ǤƱ who ѤƤ롥ħϡѸˤȤɤޤ餺 Ȥ "Standard Average European" ȸƤФפʰ²θ췲ˤǧ롥Ūˤϡ²ǹͭƤ롤²ȤƤħȹͤ롥
̣ȤˡħϡŪܤƹԤʤƤˤѻ롥Ĥޤꡤǻ̩ʸܿФƤȤܤˤơ줬ܵν°³ȤƤѤȤΤϡˤΩǤϤʤȤθܿ (trigger) ȤʤäʸˡǤ뤳Ȥ롥
Heine and Kuteva (95) ϡԸȤĤļΤ褦ʻƤ롥
a. Basque on the model of Spanish, Gascon, and French . . . .
b. Balkan Turkish on the model of Balkanic languages . . . .
c. the North Arawak language Tariana of northwestern Brazil on the model of Portuguese . . . .
d. the Aztecan language Pipil of El Salvador on the model of Spanish . . . .
줬¤ǤСֿܿʡ (propel) ʸˡλȤȤˤʤ
Heine, Bernd and Tania Kuteva. "Contact and Grammaticalization." Chapter 4 of The Handbook of Language Contact. Ed. Raymond Hickey. 2010. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. 86--107.
18:00 YouTube 6ƤޤWould you...?ʤɤδŪʰλϱѸͭ--ȺǶαѸħڰʼδѸظإͥ #6 Ǥ꤬ѸΥݥ饤ȥͥѸˤؤȥʥߥåڤؤäƤޤΤǡŪʳФ⤤äΤǤϤʤȡ
ʼˡرѸλˡäʸˡʸå١˼Ҥӡ2021ǯǤϡѸλˡκˤϡΩס֤Ĥʤספ3줬ȼĥƤޤʡ#4526. ʼˡرѸλˡäʸˡʸå١ ([2021-09-17-1]) ȡˡ
1ĤθȤơѸǤϡ˲ꡦͶݤˡΥץ饤Хˤʤ٤Ƨ߹ޤʤ褦ˡưѤʸηǥݥ饤ȤɽȤޤưǤ夲줿 Would you . . . ? ŵǤ¾ˤ Will you . . . ?, Could you . . . ?, Can you . . . ? ʤɤޤWon't you . . . ? ʤɤС⤢ޤ줾ǫ٤ϰۤʤޤȥ͡ʸ̮ˤäƤϡषȤʤ⤢Τǡ¤ϤʤʤȤˤȤ⤢ޤطʤˤŪʹͤϡľ᤹̿ΤǤϤʤΰոǽϤ䤦ʸκۤȤäƤȤȤǤ˥Ρ뼫ͳѤͤƤ롤ΩºŤƤƤ롤Ȥ˱ѸήΥݥ饤ȥͥΤȤȤǤ
ѸŪˤߤȡΤ褦ʱѸŪʥݥ饤ȥͥɽɤŤ餢äΤˤ뤳ȤϡɬñǤϤޤʹߤΰճȿɽǤǽ⤢ΤǤ
Will you . . . ? оݤʤäƤߤޤ餷ʸϸűѸ줫äƤޤѸǤۥȤߤޤOED will, v.1 θ8bȴ褷ޤ礦
b. Expressing a request in the second person, in the interrogative or in a subordinate clause after a verb such as beg.
Such a request is usually courteous, but when given emphasis, it is impatient.
This construction implies a first person response: 'I beg that you will excuse this' implies 'I will excuse it'.
. . . .
lOE St. Margaret (Corpus Cambr.) (1994) 166 Wilt þu me get geheran and to minum gode þe gebiddan?
?a1300 Fox & Wolf l. 186 in G. H. McKnight Middle Eng. Humorous Tales (1913) 33 Þou hauest ben ofte min I-fere, Woltou nou mi srift I-here?
c1390 Pistel of Swete Susan (Vernon) l. 135 Wolt þou, ladi, for loue, on vre lay lerne?
1485 Malory's Morte Darthur (Caxton) i. vi. sig. aiiiiv Sir said Ector vnto Arthur woll ye be my good & gracious lord when ye are kyng.
. . . .
MED willen v.(1)θ18aΤȤˤ⡤Ĥ㤬Ƥޤ
Τ褦˸ƤȡꡦͶ Will you . . . ? ϸűѸѸΤ褦ʸŤ餢äȹͤ줽Ǥ㤬ƱΰꡦͶȯù٤ɽ路ƤɤϡĤҤȤʸ̮äƿŤ˳Τɬפޤΰջ֤䤦ʸǤϤʤüԤˤꡦͶȯù٤ɽ魯ʸǤ뤳Ȥʸ̮ǧꤹɬפΤǤơ䤫ꡦͶϸŪ˥ǡʤƤΤǡǤϤʤ¾Ǹ뤳Ȥϡȥ͡ʤɤǤʤʸ١θˤäƤϡʤʤʤȤʤΤǤ
Τ褦˿ŤʻʤСŪʰꡦͶ Will you . . . ? ϡμ盧Ѹʤ뤤Ϥ̤äƸűѸˤ˵줽ǤܳŪѤФΤϤäȸΤȤǤȤǽĤޤˤĤƤϡǤˡ#3632. ɽ魯 Will you . . . ? ν ([2019-04-07-1])#3637. ɽ魯 Will you . . . ? ν (2) ([2019-04-12-1]) ǤƤޤΤǡ⻲Ȥ
2֤ۤ̾ hellog #4186. ʤ Are you a student? Ф *Yes, I'm. ǤϥʤΤǤ ([2020-10-12-1]) Ǽ夲ФѤʵǤȯ˴ؤǤ⤢ޤΤǥ饸ʤ٤άƤߤޤμǤİǤǤ礦
ݥȤϡñΤʤˤϼȶȤۤʤȯĤΤȤȤǤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤʸˡṲ̄¿ߤޤñϥǥեȤǤϼȯޤ Yes, I am. 褦ˡ˲άƤơʸĤ̤ʾˤ϶ޤʤȤ⡤ʤФʤޤˡѽФʸˡŪʸ餳ΡäݤʸݤǤϤޤȶ2ĤȤҳФƤƤ
ϢˤĤƤ##4186,3713,3776εå
줿ѤʵǤɸΤ褦 yes/no ʸؤβǡNo, I'm not. ϵƤޤ*Yes, I'm. ϵƤ줺Yes, I am. ȴʤФʤޤѸؽκǽ I am ξά I'm ǤȽ櫓ǤάȤʤ礬ΤǤϤʤʤΤǤ礦
ϡʸ˾ά֤ȤϤǤʤפȤʸˡ§뤫Ǥ⤦ΤˤСĸ˴ؤƤϡǤ϶Ǽ¸ʤФʤʤȤȤǤĸȤΤϡȤʤäƤ be ưϤᡤ졤ư졤ֻ졤;̾졤³졤ط̾졿ʤɤޤޤޤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])#3776. ǽζȼ岻 (2) ([2019-08-29-1])ˡȤʸˡŪʵǽ̤ΤȤǤ
θϡ̾ʸ̮Ǥϼ夯ȯ졤ά뤳Ȥ¿ΤǤñȤȯˤϡֶפȤʤޤam ǤСɸβΤ褦ʸˤˤϡ̾μ /əm, m/ ǤϤʤ̤ʶ /æm/ ȤƼ¸ʤФʤޤ
ǤϡʤǶȤʤʤФʤʤΤǤ礦̾be ưˤưˤֻˤ衤졤ư졤Ūʤ̤Ǥ³뤿ᡤ켫Τ뤳ȤϤޤŪʾά (ellipsis) ư (movement) ؤˤϡ˵뤳Ȥ⤢ޤ
Are you a student? --- Yes, I am (a student).
I am taller than you are (tall).
She doesn't know who the man is.
Sam kicked the ball harder than Dennis did (kick the ball hard).
They ran home as fast as they could (run fast).
What are you looking at?
This is the very book I was looking for.
Τ褦üΤȤǤϡˤäεǽ϶Ǽ¸ޤϡ̾ξ¤δפ̤Ƥ뤿ᡤȤƤۤ¸뤫ȹͤޤYes, I am (a student). ΥǤСbe ưˤϡ a student άƤȤȤɸ䤬դƤꡤ̾ I'm a student. be ưֽաפôäƤȤΤǤ
ʤNo, I'm not. ƤΤϡbe ư줬櫓ǤϤʤȹͤƤޤ뤤ϡbe ư + notפ蘆äƸ³Ǥξάɸ뵡ǽôäƤΤǤϤʤȤͤޤ (cf. No, it isn't.)
814ˡرѸ춵١罤۽Źˤ9ȯ䤵ޤѸϢֱѸƳΰФ䤹ѸˤΥĥܡ6Ȥʤ뺣ϡ֤ʤưεʸʸˤ do ΤפǤ do λѤϡѸ礤ʤȤäƤ褤ΤǤŪˤߤƤ⡤ʤΤ褦ɽdo ˡȸƤӤޤˤиΤˤĤƤ͡ʲ⤬ꡤʤǮоݤˤʤäƤޤ

[2019-04-07-1]ε˰³Will you . . . ? ʸȯˤĤơOED ˤȡιʸνФ1300ǯ Vox & Wolf ȤưʪäˤȤ롥Bennett and Smithers Ǥ The Fox and the Wolf ꡤβս (l. 186) ʸ̮ (ll. 171--97) ФƤߤ褦
'A!' quod þe wolf, 'gode ifere, Moni goed mel þou hauest me binome! Let me adoun to þe kome, And al Ich wole þe forȝeue.' 175 'Ȝe!' quod þe vox, 'were þou isriue, And sunnen heuedest al forsake, And to klene lif itake, Ich wolde so bidde for þe Þat þou sholdest comen to me.' 180 'To wom shuld Ich', þe wolf seide, 'Ben iknowe of mine misdede?--- Her nis noþing aliue Þat me kouþe her nou sriue. Þou hauest ben ofte min ifere--- 185 Woltou nou mi srift ihere, And al mi liif I shal þe telle?' 'Nay!' quod þe vox, 'I nelle.' 'Neltou?' quod þe wolf, 'þin ore! Ich am afingret swiþe sore--- 190 Ich wot, toniȝt Ich worþe ded, Bote þou do me somne reed. For Cristes loue, be mi prest!' Þe wolf bey adoun his brest And gon to siken harde and stronge. 195 'Woltou', quod þe vox, 'srift ounderfonge? Tel þine sunnen, on and on, Þat þer bileue neuer on.'
ʪήϤǤ롥ĤٰͤƤޤäѤͤΤФ̤꤫äΤ礤ϵƤӻߤչߤϵΤϵͤȤʬæФ褦Ȼʤ롥ϵˤޤǤΰԤˤĤ褦ȡϵϤεˤʤꡤѤʹߤȴꤦ褦ˤʤ롥ǡWoltou nou mi srift ihere, / And al mi liif I shal þe telle? (ll. 168--69) Ȥϵȯˤʤ櫓
նʸ̮ǤΤȤˡư줬¿ѤƤꡤѤϵݤ礤Τʤΰջ֤տޤΤäƤȤݤ롥βսϡwill ΰջ֤ΰ̣Ǽȡ֤ʤˤϻʹȤջ֤ޤǤлϿΤ٤Ƥʤ˹𤲤ޤ礦פȤʤ롥Ǥʸ̮餫ϵϸѤʹƤ餤ȻפäƤ롥äơɤߤäơ֤ʹƤʡϿΤ٤Ƥʤ˹𤲤ޤ礦פȤǽȤʤ롥Ȥΰջ֤䤦ȤȰȤϡ̣Ūˤ϶ϺǤꡤǡʤƤȹͤ櫓顤Ǥξΰ̣¸ƤȤȤ館뤳ȤǤ롥
ľθѤϡȤϼ뤫Τ褦 Nay! . . . I nelle. Ǥ롥ѸǤ Will you hear my shrift now? Ф No, I won't. Ƥ褦ʤΤʤȤѤϡϵȯʹȤջ֤뤫פȤȲʤդˤεФ No ƤΤǤ롥ϵȤƤϰΤĤǸäΤ⤷ʤˤϵȲᤵƤޤäȤˤʤ롥ºݡϵϤ뤫Τ褦ˡNeltou? ʤΰջ֤ʤȤˤ֤Ƥ롥
⤷ϵ¦˰ΰ̣ƤȤƤ⡤ΰȤްդϡʸ̮˻٤ƽƸतü첽줿Ūް (particularized conversational implicature) Ǥäơ̲줿Ūް (generalized conversational implicature) ǤϤʤޤƤ䴷Ūް (conventional implicature) Ǥʤ褦˻פ롥λ Will you . . . ? ʸνȤߤʤȤѤ餺ǽ⤷ʤ줿ʸ뤤ȤΩɽȤߤʤˤ᤹
Bennett, J. A. W. and G. V. Smithers, eds. Early Middle English Verse and Prose. 2nd ed. Oxford: OUP, 1968.
2֤ε#3517. if Ȥ鷺 V + S Ȥ ([2018-12-13-1])#3518. ȵʸζᤵ ([2018-12-14-1]) ǡỤ̄Ūʴֵס³ˡסִ˾ס־פõäƤ֤ˡ⤦1ġִòפȤɤ⻲ä
òʸǤϡʸŵŪ˵ V + S θ礬ФкѤ롥Jespersen (499) ʸ褦
Sh Merch II. 2. 106 Lord, how art thou chang'd
Sh Merch II. 3.16 Alacke, what heinous sinne is it in me To be ashamed to be my Fathers childe
BJo 3.133 what a vile wretch was I
Farquhar B 321 What a rogue is my father!
Defoe G 44 what fool must he be now that they have given him a place!
Goldsm 658 What a fool was I, to think a young man could learn modesty by travelling
Macaulay H 2.209 What a generation of vipers do we live among!
Thack N 180 What a festival is that day to her | What (how great) was my surprise when they were engaged!
Bennett C 2.12 What a night, isn't it?
ǸʸǤղõ䤬ĤƤ뤬ʤɤϤޤ˴òʸȵʸͻȤ⤤٤òȵ䤬蘆ä#2258. òʸ ([2015-07-03-1]) 㤬˭٤Ǥ롥
ޤòȴ˾ߤ˶ᤷȤפʤmay ʸ V + S Τ⡤ò V + S Ȳ餫δط뤫餫⤷ʤ
may ʸȴϢơJespersen (502) ˡDickinson, European Anarchy 74 ζ̣ʸäΤǵƤ
"The war may come", says one party. "Yes", says the other; and secretly mutters, "May the war come!"
[ | ѥڡ ]
may ϡʸŵŪ V + S ˾䴶òΤ˥ꥯ롼ȤȹͤƤߤΤ⤪⤷
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 5. Copenhagen: Munksgaard, 1954.
Hasn't she grown! Τ褦ʡʸκۤƤ뤬ȯ (illocutionary force) ȤƤϴòʸˤĤƹͤ뵡ꡤѸˤ봶òʸ (exclamatory question) ˤĤĴ٤Ƥߤʲ Quirk et al. (825) εҤޤȤ롥
ŵŪˤϡHasn't she GRÒWN! Wasn't it a marvellous CÒNcert! Τ褦 yes-no ʸηꡤĴΥȥ͡ȯäʥꥫѸǤϾ徺Ĵġˡ̣Ūˤ˶δòĴղõƱͤˡʹФƲȤƱդԤƤ롥
yes-no ʸۤˤǤϤʤ yes-no ʸǤ⡤Ϥ겼ĴȯäơƱͤδòȤǤʥꥫѸǤϾ徺ĴġˡˈAm ˈI HÙNGry!, ˈ Did ˈhe look anNÒYED!, ˈHas ˈshe GRÒWN! ǡǤ롥
ŪˤǤäƤǤäƤ⡤̣ȤƤϹδòˤʤȤΤ⤷Ūʶ̣Ūˤ¤뤫Τ褦1ĤǤ (cf. #950. Be it never so humble, there's no place like home. (3) ([2011-12-03-1])) Has she grown! Hasn't she grown! δ֤ˤϼ㴳ΰ㤤롥Ǥ餫ʹƱդǧΤǤ̿ΤΤȤߤʤƤʹƱդǧƤ櫓ǤϤʤȤǤ롥äơΤȤҤ٤ Am I hungry! ʤɤˤƤϡƱդǧɬפʤˡŪ˹ǤФ롥ǤȹǤ̯ʺۤϡΤ褦ʥѥե졼̤ƤĤळȤǤ
Wasn't it a marvelous CÒNcert! = 'What a marvelous CÒNcert it was!'
Has she GRÒWN! = 'She HÀS grown!'
ǤȹǤȤǡȯä˺ݤüԤ (presupposition) ؤäƤȤȤǤ롥Ūˤⶽ̣츽ݤ
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985.
ѸβäǤϡղõ䤬褯Ȥ롥ŪˤɤΤ餤褯ȤΤ⤽Ū˵ʸϤɤΤ餤٤ΤΤʤǡղõϤɤ줯餤γΤΤ褦ʵ顤ޤ٤ Biber et al. LGSWE Ǥ롥
ǽˤĤƤϡp. 211 ˲ͿƤ롥οˤƤĴCONV(ERSATION) Ǥ401ĵ䤬ޤޤƤȤåѥǤϡž̾塤䤬ȿǤƤǽ⤯ºݤˤϿͰʾ٤ǵʸƤϤǤ롥ƥȥפǤС礭 FICT(ION) ³NEWS ACAD(EMIC) Ǥϵʸ٤ϸ¤ʤ㤤
ˡƥ֥ѥˤơʸΤˤղõϤɤΤ餤p. 212 ˷ǺܤƤ̤ʲΤ褦ˤޤȤĤ100%ȤʤɽǤ롥
| (* = 5%; ~ = less than 2.5%) | CONV | FICT | NEWS | ACAD | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| independent clause | wh-question | **** | ******* | ********* | ********** |
| yes/no-question | ***** | ***** | ******* | ******* | |
| alternative question | ~ | ~ | ~ | ~ | |
| declarative question | ** | * | ~ | ~ | |
| fragments | wh-question | * | ** | ** | * |
| other | *** | *** | * | * | |
| tag | positive | * | ~ | ~ | ~ |
| negative | **** | * | ~ | ~ | |
Tag questions (i.e., regular questioning expressions tagged onto a sentence) exist in both American and British English, with British speakers perhaps using them more than Americans: "That's not very nice, is it?" Peremptory and aggressive tags tend to be used more in British English than in American English: "Well, I don't know, do I?" (192)
ǰʤ顤Biber et al. Ǥղõ٤αƺΤ뤳ȤϤǤʤӡƤΥѥĴ٤ɬפ
Schmitt, Norbert, and Richard Marsden. Why Is English Like That? Ann Arbor, Mich.: U of Michigan P, 2006.
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
Ѹˤ whom οˤĤƤϡ¿θ椬롥ѸǤ褯Τ줿ѲǤꡤܥ֥Ǥ ##622,624,860,301,737 γƵǿƤĤƤ´ˤ⤳äΤ ([2010-12-26-1])
ǶθȤƤϡIyeiri and Yaguchi 롥ϡMichael Barlow ԻAthelstan ͭƤ The Corpus of Spoken Professional American English (CSPAE) ˴ŤǤ롥CSPAE ϡ1990ǯ祢ꥫѸäեѥǡ(1) White House ǤεԲ(2) The University of North Carolina ζ(3) إƥȰѰιȲġ(4) ɲƥȰѰιȲĤΡ4ĤξʬƤꡤΤȤ200줫롥ޤCLAWS7 ǥդƤ롥ϡwhom ϷĥäʸΡä˽դˤƻѤȤ뤬ǤϡĥääդȤĶǤɤٻȤΤȤ䤤뤳ȤǤ롥
Ĵ̤˽Сspoken professional American English ˤƤϡwhom οǤʤΤΡޤ٤٤Ǥϸ롥whom Ķˤ餫ʷꡤֻľˤƤϺǤ褯ݤƤʤδĶǤ who λϳ̵ǤϤʤˡֻ (preposition_stranding) ˤϤƤ who Ǥ롥ޤwho(m) ֻŪǤϤʤưŪȤƵǽƤˤϡ礭ɤ줬롥
ȤƤ whom ȴطȤƤ whom ٤ȡԤΤۤब㤷ΤˡɮԤ Rohdenburg ˤ "Complexity Principle (transparency principle)" ѤƤ롥ϡ"[i]n the case of more or less explicit grammatical options the more explicit one(s) will tend to be favored in cognitively more complex environments" (cited in Iyeiri and Yaguchi, p. 185) Ȥǡwhom εƤϤȡطޤʸǧξʣǤꡤŪʳɸ᤹롤ȤȤˤʤ롥
ҤΤȤꡤwhom οϸѸθѲȤƼ夲뤳Ȥ¿Τ褦ˤĤơreferences ˻ͻޤȤƤΤϤ꤬ޤäեѥλѤˤؿ襤ϢơThe Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English Ȥѥ⻲ȡ
Iyeiri, Yoko and Michiko Yaguchi. "Relative and Interrogative Who/Whom in Contemporary Professional American English." Germanic Languages and Linguistic Universals. Ed. John Ole Askedal, Ian Roberts, Tomonori Matsushita, and Hiroshi Hasegawa. Tokyo: Senshu University, 2009. 177--91.
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