#6250. ʤűѸʸˡ̾ޤ֤ stan ʤΤ (2) ([2026-06-07-1]) ǾҲ𤷤̤ꡤإᥤȤ ykagata ֡θűѸ̾ɽ stn ǻϤޤܡϤޤʤܡƤ롥 Smith (66) ѤƤ롥ʲ˺ƷǤ褦
OE nouns can be classified into five groups, or declensions. In decreasing order of frequency of occurrence in OE, these declensions are:
(1) General Masculine Declension
(2) General Feminine Declension
(3) General Neuter Declension
(4) the -an Declension
(5) Irregular Declensions
ǡ̾ޤηˤĤŪ̻Ūʥ٥ѤŪŪʥ٥ѤƤ뤳Ȥykagata ϾƤ롥
(1) (5) ٤ι⤤¤٤ƤȤȤΡ١פΥϤɤƤΤ餯ˤǤϤʤűѸŪQuirk and Wrenn (20) εƤΨʤ뤤Ϥ餫Υˤ˰͵ƤΤǤϤʤˤǤ롥οͤɽǤޤȤȰʲΤ褦ˤʤͽ̤ۤꡤŪ̻Ūʥ٥뤬ѤƤաˡ
| Noun Class | Value |
|---|---|
| masculine a-stems | 0.36 |
| masculine n-stems and minor declension | 0.09 |
| feminine o-stems | 0.25 |
| feminine n-stems and minor declension | 0.05 |
| neuter a-stems | 0.25 |
| neuter n-stems | insignificant |
AZޤǤΥե٥åʸΤʤǡǤ٤ι⤤ʸ㤤ʸϲʸ (letter_frequency) ˤĤƤϡ#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1]) β Letter Frequencies (rankings for various languages) ؤΥȤꡤ͡ʸ䥳ѥǤνɽФƤ롥㤨СBNC ˰͵ "etaoinsrhldcumfpgwybvkxjqz" νɽ롥
Crystal (277) ˤϡThe Cambridge Encyclopedia (1st ed.) ƥȡ150ѥȤʸɽǤƤ롥ٽ (Cumulative) Τߤʤ餺ʸءʪءؤγơΥơޤȤ٤ Morse code (morse_code) ٤碌ƼƤ롥ʲΥդϡX˱äٽ (= "eatinorslhdcmufpgbywvkxjq") ʸ¤١YƥơǤٳɴʬΨˤȤΤǤɽϥ HTML ȡˡ

ٽ˾Ȥ餷ƥơޤȤħƤߤȤȡǤɸŪǤ롥ʸؤ³ɸफäƤΤءʪء Morse code Ȥʤ롥
ġʸߤȶ̣¿롥Ū˽Ǥ <h> ¿ (holy?) <l> ʤȡʸؤǤ <w> ¿Ȥϲ̣Τʪؤ䲽ؤϥƥꥷϤñ줬¿ޤޤƤ뤿ˡ¾̤Ȥϼ㴳ۤʤʸ٤ƤΤ⤷ʤŪ Morse code ϡ¾ΥơޤȤܤ˸ưۤʤƤ뤳Ȥ狼롥
Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. CUP, 2018.

¼Ļر̾ˤɸνҤȤĤ̤ޤơͻҤ Voicy heldio #1139. ǥȥǥಽ --- ¼Ȥ with ϽؤȤۿޤȤǻԤ22ʬۤɤ̲ʤäƤޤҤ֤ΤȤˤİ
¼ˡ䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ʤҤĤ˼2014ǯˤˤĤƤϡޤǤ⤤ĤεǼ夲ƤƤꡤȤ櫓#1975. ʸˡȯŸȳ (2) ([2014-09-23-1]) 1ϤܼޤϺλȤΤˤܽΤܼǤƤޤ̤³ԤۿͽǤ
ǤϤ
Ϥ
1ϡʸˡ
1.1
1.2ʸˡȤΥᥫ˥
1.2.1Ū (Pragmatic inferencing)
1.2.2ɺ (Bleaching)
1.3 (Unidirectionality)
1.3.1̲ (Generalization)
1.3.2æƲ (Decategorialization)
1.3.3ز (Layering)
1.3.4ݻ (Persistence)
1.3.5ʬ (Divergence)
1.3.6ü첽 (Specialization)
1.3.7ƿ (Renewal)
1.4Ѳ (Subjectification)
1.5ʬ (Reanalysis)
1.6饤ʸˡϢ (Grammaticalization chains)
1.7ʸˡȥ (Iconicity)
1.8ʸˡȳŬ (Exaptation)
1.9ʸˡȡָ (Invisible hand)
1.10ʸˡȡή (Drift)
2ϡǥಽ
2.1
2.2ǥȤ
2.3ǥಽ
2.4ǥಽװ
2.4.1ŪŪ
2.4.2æƲ (Decategorialization)
2.4.3ʬ (Reanalysis)
2.4.4 (Frequency of occurrence)
2.5ǥಽʸˡڤӸò
ʬ
1ϡѸˤʣưȯã
1.1
1.2Ը
1.3ǡ
1.4ʣưΥǥŪħ
1.4.1Give
1.4.2Take
1.5֤ӡ The Cely Letters The Paston Letters
1.6
2ϡѸˤʣư
2.1
2.2Ը
2.3ǡ
2.4¤ħ
2.5ط̾첽
2.6ưħ
2.6.1Do
2.6.2Give
2.6.3Have
2.6.4Make
2.6.5Take
2.7ʣưʸˡ
2.8
3ϡGive ǥη
3.1
3.2Ը
3.3ǡڤ give ѥε
3.4
3.4.1ʸˡȥǥ
3.4.2ʬϤỌ̇̄ɺ
3.4.3ǥಽ
3.4.4̾
3.4.5ʸ
3.4
3.4.1ʸˡȥǥ
3.4.2ʬϤỌ̇̄ɺ
3.4.3ǥಽ
3.4.4̾
3.4.5ʸ
3.5
4ϡ2ĤΥפμưʸ
4.1
4.2Ը
4.3ǡ
4.4ǥಽ
4.5
5ϡƵưȴϢʸ
5.1
5.2Ը
5.3ǡ
5.3.1Content oneself with
5.3.2Avail oneself of
5.3.3Devote oneself to
5.3.4Apply oneself to
5.3.5Attach oneself to
5.3.6Address oneself to
5.3.7Confine oneself to
5.3.8Concern oneself with/about/in
5.3.9Take (it) upon oneself to V
5.4Ƶưʸˡڤӥǥಽ
5.5Ƶưưڤʣư
5.5.1Prepare
5.5.2Interest
5.6
6ϡFar from ʸˡǥಽ
6.1
6.2Ը
6.3ǡ
6.4ʸˡȥǥಽ
6.4.1ʸˡ
6.4.2̣ѲѲδطǥಽ
6.5
7ϡʣֻ
7.1
7.2Ը
7.3ǡ
7.4ʣֻȯã
7.4.1Instead of
7.4.2On account of
7.5ط (Rivalry)
7.5.1In comparison of/in comparison with/in comparison to
7.5.2By virtue of/in virtue of
7.5.3In spite of/in despite of
7.6õǽȯã
7.7ʸˡòǥಽ
7.8
8ϡưֻ
8.1
8.2Ը
8.3ǡڤʬ
8.3.1Concerning
8.3.2Considering
8.3.3Regarding
8.3.4Relating to
8.3.5Touching
8.4ưֻʸˡ
8.5
9ϡư pray ʸˡ
9.1
9.2Ը
9.3ǡ
9.415
9.516
9.617
9.718
9.819
9.9ʸˡ
9.9.1ʸˡ
9.9.2ǫɸʸˡ
9.10
10ϡ'I'm afraid' Ūȯã
10.1
10.2Ը
10.3ǡڤӤʸˡ
10.4ʸˡ---Hopper (1991) 濴
10.5
11ϡ'I dare say' Ūȯã
11.1
11.2Ը
11.3ǡʬ
11.4ʸˡʸ
11.5
12ϡưˤ after forth ο
12.1
12.2For ˤ after θ
12.2.1Ը
12.2.2ư
12.2.3After for ΰ̣ǽѲ
12.3Forth ο
12.3.1Ը
12.3.2Forth ȶưμ
12.3.3Out ˤ forth θ
12.4
13ϡWanting פư֤˸붥 --- desire, hope, want ڤ wish 濴 ---
13.1
13.2Ը
13.3Ѳ
13.3.1Desire
13.3.2Hope
13.3.3Want
13.3.4Wish
13.44ĤưỤ̄Ūħ
13.4.1°ˤˡڤӻ
13.4.1.1Desire + that/Ø
13.4.1.2Hope + that/Ø
13.4.1.3Wish + that/Ø
13.4.2Desire, hope, want ڤ wish to 칽¤
13.4.3That ξά
13.5ƥ˻ѲڤӺ
13.6
ʸ
̾
¼䡡ʸˡȥǥಽ١ҤĤ˼2014ǯ
ǯѸä blend ʺˤƤ¤ˤĤƤϡǤ hellog Ǥ֤ⷫ夲Ƥ
#631. blending γ ([2011-01-18-1])
#876. Ѹˤ뤫Ф˹⤤ ([2011-09-20-1])
#4369. Brexit --- ͷӤθ ([2021-04-13-1])
츫 blend ϿܤͷӤˤ夢ޤǼŪʸݤˤȤɤޤȻפ뤫⤷ʤǯαѸˤ뤽ι⤵ϡθѤĤĤ롥㤨СFertig (70) ϡȤŪʰյĤȤΤ褦⤷Ƥ롥
Blends are often treated as a marginal phenomenon (Haspelmath and Sims 2010:40). Aronoff discusses them under the heading 'oddities' and considers them 'words which have no recognizable internal structure or constituents'; they are 'opaque, and hence uncommon' (1976: 20). Recent developments suggest that Aronoff may have had the relationship between opacity and frequency backwards here. Blends may have been rather opaque in 1976 precisely because they were still relatively uncommon. Today, at least in English, blends (of certain types) can hardly be called uncommon, and we generally seem to have little trouble parsing and processing them. As we will see in §7.3.8, this issue of the relationship between the frequency of a morphological pattern and its transparency/opacity has implications for some fundamental theoretical issues of great relevance to morphological change.
To the extent that some types of blending have become productive and predictable morphological operations in present-day English, it is no longer accurate to classify them as non-proportional. They amount to a kind of compounding with the two elements overlapping in accordance with well defined constraints. Within Paul's proportional theory, they could thus be handled by an extension of the (syntagmatic) proportional equations that he proposes for syntax (see §6.2 below). Blending as a type of word formation would fit even more easily into certain other theories of morphology. Insights and analytical tools from Prosodic Morphology (McCarthy and Prince 1995) have made it clear that (most) blends absolutely do have 'recognizable internal structure'. They are a type of non-concatenative morphology. Instead of combining two words into a linear string as in compounding, blends superimpose one word onto the prosodic structure of another (Piñeros 1998, 2004).
衤ϷŪˤ¤ƩȤߤʤƤϺˤޤ㤫ä˽ʬ˲Ƥ餺ƩפȤΥåƥŽƤʤΤǤϤʤ줬Ƥ븽ߡѼԤ⤹ä괷졤षƩ⤯ʤäƤȤΤǤϤʤơ٤Фʤ顤䲻ˤΥϤΤǤϤʤȤΤ褦ʵǤ롥
Χ (Prosodic Morphology) ȤʬƤ褦Ǥꡤˡ#3722. ϱ¦βȰפ ([2019-07-06-1]) Ǥߤ̤ꡤħŪʱΧ¤Τˤ褦κؤŸ˴Ԥ
Fertig, David. Analogy and Morphological Change. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2013.
͵ YouTube/Podcast ֤ͥإ饸κǿۿޤϱѸˤȤ⤪˴طԵ§ưϤʤ¸ߤΤڥ륷ʸˡ_Ե§ư#280Ǥ
إ饸οˤϡVoicy ֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸 (heldio) YouTube ְͥʼδѸظإͥΤĤδϢƥĤ˸ڤƤޤȴȯϤĤإ饸ˡαѸ˾夲ƤȤƤǤΥȥԥḁ̊Ϥޤ褦ˡ
˷ǺܤƤƥؤΥˤƷǤƤޤ
رѸΡ֤ʤפϤƤαѸˡ١ʸҡ2016ǯ
رѸˤDzۤѸθ --- ǼƱѸؤ֤ˡ١ؽ2011ǯ
heldio #58. ʤٸˤԵ§ʤȤ¿ΤǤ
YouTube ֿ⡪ go β went ͳ (cf. #4774. go/went ϼҲŪȥޥǤ ([2022-05-23-1])
YouTube ֱѸԵ§ưΤҤ⤴ --- о졪 (cf. hellog #4810. sing β sang Ǥ⤢ sung Ǥ⤢롪 ([2022-06-28-1])
YouTube ΤαѸԵ§ư餱 (cf. #4807. -ed ˤ뵬§ưνиϳ̿Ūä ([2022-06-25-1])
heldio #9. first -st ϺǾä
heldio #10. third three + th ѷʤΤǽ൬§Ū
heldio #11. ʤ second 2ܤΡפϼѸ졪
Ե§ưϤʤ¸ߤΤפȤѸ˴ؤѤʵ䤫⤭佼ˡ (suppletion) ʡ֥СסˤƳˡԵ§μҲŪյͳĤġΤȤƸˤֵ§פ뤤ϡԵ§פȤϲʤΤȤ礭ʵƤޤٸ꤬Ȥޤ#5130. ֤إ饸ȥ ([2023-05-14-1]) ⤼ҤȤ
427ʿˤ˸줿 YouTube ְʼδѸظإͥǤּΤߤʤط̾ʸˡְ㤨нˡǤ衼ڰʼδѸظإͥ # 18 ۡꤷƴط̾夲ޤʤʤ¿İƤ褦ǡ꤬¤Ǥºݤ2ͤǤ⤷Ȥ٤äƤޤʾСˡҤ
ɸѸǴط̾Ȥ which, who, whom, that, ƥʤط̾ξάդ꤬ޤΤ줬Ѥ뤫ȤˤϡʣΥѥʣ˴ؤäƤޤط̾Ǥ䤬ʤʤΤŪʤʤΤȤȤϤ¡ˡΰ㤤Ի줬̵ͭʤɤ̣Ūѥʣ˴ͿƤޤˡޤܤޤ¤ϻѰ (register) ȤŪѥط̾ˤȤƤפ̤ƤΤǤ
Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (608--21) ˤϡѥѤط̾˴ؤĴ̤ܺ٤˼ƤޤϤȤʤ顤ΤȤƺǤ٤ι⤤Ȥ which that ˾ơξԤʬۤ٤Ƥߤޤ礦
which that ¿ξؤǽǤعʸˡǶȤꡤ§Ȥ which Ի줬̵ξ˸¤졤ޤˡΤߤʤ餺ˡȤƤȤȤħߤޤthat ԻӤޤˡ˸ꤵޤ
which that ʬۤΰ㤤ˤĤƤ⤷ΤϡΤ褦̣ŪװƱ餤ѰȤװƤȤȤǤwhich ݼŪdzؽŪʴޤߤꡤؽѻʸǤˡ˸ꤹС70%ᡤthat ݤƤޤthat ϸŪǤޤߤꡤ㤨ХեǤˡ˸ꤹȡ75%ޤ
ޤꥫѸ줫ꥹѸ줫Ȥ㤤⡤which vs that Ǥޤ˥塼ǤˡܤȡꥫѸΤۤ餫 that ߡꥹѸǤ which ߤޤä٤ȡޤޤꥫѸǤ that ޤ졤ꥹѸ2ܤ٤Ѥޤ
ΤȤơLGSWE (616) which vs that зˤĤƼΤ褦礷Ƥޤ
The AmE preference for that over which reflects a willingness to use a form with colloquial associations more widely in written contexts than BrE.
ط̾αˤϻѰȤեҤǤΤǤ
ʤߤˡ18:00˸ YouTube #19 ϴط̾³ԤȤʤޤڤߤˡ
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad, and Edward Finegan, eds. Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education, 1999.
ε#4678. ˤݤĹء ([2022-02-16-1]) ǡˤݤĹءפδߤϤ⤦1ĤδǤ֤餮פܤ褦餮ϤˤĤơ (112) ϼΤ褦Ƥ롥
Τ褦ʲݤª뼫ˡΰĤȤơϰ˽иñ٤ʬĴ٤뤳Ȥ롥ñνиˤ餮ΤǤСϰˤñ줬иʤ礬ꡤޤǤñ줬¿и⤢ꡤ٤ʬ礭ʤϤǤ롥
ϸȤƤʬ䤹ʸɽäǰƬˤ硤餮ϸˤäưۤʤ뤬⤷Ȥˡ륭ɤϤФФ餮礭Ȥ桤p. 118ˡϡŪʥɤƱʤɤ˹ʶ̣Ǥ롥
ޤʹָˤʸϤȥʸʸϤȤǤ餮٤ȡ餫Ԥ餮礭ΤȤϿʹָħΰü롥ˡʸϤΥˤäƤ餮ϰۤʤ뤿ˡ桤p. 120ˡ餮ٹ礤ʸŪʻɸȤʤ롥
͡ʲǽˤ֤餮פ˥ƥʤĥäƤϢơ1/f 餮 (1/f) ܡ
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
ˤϡ¾¿μҲݤˤߤֲݡפȤΤѻ롥 (98) Ѥ롥
ηϰǸСֲݡסĤޤñ줬ǤޤäƸ뤳ȡñ줬öȤФ餯δ֤ˤ˽иǡȤۤȤɽиʤʤ뷹뤳ȤȤľŪª뤳ȤǤ롥ݤǤϡûֳ֤³ˤûֳ֤졤ޤդĹֳ֤³ˤĹֳ֤ǽ⤤Τ褦ʸβݤװΰĤϡΤȤʤʸ̮Ѳˤ롥
ݤϡͻʤɡޤޤʣϤˤƤϤ褯Τά͡ȤС籫Ͽ̤ǤޤäƸ뤳ȤϷи̤ïΤäƤҲŪоݤˤƤ⡤ȤСˤϡȤʤäơϢԤ뤿ᡤϤݤ뤳ȤΤ롥Ʊͤˡñ⤢ñ줬ȤʤꡤñʤӤ˴Ϣñβи롥
ƤߤСäȤȤݤǤϤ롥βݤΰŪʸˤˤ뤬˱ѤϾʤ褦ˡȤƤϡ礭ʬơĹءפȡ֤餮פܤ2बȤǤԤƤ
ĹءפˤϤϡ֤ΡĤʬؤʬεΥ s ˰¸ƤɤΤ褦Ѳ뤫Ĵ٤ϡפǤ桤p. 99ˡߤΥ줿2Ĥʬ¤ƤĹؤȤȤˤʤcf. #4675. ʣϡ ([2022-02-13-1]) ǸڤĹסˡ
ѸˤѸǤ괧 the ˤĤơĹʸϤĹزϤߤȡɤ夤Ĺؤ褦桤p. 105ˡޤǼ夤ĹؤˤȤɤޤꡤ٤ߤ the ˤ餢٤βݤߤ뤳ȤȽ롥äȤˡthe ⸽ȤϸǤޤäƸ졤ʤȤˤϤФ餯ʤȤȤٴѻΤǤ롥 (109ˤϡԸ˽λ¤Τ褦˲ᤷƤ롥
k Ĥûֳ֤ȡ³ k + 1ܤδֳ֤ûk ĤĹֳ֤ȡ³ k + 1ܤδֳ֤Ĺˤ롥ûֳ֤³ȤϡоݤȤʤñ줬ǤޤäƸ뤳ȤƤ롥άͤΤ褦ʲݤطʤˤʸ̮Ѳ롥the ˤĤƤϡޤ괧濴ȤưŪʳǰƳθ塤Ƴ줿ǰˤĤƵԤ졤κݤ the ¿Ѥ롥
ϡäˤ¤ (information_structure) ܤthe ˤĤƤβݤɤ߲ȤäƤ褤
ҡظȥե饯 --- ѤνѤˤɬ١ؽDz2021ǯ
ŪԵ§Ϲٸ˽椷Ƥ롥ŵԵ§ưǤ롥§Ū -ed դƲ밵Ū¿ưФơԵ§ưϿʤƤŪ٤ι⤤ưǤ롥Ե§Ե§Ȥ go be β went, was/were ʤɤϡ佼ˡ (suppletion) ˤΤǤꡤŵƤʤǤǤʤϡĶٸǤ뤳ȤطƤ롥դλϰʲεǤ夲Ƥ
֤ʤٸˤԵ§ʤȤ¿ΤǤ ʵ729դֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ˤƲ
#3859. ʤˤԵ§ʸݤΤǤ ([2019-11-20-1])
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])
#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])
#3284. be ưü ([2018-04-24-1])
Ǥϡʤ٤ι⤤ưˤԵ§ѤΤ¿Τ (memory) ֤οŪɽ (mental representation) ʤŪǤ롥Smith (1535) βѤ롥
The relationship between high frequency and irregularity has to do with memory in so far as those verbs that are used frequently have strong mental representations such that the irregular past forms are stored autonomously and thus accessed independently of the present stem. Such items are said to have become "entrenched" in storage . . . . On the other hand, a low frequency form does not necessarily have its past form stored autonomously and does not allow for direct access to that past form. Thus, its use in the past involves access to the present stem and rule application . . . .
٤ι⤤ưβϡˤ˻Ѥ뤿ˡΤʤľܥǤФˤޤäƤΤǤ롥go Ȥ߷ˤ went ˤɤ夯褦Ǥϡ٤Ωʤgo ͳˡľ went ΰФˤɤ夭٤㤤ưǤС߷ˤơ -ed դȤ§ŬѤη⡤ޤΤȤˤʤΤѤ롥ĤޤꡤФ٤˱ľܥȴܥ2ʬƤΤΨŪǤ롥
Ǥϡ-ed դƲ뵬§ưϾ˷ȼܥʤΤȤȡɬ⤽ǤϤʤ褦Smith (1535) ǾҲ𤵤Ƥ뤢븦ˤȡƱǤ kneaded needed ︳ԤȯƤäȤŪ٤㤤Ԥ -ed Τۤ٤ι⤤Ԥθ⡤ʿѤƿߥĹȯ줿Ȥϡneeded ΤۤưפǤ뤳ȡ餯ľܤ˵¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥
Smith, K. Aaron. "New Perspectives, Theories and Methods: Frequency and Language Change." Chapter 97 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1531--46.
ѸˤǤϡűѸꡤλɽ魯Τ have λ be λ2बԤʤƤbe λϼư졤褽ưư˸ꤵ졤have λ٤ФȤΩʤ¸ߤǤϤäѸˤ have λޤޤˤӡưư have λؤȾ괹Ƥä
嵭ϡbe λοˤζʽŪʳѤǤ롥Ϣ뵭Ȥơ#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1])#1814. 18--19 be λο CLMET dzǧ ([2014-04-15-1])#3031. have λ be λ --- Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy ([2017-08-14-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ƕ be λ have λΨ̻Ūܤ餫ˤ Smith (2012: 1537) ĴߤĤΤǡҲ𤷤Ƥ头Ȥ type ٤ token ٤Ψʤӳ١ˤƤʴȤʤäƤΤ Smith ̤2001ǯ "Role" ʸˡ
| Type | Token | |||
| Be | have | Be | have | |
| OE | 16% (11) | 84% (57) | 21% (18) | 79% (85) |
| EME | 11% (12) | 89% (92) | 24% (69) | 76% (214) |
| LME | 11% (9) | 89% (70) | 11% (12) | 89% (96) |
| EModE | 8% (10) | 92% (115) | 4% (13) | 96% (319) |
| 19th C | 3% (8) | 97% (311) | 4% (38) | 96% (839) |
ѸǺǤ٤ι⤤ϡ괧 the Ǥ롥#308. Ѹκѱñꥹȡ ([2010-03-01-1]) ΤɤɽߤƤ⡤Ū1̤Ǥ롥ȤۤɽפʸǤʤָŪʰ̣פϤʤΤϡʸˡŪʵǽפΤߤǤ롥the ϡ̤ˤΤΤΤΤΤؼôäƤȤ졤ʸˡŪǤƱŪŪʸǤ⤢롥
̤괧֤Τ괧 a(n) ̵ˡδ֤λȤʬȤϤĤȤΤƤ롥§Ǥ뤳ȤǤ㳰¸ߤ롥ޤƱѸǤѼ֤ǻȤʬۤʤ롥֥Ƥפ play the guitar ʤΤ play guitar ʤΤơפ in hospital ʤΤ in the hospital ʤΤ
Ѽ֡ʤüԸĿʹ֡ˤǰۤʤΤϡȤˤȤɤޤʤȯ [ðə], [ði], [ðiː] ʤɤѰۤ롥Τ褦ʸ줬ȥĤĶٸǤȤΤ⡤ͤƤߤФؤääǤ롥
ˤˤĤƤϤɤűѸ䡤Ǥ륲ޥĸ졤ƵˤĤĸǤ⡤ΤϤʤäѸˤߤƤ⡤ꡦ˴ȤϡűѸˤ¸ߤѸʹߤȯãƤԤǤ롥űѸˤ this that ؼ¸ߤƤꡤ˸ԤǴ줬ޤƤȤаޤ롥줬ѸʹߤˤϡʤƤϤʤʤŪʸؤФͤƤ櫓顤ԻĤä
the ˤĤܤ30ʬΥ饸ȤҲ𤷤褦BBC Radio 4's Word of Mouth: The Most Powerful Word Ǥ롥ѸˤȤthe ԻĤ̥Ϥ;ȤʤäƤ롥ȤƤޤȤɤᤷѸˤδϡȤ櫓Ⱦ "Origins" ͭѡ
ʤܥ֥Ǥ the ˤĤ͡˰äƤ##3831,154,156,2144,2855,2856,906,907,2236,4132εåɤ
variationist Ω٤˲ʤѲ˴ѤƤ롤Kretzschmar and Tamasi ͤɤ"A-curve", "asymptotic hyperbolic distribution", "power law", "S-curve" ʤɤѸ줬Ϣȯפ鷺ȹƤޤʸȤƤ뤳Ȥ Zipf's Law (cf. zipfs_law) ȯŸǤΤ褦˻פ롥٤θ¿٤θϾʤȤȤ
Ѹ쥳ѥˤơ1٤ʤ롥the, of, have ʤɤĶ٤Ǹ뤬ȤƵǽǤǤ˸ꤵ롥㤨С1ʤ ( x = 1 ) 1000 ( y = 1000 ) 뤬1000⸽ ( x = 1000 ) the 1줷ʤ ( y = 1 ) Ȥȡɸ˥ץåȤƤߤ1ݸ¤κȱǤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥2ξüȤơδ֤Ƥȡy = 1/x ɽ碌褦ж (asymptotic hyperbolic curve) ҳ˶Ť Kretzschmar and Tamasi "A-curve" ȸƤǤꡤظˤˡ§ "power law" ʤ٤§ˤȸƤǤ롥Ԥ "few realizations that occur very frequently and many realizations that occur infrequently" (384) ȤȤǤ롥
Kretzschmar and Tamasi ϡꥫˤ¸Ĵ variants ĴƼѰ۷ˤĤ٤ʬۤä̤ȤơΥˤĤƤ "A-curve" ѻ뤳Ȥ
ޤKretzschmar and Tamasi ϡóȻ (lexical_diffusion) ȤδϢǤФиڤ "S-curve" ȡ "A-curve" ȤδطˤĤƤƤ롥ƱθѲۤʤ뼴ܤƥץåȤ "S-curve" ˤ "A-curve" ˤʤꡤξԤ̷⤷ʤɤ⤤Ȥ
ۤջȤǤϾ꤯⤹뤳ȤǤʤΤηϤѲŰŪ variationist į褦ȤȡΤ褦ʸѤ뤤ϸˤʤΤȴKretzschmar and Tamasi (394) ꡤȤ櫓פȻפսѤ롥
Our second observation, about the distribution of variants according to Zipf's Law, has the strongest set of implications for historical study of language. If we take the A-curve as the model for the frequency distribution of variants for any linguistic feature of interest to us at any moment in time, then we should expect that any particular variant of interest to us will have a particular rank along the A-curve. Therefore, one of the things that we should try to do for any given moment in time is to determine the place of our variant of interest on the curve; we need to know whether it is the most frequent variant in the set of possible realizations (at the top of the curve), or an infrequent variant (in the tail of the curve). Then, for any subsequent moment in time, we can again try to determine the location of our variant of interest along the curve, and so try to make a statement about whether the location of the variant has changed in the intervening time (see Figure 14). Since we hypothesize that an A-curve will exist for every feature at any moment in time (i.e., that language will not suddenly become invariant), we can define the notion "linguistic change" itself as the change in the location of the target variant at different heights along the curve. If a particular variant occurs at a higher place on the curve than it did before, it has become more frequent and so we can say that the direction of change for that variant is positive; if a variant occurs at a lower place on the curve than it did before, it has become less frequent and the direction of change is negative.

Kretzschmar, Jr.,William A and Susan Tamasi. "Distributional Foundations for a Theory of Language Change." World Englishes 22 (2003): 377--401.
ѸƱޥե٥åȤѤʸΤʤǤ⡤ˡ (punctuation) ˴ؤƤŪñ롥Ūʶɵ椬ФäΤ500ǯ餤Ǥꡤο¿ʤ (cf. #575. Ū punctuation ˤ500ǯۤɡ ([2010-11-23-1])) ޤʸΤΤ26ʸʤˡեɥĸʤɤˤߤ롤ʸμդդüȯʹ (diacritical mark; cf. #870. diacritical mark ([2011-09-14-1])) ⸶§ȤѤʤˡΰʸǤ϶ɵ椬˻Ȥ褦ˤʤäƤƤȤ롥net_speak ʤɤǤϡʶɵλˡ߽ФƤ뤳ȤΤǤꡤˡȯŸߤޤäƤޤä櫓ǤϤʤ褦 (cf. #808. smileys or emoticons ([2011-07-14-1]))
ơ100ΥꥫѸνեѥ Brown Corpus ѤĴˤȡѸμפʶɵλ (%) ϼ̤Ȥ (Cook 92)
| Commas | 47 |
| Full stops | 45 |
| Dashes | 2 |
| Parentheses | 2 |
| Semi-colons | 2 |
| Question marks | 1 |
| Colons | 1 |
| Exclamation marks | 1 |
#3881. ʸɲΡ2ϩǥס ([2019-12-12-1]) εǤߤ褦ˡʸɤˤϡֲ롼ȡ (phonological route) ȡָ롼ȡ (lexical route) 2ϩꤵƤ롥ŵŪˤϳơե٥åȤȴʷɤߡˤ˷ӤĤΤʬ䤹ե٥åȤ֤줿ñ줬롼Ȥɲ뤳Ȥ⤢Сʸδ롼Ȥɲ뤳Ȥ⤢ΤǡñǤϤʤCook (25) ϡ2ĤΥ롼ȤʲΤ褦椷Ƥ롥
| Phonological route | Lexical route | |
|---|---|---|
| Converts written units | To phonemes | To meanings |
| Also known as | Assembled phonology | Addressed phonology |
| Needs | Mental rules | Mental lexicon of items |
| Works by | Correspondence rules | Matching |
| Can handle | Any novel combination | Only familiar symbols |
| Used with | Any words | High frequency words |
ѸˤѸؤιֵǥꥢڡѡƤ餦ȡ֤ʤѸˤϡΤ褦Ե§ʸݤ¿ΤǤפȤ䤬¿ޤΤ˱ѸؽˤƤϡԵ§ưѡԵ§̾ʣԵ§ʥڥʤɤΩ³˸졤ΤӤ˰ŵޤ٤Ƥ§ŪǤФΤˤȻפΤ̵̤ȤǤѸ2ȤƳؤֺݤˤΤ褦뤳Ȥϡޤää̤δФǤ礦
Ǥ1ȤƶϫʤƤޤäƤܸͤƤ⡤ϤԵ§ƤޤܸüԤϡʳѡʳѡʳѡѳʳѡѳʳѤζϫʤȤʤƤޤȤܸؤǤؽԤˤȤäƤϡʤ٤Ƥư줬ʳѤǤäƤʤΤ⤷ޤѤ䥵ѤϡѳʡפʤԵ§פʤ櫓Ǥ顤ؽԤˤȤäƤǤǤ礦ѸؽԤˤȤäƤ thing -- thought -- thought go -- went -- gone 纹ޤ
ˤԵ§դΤǤԵ§ϸźνŪʸݤʤΤǤ˳ؽԤˤȤäƵ¤СŪŪ٤ιܤǤФۤԵ§⤤ΤǤĤޤꡤ볰ؽˤƽ٥ۤɰŵ٤Ե§¿顦٥˶ŤƤȵ§Ƥޤ˾ŪȤ⤤¤Ǥ줬ȤΤǤ
ϡʤԵ§뤫ȤȤǤ٤Ե§źν̤ŪǤȤСˤƤϡ٤Ƥ§ŪȤषԹΰȤΤꤻޤ٤Ե§äۤʲȤȤǤǤϡϲʤΤǤ礦
ˤĤƹͤ餻ʤֺȴʸ˼פȤ˻פޤʸϤƤ뼫δնˤ͡ʸ˼ޤ˼ФȤˤΥڥΩƤˤϡƼΥڥΤۤϤߡå구ۥåοijޤƱʤȤˤϡݥȥåȤȥѥåɤޤܤˤ͡ʸ˼ǼǤФêꡤˤϸҡơסäࡤåࡤۥåƤʤɤäƤޤդΰФϡɤȤˤˤޤѤƤޤƤߤǯɮѤΥ緿ۥåꤢѥĹ구ʤɤäƤޤ
֤äƤߤȡǽ餫Τ褦֤ʸ˼櫓ǤϤޤǤĹ֤ơˤȤäƻ̳ȾԹΤ褤֤ˤʤäƤΤȻפޤϤߤۥåοijϡˤȤäƻ٤⤤ΤǼˤäۤȤȤǡ˻ΥڥΩƤ꽻˻äΤǤ礦ꤢѥϤۤȤɻȤʤΤǡ°ΰФκǤ̲äƤΤǤ礦٤ι⤤ʸ˼ϡȤˤ˼ϤˤʤΩޤۤȤɻѤʤʸ˼ϡषФαǤäƤ⤭ǼƤۤ嵤褤Ǥޤ˻Ȥ餤ǤФषʤΤǤ
٤㤤ʸ˼ǤС֤ΰФפΡֱפȤ2ʹθˡǤ⽽ʬѤޤޤλѤǤ顤õΤ˾λ֤ȹäƤǤޤ٤ι⤤ʸ˼Ϥ⤤ޤ줤˼ǼƤʤȤ⡤ڥݥȥåȤϡϤꤹ긵ˤʤΩʤΤǤ̵¤ǤޤʤȤˤΤ˻֤ȹʤۤ褤ΤǤ
Ѥˤñ⡤ʸ˼ƱȤǤѸҲˤư̤ go ʹԤˤ locomote ʼϤưˤȤǤ٤餫˰ۤʤޤޤˤȤʤưˤĤƤϡ§Ū˳Ѥ롤ʤ locomote + ed Τ褦˷ȤݤˤѤޤ٤ưˤĤơƱ褦ˤƷΤϡ餫˸ΨǤ礦go Ȥ went Ȥ褦ˡΤ褦ˤФۤǤΤ˺ǽ˰ŵ륳ȤϹ⤯ĤޤäꥢƤޤСθλѤ˺ݤƸΨΤ褤ѥեޥޤޤ礭ۤʤ뤳Ȥˤꡤְ㤤ʹְ㤤βǽ㤯ʤȤ⤢ޤԵ§餳ȤȤ⤢ΤǤ
٤Ƥñ줬Ʊ٤Ѥ褦ʸϤޤΤ褦ʸ줬ѤʹּҲǤޤ褯ȤʤñȤۤȤɻȤʤñ줬Ʊ路ƤΤȤΤǤ⤷˽Ҥ٤̤ꡤñˤ٤κԵ§طƤΤȤСʤźθˤԵ§ʸݤߤΤǤޤ
߿ʹθѲȤˡ褯ֿѲסֺǶѲפȸƤ֤Ȥ롥ܸǤС֤ȴաפŵθѲϷ褷ƿϤʤ#2132. ȴաar ȴաeru դա ([2015-02-27-1]) ǿ줿褦ˡǤϾ½鵭Ͽꡤ餯鵯ϤƤѸ˴ؤƤ⡤Ȥ often /t/ ȯ褦ˤʤäƤȤ߿ʹѲȤܤ뤬/t/ ȯΤΤϢʤ³ƤΤǤꡤ̩ˤСֿѲפȤϸƤӤˤ⡤ߤʹѲǤϤˤϰ㤤ʤ˻ϤޤäѲǤϤʤǯʾ塤ˤäƤϿʾ³ƤѲȤ⤤ˤäƤΤǤcf. #860. ѸѲѰۤΰ ([2011-09-04-1])ˡ
ŪˤС¿ο͡ѲȤߤʤƤΤϡƤǤˤʤˤΤŤѲǤ롥Ѳ˾˥ƥʤĥäƤؼԤǤ顤ФФ櫤α¿ˤʤ롥Arnold Zwicky Ϥ櫤 "the Recency Illusion" ȸƤ¤˸̯Denison (158) Zwicky ˤ"Just Between Dr. Language and I" ꤹ뵭鼡ΰƤ롥
[...] the Recency Illusion, the belief that things YOU have noticed only recently are in fact recent. This is a selective attention effect. Your impressions are simply not to be trusted; you have to check the facts. Again and again---retro not, double is, speaker-oriented hopefully, split infinitives, etc.---the phenomena turn out to have been around, with some frequency, for very much longer than you think. It's not just Kids These Days. Professional linguists can be as subject to the Recency Illusion as anyone else.
ϢơZwicky "Frequency Illusion" ˤڤƤ롥
[...] Another selective attention effect, which tends to accompany the Recency Illusion, is the Frequency Illusion: once you've noticed a phenomenon, you think it happens a whole lot, even "all the time." Your estimates of frequency are likely to be skewed by your noticing nearly every occurrence that comes past you. People who are reflective about language---professional linguists, people who set themselves up as authorities on language, and ordinary people who are simply interested in language---are especially prone to the Frequency Illusion.
ˤƤϤФСֿѲϻפäŤѲפǤꡤˤʸݤϻפä굩ʸݡסʤˤĤƤϡդޤʤˤǤ뤳ȤõƤ
Denison, David. "Word Classes in the History of English" Chapter 13 of Approaches to Teaching the History of the English Language: Pedagogy in Practice. Introduction. Ed. Mary Heyes and Allison Burkette. Oxford: OUP, 2017. 157--71.
Zwicky, Arnold. "Just between Dr. Language and I." Language Log. 2005. Accessed May 4, 2006, http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002386.html .
may ʸˤ丽ǤλˤĤ may optative εǰäƤ (78) ѤƤ Declerck (416) ˤȡmay ʸħȤ4ŦƤ롥
a. In a main clause, a wish (malediction or benediction) is introduced by may.
b. This use of may is very formal and rarely found in modern English, except in standing expressions.
c. May always expresses a present wish with future actualisation.
d. Might cannot be used in a similar way.
a, c, d ˤĤƤʤ뤬b ˤĤƤϤɤȤϤ鷺Ȥ⡤ɬפʤ褦˻פ롥
may ʸθߤ뤿ˡBNCweb Ƥߤư may ʸ "may_VM0" Ȼˤϡ3,537ΥƥȤ112,397㤬ҥåȤΤʤ龯ɤεˡϳʤõΤˤϤޤ˹ޤ롥ǡmay ʸŵŪѥ䴶ò¸ߤʤɤˡʤ٤¿㤬֤ˤϤȤκǺ뤳ȤˤξǡȤˤƳΤʸФ
̤ȤƼФΤ100ĤۤɤʸǤʷ̤ޤȤƥȥեˡĤ1줫ʤ륳ѥ100ȤȤϡ٤ȤϼȤϤ롥ޤ귿ɽ (Declerck "standing expressions"ˤ¿ȤȤǧ줿äȤ⡤ҤΤ褦귿ɽʤɤΡַפ˸ƤΤǡη̤ȤǤ롥Ȥ May God bless/forgive/rest . . . Long may it flourish/continue/last . . . May . . . be with you . . . Much good may it do . . . ʤɤϡ餫ʥѥƤ롥
ηˤϤޤ꤭äΤФǤϤʤmay ʸϡΤ褦ʤޤΥѥ˴ŤƸؤΡ֥ѥǥפȤϤ߽Ф¿ʤȤϤʥפʸΤƤΤǤ롥ΰ̣ǡ١פ㤯ȤפɬꤨƤʤȸΤǤϤʤΤ褦Ƥ
Happy days, Jack, and may all your troubles be little ones!' (A73 91)
AN OLD CAMBRIDGE toast is, 'Here's to pure mathematics - may she never be of any use to anyone!' (B7C 2026)
St Augustine taught that God had created man in his own image and so it was by looking at his own soul that man would discover God: 'May I know myself! may I know thee!' he had cried. (CD4 417)
May you be doing so well into the next century! (CGB 37)
With joy may we burn and cleanse!' (CM4 255)
May all dealers have this problem! (EBU 2407)
May you take that knowledge to your grave!' (HGV 6054)
⤦1 authentic 1ۤǯϤ˳鼡Τ褦ʸǻϤޤä
We hope this email finds you all well and settling in to the New Year. May it be a productive and enjoyable one for one and all!
ʡ"May the Force Be with You!"Ѹ may ʸˤĤơסطضס642015ǯ77--84ǡ
Declerck, R. A Comprehensive Descriptive Grammar of English. Tokyo: Kaitaku-sha, 1991.
(162) Ѹ줫鸽Ѹˤǧưμ١פɽǤ褦ɽ (p) "personal"(i) "impersonal" ˡʤɽϡֳƻǰ줿ưٽˤäѤ˼ΡפȤΤȤǤ롥
| 14th | 15th | 16th | 17th | 18th | 19th | 20th |
| knowe | suppose | know | know | think | think | think |
| witen | trust | think | think | believe | suppose | know |
| thinke (p) | trow | trow | find suppose | know | suppose | |
| seme | understand | trust/wot | believe | know | believe | believe |
| wene | wot | believe | suppose | guess | guess | guess |
| trowe | hope | wene | fancy | |||
| thinke (i) | know | suppose | guess | |||
| understonde | deme/think/wene | guess | trust | |||
| deme | deme | |||||
| mene | doubt | |||||
| trust | believe | |||||
| hope | guess | |||||
| gessen | ||||||
| leve | ||||||
| undertake | ||||||
| suppose | ||||||
| beleven |
1. think know Ӥ¿ȤƤ롥
2. suppose 15ˤϺǤ¿Ȥ줿θƤ18ʹߤ¿ʤäƤä
3. believe Ѹ (Chaucer)15ˤϤۤȤɻȤʤä17ʹ¿Ȥ褦ˤʤä
4. guess ϰӤƤۤ¿Ϥʤ
5. witen, wene, wot 17˻Ȥʤʤä
6. trowe 17˻ȤʤʤäޤưϤۤȤ as ? ηǻȤ줿
7. ɽˤϤϤäȤɽƤʤfancy ϸѸǤϻȤʤʤä
(170) ϡư̻Ụ̄ (semantic_field) 붥Ȱ֤ŤƤ롥
witan, wene ο think 礬طޤ know η̤Ǥ⤢ȹͤ롥Fancy 17餷Ф餯ȤƤ20ȡepistemic phrase ȤƻȤʤʤäΤϡimagine ʤɤưɤ줿ꡤ뤤Ϥθ켫Ȥ¾ˡfancy restaurant Τ褦̾졤ƻŪˡˤȯãǤȹͤ롥դ˶طݤƤΤϡƱΤʬԤäƤꡤΥХξ˵ǽƤ뤫ȹͤ롥Think, believe, suppose, know, guess comment cl ϤΤ褦ʬ줿֤ˤƵǽƤ뤫Ǥ
ǧưȤ٤ηȤäƤ⡤̻Ū˼٤ɤäƤߤ뤳Ȥạ̇̄ξζȤʥߥåʸݤѻ뤳Ȥ˴
¼8ϡComment clause ΤޤȤסComment Clause λŪ桡εǽȯãٽ ¼ԡˡĬҥե˥å2010ǯ161--72ǡ
ܤϡ٤ǤФۤɷ֤긺äƽ̾ȤȤϤ褯ΤƤ롥ܤϹ٤ǤФۤɡʷ֤˼ä뤳ȤʤŤ֤ݻ䤹Ȥ⤷Ƥ롥⤿餹줾θ̤ϡ"Reduction Effect" ʽ̡̾ˡ"Conservation Effect" ¸̡ˤȸƤФƤ (Hopper and Traugott 127--28)
̤̾ϡʸˡ (grammaticalisation) ȴϢɽŪϡ#64. ˡưʤ³ȡ ([2009-07-01-1]) Ǽ褦ʿˡư췲Ǥ롥used to [ju:stə], have to [hæftə], have got to [hævgɑtə], (be) supposed to [spoʊstə], (be) going to [gɑnə] ʤɤβꥸʥβ餹긺äƽ̾ƤΤǧ롥θ̤ϡ#1101. Zipf's law ([2012-05-02-1]) #1102. Zipf's law ȸοա ([2012-05-03-1]) Ǽ夲 Zipf's law Ȥط (cf. zipfs_law) ٤ȲĹˤشطΤʤ٤ʸˡδ֤ˤͽۤۤɤδطϤʤ롤#2176. ʸˡ̣Ѳ١ ([2015-04-12-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦Ω⤢뤳ȤդäƤˡ̤̾ΰȤƤϡ#1091. ;١ѡ ([2012-04-22-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
¸̤ϡŪˤϵˤԵ§θ֡Ȥ櫓佼ˡ (suppletion) η֤餳˻¸Ƥ뤳ȤǧǤ롥;̾Ѳ be ưγѤʤɡĶٸˤƤϸŤ֤褯ݻ졤Ūˤͽ¬Բǽʷ֤ˤĤƤϡ#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])#2090. 佼ˡ餱ο;̾ηϡ ([2015-01-16-1])#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])#694. ٸԵ§ʣ ([2011-03-22-1]) ȡ¸̤Ϸ֤Τߤʤ餺ʤɤ츽ݤˤ⸫ΤǡˤĤư̤ˤ뤳Ȥ
Hopper, Paul J. and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. Grammaticalization. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2003.
ѸˤǤϡѸ줫Ѹˤơեȥƥ줫̤θüѤʤ줿Τ߾ѤΤˤĤƤϡ餯ѻ饹Ȥƻ֤ȤȤ˻٤ƤΤ롥ȤΤϡѤ줿餫٤Ѥ줿ȤϹͤˤ˱ѸƱﲽƤȤȤ館Τ
β¾ڤΤˤĤˡꤽDurkin ĴԤʤäƤ롥Ѹ졤Ѹ졤ѸΤ줾ˤƥѥ˴ŤǹٸꥹȤꡤΤʤ˥եƥѸ줬ɤΤ餤γǴޤޤƤ뤫Ĵ١γ̻ŪܤӤȤˡŤΥѥǤֻѰۤȤ꤬ؤ뤿ᡤ̩Ĵ褦ȤñˤϤʤDurkin ϤȤꤢˡȤơѸȽѸˤĤƤ Helsinki Corpus 1150--1500ǯ1500--1710ǯΥѤơѸˤĤƤ BNC Ѥưֻ١Ĵ줾٥ˤ900--1000̤ۤɤޤǤñֻ˥ꥹȤꡤΤʤǥեƥѸ줬ϤФ
̤ϡѸ쥻Ǥ7%ۤɤäΤѸ쥻Ǥ19%ޤǾ徺˸Ѹ쥻Ǥ38%ޤǤ˻äƤ롥ƤĴǤ뤳ȤǧĤĤ⡤եƥѸǸѤƤΤ¿ˤĤƤϡˤΤʤǽ٤夲Ƥ̤ȤơߤŪʤȤ褯狼ä
ˤ⤷ȤˡѸΥ1500--1710ǯˤ˴ؤͤˤĤơٸꥹȤ˴ޤޤեƥѸΤ٤Ƥ1500ǯ˼Ѥ줿ΤǤꡤ⤽2/3ۤɤϳμ¤˥եѸǤȤ¤ǧ (Durkin 338--39)
ޤѸȽѸιٸꥹȤ˴ޤޤեƥѸ¿ѸιٸꥹȤˤƸƤ¤ˤƤŤ2ˤϸ뤬ϳƤ췲įȡʤȤѲƤ롥㤨Сhonour, justice, manner, noble, parliament, pray, prince, realm, religion, supper, treason, usury, virtue Ǥ (Durkin 340)
ˤäƺѸꥹȤ䥭ɤۤʤ뤳ȤȤ˱Ѹ쥳ѥѤ͡ʻӤƤߤȤ⤷㤨СѸ쥳ѥ˴ŤɡꥹȤˤĤơ#2332. EEBO ΥɤС ([2015-09-15-1]) ȡޤ٤ˤˤĤƤϡ#1243. ٤θ̻ŪΤˡ ([2012-09-21-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Durkin, Philip. Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: OUP, 2014.
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