be ưϡܥ֥Ǥ¿夲Ƥ Lass θűѸ˴ؤȤơȤ櫓 b- η֤˴ؤ뻨ŪƶҲ𤷤
ޤbe ưνεˤʬLass (170) Ѥ롥
(a) an s-root (eom, eart, is, sindom = L s-um, e-s, e-s-t, s-unt);
(b) a b-root (bēo, bist, biþ, bēoþ, cognate to Skr bhu- 'remain', Latin perfect of 'be' fū-ī, OCS byti 'be', Gr phú- 'become';
(c) a w-root, in the inifinitive wesan, pres part wesende, preterite wæs, wǣron; this is cognate to OIr feiss/foss 'remain', Skr vásati 'he dwells'. Wesan is a defective cl V verb (as wesan/wæs/wǣron suggest), whose PRET1/PRET2 serve as the only past for the other stems.
Τʤ b- ˻Ѥޥ췲ǤȯãǤꡤŪˤä٤ηǤȤ (Lass 171)
The incorporation of the b-root into this group seems to be a WGmc innovation.
ޤʲ˸ڤűѸθʬʬ b- °뤬űѸˤƤϤٺ餭Ȥ (Lass 171)
. . . until the eleventh century the only present participle is wesende, and there is no past participle. After this pres part bēonde and pp be-bēon (> ModE been) appear.
űѸ b- ޤ̿ˤĤƤϡʬۤʤɤʣǡΤ褦ˤ (Lass 171)
The imperative is usually in b- in earlier texts: sg bēo, pl bēoþ; later wes, wesaþ appear (wes remains buried in wassail < wes hāl 'be healthy'). There is some regional differentiation, with b- imperatives in WS and Merc, and wes Northumbrian, though wes also occurs in WS and Mercian.
Ҥ뤬äƸɸѸˤ b- ϤϤɤȤȡŪˤϿषƤȤߤ뤳ȤǤ (Lass 171)
The standard ModE system suggests more radical loss of the b-forms than was actually the case; as late as the 1950s some conservative rural varieties in old West Mercian and West Saxon territory (e.g. the W Midlands and West Country) preserve paradigms like I bin, thee bist, Her is (Cheshire and Shropshire), I be, you be, her is, they be (Warwickshire, Somerset), or be for all persons and numbers (Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Somerset).
b- η֤˾ƤˤƤߤΤ⤪⤷
Lass, Roger. Old English: A Historical Linguistic Companion. Cambridge: CUP, 1994.
űѸ be ưˤĤƤϡ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) Ϥᡤ¿ε夲ƤűѸ be ưΥѥϡ佼ˡ (suppletion) ŵǤꡤ͡ʸ캬˴ŤŪѤƤȤ𤬤롥Ȥ櫓ȤľˡôäƤ eom bēo ȤˡǤɤΤ褦˰ۤʤΤȤʤ롥 (aspect) 㤬ȸ뤳Ȥ¿ Campbell (§768; p. 350--51) εҤɤǤߤ뤳Ȥˤ롥
The distinction of the pres. indic. tenses eom and bēo is fairly well preserved in OE: bēo expresses what is (a) an invariable fact, e.g. ne bið swylċ cwenliċ þeaw 'such is not a queenly custom', or (b) the future, e.g. ne bið þe wilna gad 'you will have no lack of pleasure', or (c) iterative extension into the future, e.g. biþ storma ȝehwylċ aswefed 'every storm is always allayed' (i.e. on all occasions of the flight of the Phoenix, past and to come); eom expresses a present state provided its continuance is not especially regarded, e.g.wlitiġ is se wong 'the plain is beautiful'.
ŪˡȤƤϡeom ϡä˷³ռªƤ븽ߤξ֡פɽ魯ΤФbēo ϡѤλ¡ס̤סȿפɽ魯ʸ̮塤κΤ˽Фʤ⤢뤳ȤϳΤ2Ĥηˡ̤ƤªƤ褤
ۤ̿ˡη֤ˤĤƤ⡤bēon ¾η¤ǹԤʤƤʲ Campbell (§768; p. 51) ̤ꡤˡΰ㤤Ȥκۤª٤ΤȤ
The distinction of the imperatives bēo and wes is one of dialect, not of meaning. Broadly bēo is W-S and Merc., wes (woes, wæs) North.; but while bēo is never North., wes is found in W-S and Merc. . . .
Similarly inf. bēon (bīon, bīan) is W-S and Merc., wosa North.; but Ru.1 has once wesa, Li. once bīan.
The subj. forms bēo and sīe (sēo) are also dialectally distinguished: sīe is eW-S, Kt., VP, North., bēo is Ru.1 But already in eW-S bēo appears, and in lW-S it is the prevailing form (it does not appear, however, in KG). In North, it only appears in Li. (twice).
Campbell, A. Old English Grammar. Oxford: OUP, 1959.
328ڡˤˡǯ٤ī㡼Υֺ˾äȤԻĤʱñǽȤʤ12ߴȤƤ3ˤ֤ޤ2025ǯ٤Υñϡbe ưǤΤñǤ͡
be ưϡޤ˰۾ʱñǤʤ am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been ƱưʤΤʸˡ̣ҲϤΤܤ٤Ķٸ1̤ the ˼2̡ˤˤơѸˤԻĤȤ⤷Ž̤줿ñǤ90ʬιֵǤϰƤ꤭ʤۤɤǤ
ƤĤ̤ markmap ˤޥɥޥåײޤѤˤȤС

ޤǡ2025ǯ٤Υ111ˤĤƤʲ̤ޥɥޥåפƤޤ2025ǯ٤ΥޥɥޥåפǤΤޤȤϤǴȤʤޤä꤬͡Ȥޤ
#5857. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤1she --- 츻䤨ʤ̾פޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-05-10-1])
#5887. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤2through --- ޤ¿ֻͤĸפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-06-09-1])
#5915. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤3autumn --- ³ƤפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-07-07-1])
#5949. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤4but --- Ĥ¿³פޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-08-10-1])
#5977. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤5guy --- ̾饫եʰ̣Ѳ뤲פޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-09-07-1])
#6013. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤6English --- ƤñɤޤǤꤹפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-10-01-1])
#6041. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤7I --- 1;ñ̾ᤰʪפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-11-10-1])
#6076. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤8take --- ⤿餷ĶܸפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-12-15-1])
#6076. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤8take --- ⤿餷ĶܸפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2025-12-15-1])
#6098. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤9one --- ñʤ͡ˡعäפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2026-01-06-1])
#6139. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤10very --- ʪפ纮ζոءפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2026-02-16-1])
#6167. 2025ǯ٤ī륷ֺ¤11that --- ؼ줫¿ǽؤפޥɥޥåײƤߤޤ ([2026-03-16-1])
2025ǯ٤ΥϰʾǽλǤ2026ǯ٤īǤαѸ˹ֺ¤Ϸ³ƤޤʤȤǯ٤Ⱦϥ饤ֺ¤Ȥ³ĤνմΥơޤϺǯ٤Ρ˾äȤԻĤʱñפѤޤޤ̤ꡤܤ٤1ñӡϤޤ륹礭ʱѸˤƤޤʻߤȤơظűѸ졦ѸҿӡȤűѸѸ줫ûʸɤ߲ʤ顤ñΥʥäƤȹͤƤޤմ3Υ饤ʥåפϰʲ̤Ǥ
1. 425ڡ15:30--17:00"knight" õäѸ츶ʸ
2. 523ڡ15:30--17:00"again" õäѸ츶ʸ
3. 627ڡ15:30--17:00"ghost" õäƸűѸ츶ʸ
ܺ٤䤪ߤθڡɤǯ٤īֺ¤ꤤޤ

ǯ٤ī㡼ɶˤơ˾äȤԻĤʱñפꤷơѸˤΥֺ¤ŸƤޤرѸ츻ŵʸҡˤرѸ츻ϥɥ֥åʸҡˤˡŪñ1ļ夲IJ̵Ԥ˹귡겼ꤷĤġʥߥåʱѸˤ̣浪ȤݤǿʤƤޤ
٤βϡǯ٤ΥȤƤϺǸȤʤ12ǤȤƤϡǽñȤ be ưӤޤ90ʬǤϤȤƤԤˤʤʪñǤǽ˽вñ1ĤǤꡤIJǯѸؤǤƤɬ⤦ޤȤʤʤ be ư̥Ϥޤ
ʲbe ưᤰäƤɤΤ֥쥹˽ФƤߤޤ
be ưεϡ
be ưŪ۷Ƥߤ褦
be ưü5
be ưưǤ⤢ưǤ⤢
¸ߤɽ魯 be ư
Ϣ뼭 (copula) ȤƤ be ư
ˡ If I were/was a bird, . . . ᤰͻ
be λȤϡ
be ưϿ;Ρꡦ֡ˡɽ魯ȤǤ
䤨 be ư
ain't ᤰҲŪͻ
ɸѼˤ be ưλȤ
ۤˤפĤޤֺ¤Ǥϡʤ٤¿˿졤ΤΤʤդäƹԤʤʥư90ʬҤäƤޤ礦
ֺ¤ؤλˡϡ⥪饤äΤߤȤʤޤꥢ륿Ǥμ֤Τۤ2֤θƨۿӥ⤢ޤΤԹΤ褤ˡǤäйǤֻ֤ 15:30--17:00 ȤʤäƤޤֺ¤ȿߤξܺ٤īڡꤴǧơҤ긵ˡرѸ츻ŵ٤رѸ츻ϥɥ֥å٤⤴Ѱդֺ¤ܤڤʤޤ
⤷ֺ¤ΤΤ餻ϡ heldio Ǥ#1754. 328īֺ¤ be --- ѸΡ¸ߡפ٤ĶԵ§ưȤͽԤϤޤΤǡ碌Ƥİ
ơ2025ǯ٤ΥϰڤȤʤޤ42026ǯ٤οϤޤޤϤȤϤäƤ⡤ʤȤմˤĤƤϡ2025ǯ٤Υμ˾äȤԻĤʱñפϰѤǤͽǤ1ĤαñܤƥʥߥåʱѸˤưɤäƤޤǯ٤225˸Ҥ괩Ԥ줿ظűѸ졦ѸҿӡθŤѸθʸƥȤȤĤŸͽǤǯٽմˤĤƤϡǤīθΰФƤޤΤǡ餫ܺ٤ǧ
߷ ˧ͺԽ紴ˡرѸ츻ŵٿǡҡ2024ǯ
߷ ͧ ɹ δˡʡ 쵮 ءʹܶϡˡرѸ츻ϥɥ֥å١ҡ2025ǯ
Բ ϲ ͭظűѸ졦Ѹҿӡ١ҡ2026ǯ
βƵ٤ߡŪμͭӥ Mond ˴ƤѸϢѤʵ (sobokunagimon) ˲Ƥޤľ5ۤɤβ¤٤ޤ
(1) ʤ be ư°ư be ʤΤˡʤĤ̾դƤΤǤ礦
(2) ƻζޤ -er ȤͥӤζ֤ΤФơӤζ֤ʤΤϤʤǤ
(3) ط2ʸ1ʸˤޤȤ䤬ȸޤ2ʸˤ뤫1ʸˤ뤫ǰ̣礤ϰۤʤΤǤ礦
(4) Ѹ "subjunctive mood" ˤĤơѸŪθΤꤿȻפäƤޤơ䤵Ƥޤ
(5) be + ʬפβʬ ưʤǤ, ƻʤǤ

줾Ǥ͡ΤΤȤ⡤ܤƤޤȹǤ¾ˤ͡ޤषϤޤΤȻפäƤޤ
μϰ츫Ѥ˸ơ¤ϱѸˤؤοƶɬפȤ뤪ФǤѸؽԤγƤ뵿䤬¤ϸŪ˶̣Ǥ뤳Ȥ⾯ʤޤΤ褦 Mond ؤμԤƤޤ
ʸˡǤϡư§ư (regular verbs) Ե§ư (irregular verb) Ȥʬ롥Ե§ưΤʤǤȤ櫓Ե§η㤷ư㤨 be, have, can ʤɡˤϡ§ư (anomalous verbs) ȸƤФ뤳Ȥ롥§ư§ϡŪˤϤ٤ǤΤΡʣǤ뤳ȤϳΤǤꡤŪʴϡ§פȤ롼פɤäƽƤȤˡŪ˺ѤƤ롥
űѸˤ⡤Ūʴ§ư¸ߤwillan (= PDE "to will"), dōn (= PDE "to do"), gān (= PDE "to go") Ǥ롥űѸˤƤ鶦Ūˡ§פȤդƤޤΰۿưζɽHogg (40) Ǥ褦Ť§ŪäΤ
| Pres. | willan | dōn | gān |
| 1 Sing. | wille | dō | gā |
| 2 Sing. | wilt | dēst | gǣst |
| Sing. | wile | dēð | gǣð |
| Plural | willað | dōð | gāð |
| Subj. (Pl.) | wille (willen) | dō(dōn) | gā(gān) |
| Participle | willende | dōnde | --- |
| Past | |||
| Ind. | wolde | dyde | ēode |
| Participle | --- | ġedōn | ġegān |
Ѹˤˤ֥ȸ첾 (celtic_hypothesis) ˤĤơޤǤĤεǼ夲Ƥ
#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1])
#1254. ѸäդθѲϽդߤäƤ뤫 ([2012-10-02-1])
#1342. ظƶؤȽ ([2012-12-29-1])
#1851. Ƶ̾ oneself ͳˤĤƤν ([2014-05-22-1])
#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1])
#3755. ֥ȸ첾פȲơ ([2019-08-08-1])
#3969. ƥ졤ťΥɸ졤ȸ졤ե줬Ѹ˵ڤܤƶӤ ([2020-03-09-1])
#4528. ꥹμϰ˻Ĥ3Ĥȯ ([2021-09-19-1])
#4595. Ĵʸ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2021-11-25-1])
#5129. ʹԷ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2023-05-13-1])
ǯΡ֥ȸ첾פǤϡʼ˸ðʳΡθबȽ줫ѸذưǽˤĤƸƤʤƤHickey (505) ˤꥱȸαƶ꺻ƤƤߤ褦ƹܤˤĤơܤƤϰ衦Ѽʸ˸륿ߥʤɤϥХХǤ뤳ȡޤܿˤ餺ŪװΤߤ⤷Τ뤳ȤʤɡɤˤդɬפǤ롥
Table 3. Possible transfer features from Celtic (Brythonic) to English
1. Lack of external possessor construction Morphosyntactic 2 Twofold paradigm of to be 3. Progressive verb forms 4. Periphrastic do 5. Northern subject rule 6. Retention of dental fricatives Phonological 7. Unrounding of front vowels
1 ϡѸ My head is sore. Τ褦Τ̤ʤɤ˴ؤƽͭʤɽThe head is sore. Τ褦˴Ѥʤˡؤ
2 ϡűѸʼ˥ȥˤˤ be ư줬첻뤤 s- ǻϤޤȡb- ǻϤޤ2ηʻ¸Ƥؤ
3 ϡ#5129. ʹԷ˴ؤ֥ȸ첾ס ([2023-05-13-1]) ȡ
4 ϡ#486. Ū do ȯã ([2010-08-26-1])#3755. ֥ȸ첾פȲơ ([2019-08-08-1]) ȡ
5 ϡ#689. Northern Personal Pronoun Rule ȱʸˡˤ륱ȸαƶ ([2011-03-17-1]) ȡ
6 ϡth = [θ] ȤŪʻҲޤǻĤäƤ¤ؤ
7 ϡűѸ˱߿첻 [y, ø] äȤؤ
Hickey ΰꥹȤˤĤƤϡ#3754. ȸ줫ι¤Ūѡ֥ȸ첾פˤĤơ ([2019-08-07-1]) ⻲ȡ
ϢơVoicy heldio #715. ȸ첾ɤ
Hickey, Raymond. "Early English and the Celtic Hypothesis." Chapter 38 of The Oxford Handbook of the History of English. Ed. Terttu Nevalainen and Elizabeth Closs Traugott. New York: OUP, 2012. 497--507.
#4995. ư̾칽ʸ there is no ---ing ---뤳ȤϤǤʤפѸ ([2022-12-30-1]) ϸѸˤ³ʸȤΤƤ뤬Ѹˤ there was ---ing Ȥ̣ʸ¸ߤ---Ԥʤ줿ס---ȤȤȤפۤɤΰ̣Ǥ롥Mustanoja (576) ˤĤ㤬Ƥ롥
The construction there was . . -ing is frequently used in ME for the expression of indefinite agency: --- þer was sobbing (Havelok 234); --- þer was sembling (Havelok 1018); --- thar wes oft bikkyring (Barbour ix 343); --- so greet wepyng was there noon, certayn, Whan Ector was ybroght, al fressh yslayn, To Troye, Allas, the pitee that was ther, Cracchynge of chekes, rentynge eek of heer (Ch. CT A Kn. 2831--4). A similar case is and thus the woful nyhtes sorwe To joie is torned on the morwe; Al was thonkinge, al was blessinge, Which erst was wepinge and cursinge (Gower CA ii 3317--18).
ư̾ɽ蘆ưιټԤǤꡤưΤΤ˾ƤѤ빽ʸʤΤOED -ing, suffix1 ˤäˤιʸ˴ؤ뵭ҤϤʤMED -ing(e (suf.(1)) ˤڤʤ
ιʸϡǤäΩäʸȤƸڤ뤳ȤϤʤΤΡ١ȤϼѤƤ褦there is/was ---ing BNCweb ꤤĤƤߤ褦
'Well, like I told the foreign gentleman, there was dancing in the sitting room, and this Mrs Heatherington-Scott she was dancing with Mr Merrivale.'
There is shooting almost daily in the capital as roaming snipers attack military checkpoints;
There was rationing at home and war in Ireland.
First there was cheering then jeering.
There was knocking on the front door.
Mustanoja, T. F. A Middle English Syntax. Helsinki: Société Néophilologique, 1960.
ε#4994. There is no accounting for tastes ס ([2022-12-29-1]) Ǽ夲ϡ褯Τ줿 there is no ---ing ---뤳ȤϤǤʤפư̾칽ʸȤʤäƤ롥One cannot account for tastes. It is impossible to account for tastes. ȸ̣
θ18˽ФŪΤȤ뤬there is no ---ing ư̾칽ʸΤΤϡɤΤ餤Ťޤˤ̤ΤOED no, adj. ˤȡ13νƻޥ˥奢 Ancrene Riwle ˽Ф롥ʸȤƤ it is no ---ing ʤɤѰ۷ߤ (cf. #4790. there they Ѹ it ˡ ([2022-06-08-1])) ʲ OED ΰѤʸ嶽̣ʬ֤ǼƤߤ
4. Modifying a verbal noun or gerund used as the predicate, denoting the impossibility of the action specified. Chiefly with non-referential there (also it) as subject.
[c1230 (?a1200) Ancrene Riwle (Corpus Cambr.) (1962) 149 Hwen þe delit iþe lust is igan se ouerforð þet ter nere nan wiðseggunge ȝef þer were eise to fulle þe dede.]
a1400 (a1325) Cursor Mundi (Vesp.) 23812 (MED) Quen we it proue þat es to late, Es þar na mending þan þe state.
1523 Ld. Berners tr. J. Froissart Cronycles I. ccclxxxvi. 657 It is no goynge thyder, without ye wyll lose all.
1560 Bible (Geneva) Nahum iii. 19 There is no healing of thy wounde.
a1593 C. Marlowe Edward II (1594) sig. D4v Cosin it is no dealing with him now.
a1616 W. Shakespeare Two Gentlemen of Verona (1623) ii. i. 146 Val. No, beleeue me. Speed. No beleeuing you indeed sir.
a1643 J. Shute Sarah & Hagar (1649) 108 So the people were so impetuously set upon their lusts, that there was no speaking to them.
1719 D. Defoe Farther Adventures Robinson Crusoe 39 There was no keeping Friday in the Boat.
1753 Gray's Inn Jrnl. No. 54 There is no going any where without meeting Pretenders in this Way.
1820 W. Irving Sketch Bk. vii. 117 Do what they might, there was no keeping down the butcher.
1849 W. M. Thackeray Pendennis (1850) I. xv. 138 There's no accounting for tastes, sir.
1895 A. I. Shand Life E. B. Hamley I. ii. 21 There was no mistaking the meaning of the invitation, and there was no declining it.
1954 A. Thirkell What did it Mean? 87 There would be no getting hold of the girls as the evenings got longer.
1975 Times 6 Dec. 8/5 Try Village Prospects..R 3 again, I fear, but no avoiding it.
2001 Financial Times 27 Jan. 8/4 There is no mistaking African anger at the external barriers they confront.
űѸ줫餹ǤȯãƤ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) ȡѸˤ褦䤯ȯãϤư̾줬Τޤ줿ʸȤäƤ褤¸ʸˤĤƤϡ#1565. existential there ε (1) ([2013-08-09-1]) ȡ#1566. existential there ε (2) ([2013-08-10-1])#4473. ¸ʸˤμỌ̇̄μ ([2021-07-26-1]) ȡ
δñѸ in English٤8椬ȯȤʤޤϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפ17ϡ֤ʤֻɽפǤ̤ΤȤ⸽߷פǤ

If it is fine tomorrow, I will go shopping. Τ褦ʸǡ餫ˡפȤ̤ΤȤʤΤˡ*If it will be fine tomorrow, . . . . Τ褦 will ѤʤȤˤʤäƤޤϡعʸˡΥإƥʵ§κǤΤ1ĤǤ礦Ѹϰ̤˸ߡ̤Ȼ (tense) ˤ뤵ʤΤǤγˤϡֻɽפ̰Ƥ褦˶줷ߤޤ
εϡѸˤδȸѤޤŤϡֻפȤϡˡ (mood) äǤѸޤǤϾ嵭ʸ If it be fine tomorrow, . . . . Τ褦ˡֲˡߡפѤƤޤθ塤ˡʸߡˤοबʤߡľˡʸߡˤ֤줿 If it is fine tomorrow, . . . . ȤʤäƤ롤ȤΤŪаޤǤηаޤˤϡȤȻιθäƤ;ϤϤʤäȤȤǤ
ϰʲ̤ꡤhellog, heldio ʤɤǤ֤ⷫ夲ƤޤϢܵǤϽˤ䤹褦פ⤷Ƥߤޤʸˡ˱Ѹˤδ뤪⤷̣äƤ館ФȻפޤ
hellog #2764. رѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ٤Ǥޤ ([2016-11-20-1])
- 4.1.1ˤơֻǤ̤ΤȤǤ will ѤʤפȤ夲Ƥޤ
hellog #2189. ˤ will Իѡ ([2015-04-25-1])
hellog #4408. ̤ΤȤʤΤ˸߷ɽ魯 ([2021-05-22-1])
heldio #33. Ǥ̤Ǥ⸽߷Ѥ롩2021ǯ704
δñѸ in English٤7椬ȯȤʤޤϢܡˤѸΥܥʵפ³Ƥޤ16ϡѸؽԤˤ˴֤ʤˡǤ if I were a bird ȤʤΡפ夲ޤ

ѤʵϡѸ˴ϢܤʤɤǤˤ˼夲Ƥޤ伫Ȥ hellog 䤽¾ΤǷ֤ܤƤޤرѸΡ֤ʤפ롡ϤƤαѸˡ١ʸҡ2016ǯǤ4.2ˤơ֤ʤ If I were a bird ȤʤΤˡοȻ¸פȤƲäƤޤ
ޤŪˡפɼؤåȤ˿˥ȥ饤ȤϤʤäΤǡɤޤǽҤ٤٤ˤϿʤۤ褤Τʤɡʤʤ忴ޤʤʤϾĩŪƧ߹ߡ⤽ֲˡפȤϲ䡤ȤܼäƤߤޤϤƤޤäƤǤ礦ͤˤȽǤƤۤޤ
ʲϡޤǸɽƤ if I were a bird ˴ؤ hellog 䲻ưǥǤΥƥĤǤ͡ʥ٥ǽƤޤΤǡϢܵȹ碌ƤʤˤĤƤϽФԤޤ͡ˡ
#2601. ʤ If I WERE a bird ʤΤ ([2016-06-10-1])
#3812. was were δط ([2019-10-04-1])
#3983. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (1) ([2020-03-23-1])
#3984. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (2) ([2020-03-24-1])
#3985. ؤǤˡ (mood) ȤϲǤ (3) ([2020-03-25-1])
#3989. űѸǤȿŪˤϲˡѤ줿 ([2020-03-29-1])
#3990. ʤˡˤϿ;ѲʤΤǤ (1) ([2020-03-30-1])
#3991. ʤˡˤϿ;ѲʤΤǤ (2) ([2020-03-31-1])
#4178. ʤˡǤ If I WERE a bird Τ褦 WERE ȤΤǤ --- hellog 饸ǡ ([2020-10-04-1])
#4718. ˡľˡ were ˤĤƤޤȤ ([2022-03-28-1])
#30. ʤˡǤ If I WERE a bird Τ褦 WERE ȤΤǤhellog-radio: 2020ǯ104
#36. was were --- 2Ĥͣưheldio: 2021ǯ77
#301. was were δطˤĤƤޤ礦heldio: 2022ǯ328
#102. ʤ as it were ֤Сפΰ̣ˤʤΡheldio: 2021ǯ911
I wish I were a bird. were Ϥ were Ȥ̤Ρ--СڰʼδѸظإͥ #9 YouTube: 2022ǯ327
ʼȤ YouTube 9ƤޤI wish I were a bird. were Ϥ were Ȥ̤Ρ--СڰʼδѸظإͥ #9 ǤϢươ hellog heldio Ǥ⡤ƤޤΤǡ뤵⤷ޤʾСˡ
YouTube ʤθȾˤǤϡƱ were Ǥ2ĤϤäȰ㤦Ȥ夲ޤI wish I were a bird. If I were you . . . ȤΡֲˡפ were ȡ̤ we were young Τ褦ʾΡľˡפξ were Ȥΰ㤤ˤĤƤǤˤĤƤϡܥ֥ǤεåǼ夲ƤޤǥǤʲ2ǰäƤޤ
was were --- 2Ĥͣưheldio: 2021ǯ77
֤ʤˡǤ If I WERE a bird Τ褦 WERE ȤΤǤhellog-radio: 2020ǯ104
褽ϿԤƤȤпԤƤΤǤ YouTube Ƥ˹碌ơ Voicy ȤƤwas were δطˤĤƤޤ礦ꤷäޤ
ˡ were ˤĤƤΤ褦˱ѸŪƤȡषθʹ I wish I was a bird. was ⤷ʤäƤޤѸؽԤ99% was Τ֥ۤ쥮顼פǤϤʤȻפ⤷ޤѸ˸ԤȤƤϡĤ were ǤϤʤ was ˤʤäƤΤȤ˸ޤˡǯʾƿषƤΤǤοβ褤Ǥ were/was ˤڤǤȸ櫓Ǥǯ٥äȤƶʳޤ͡
ŪԵ§Ϲٸ˽椷Ƥ롥ŵԵ§ưǤ롥§Ū -ed դƲ밵Ū¿ưФơԵ§ưϿʤƤŪ٤ι⤤ưǤ롥Ե§Ե§Ȥ go be β went, was/were ʤɤϡ佼ˡ (suppletion) ˤΤǤꡤŵƤʤǤǤʤϡĶٸǤ뤳ȤطƤ롥դλϰʲεǤ夲Ƥ
֤ʤٸˤԵ§ʤȤ¿ΤǤ ʵ729դֱѸθ츻ȤˤĤ饸ˤƲ
#3859. ʤˤԵ§ʸݤΤǤ ([2019-11-20-1])
#43. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 ([2009-06-10-1])
#1482. ʤ go β went ˤʤ뤫 (2) ([2013-05-18-1])
#3284. be ưü ([2018-04-24-1])
Ǥϡʤ٤ι⤤ưˤԵ§ѤΤ¿Τ (memory) ֤οŪɽ (mental representation) ʤŪǤ롥Smith (1535) βѤ롥
The relationship between high frequency and irregularity has to do with memory in so far as those verbs that are used frequently have strong mental representations such that the irregular past forms are stored autonomously and thus accessed independently of the present stem. Such items are said to have become "entrenched" in storage . . . . On the other hand, a low frequency form does not necessarily have its past form stored autonomously and does not allow for direct access to that past form. Thus, its use in the past involves access to the present stem and rule application . . . .
٤ι⤤ưβϡˤ˻Ѥ뤿ˡΤʤľܥǤФˤޤäƤΤǤ롥go Ȥ߷ˤ went ˤɤ夯褦Ǥϡ٤Ωʤgo ͳˡľ went ΰФˤɤ夭٤㤤ưǤС߷ˤơ -ed դȤ§ŬѤη⡤ޤΤȤˤʤΤѤ롥ĤޤꡤФ٤˱ľܥȴܥ2ʬƤΤΨŪǤ롥
Ǥϡ-ed դƲ뵬§ưϾ˷ȼܥʤΤȤȡɬ⤽ǤϤʤ褦Smith (1535) ǾҲ𤵤Ƥ뤢븦ˤȡƱǤ kneaded needed ︳ԤȯƤäȤŪ٤㤤Ԥ -ed Τۤ٤ι⤤Ԥθ⡤ʿѤƿߥĹȯ줿Ȥϡneeded ΤۤưפǤ뤳ȡ餯ľܤ˵¸Ƥ뤳Ȥ롥
Smith, K. Aaron. "New Perspectives, Theories and Methods: Frequency and Language Change." Chapter 97 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 1531--46.
ѸˤǤϡűѸꡤλɽ魯Τ have λ be λ2बԤʤƤbe λϼư졤褽ưư˸ꤵ졤have λ٤ФȤΩʤ¸ߤǤϤäѸˤ have λޤޤˤӡưư have λؤȾ괹Ƥä
嵭ϡbe λοˤζʽŪʳѤǤ롥Ϣ뵭Ȥơ#1653. be λˡ ([2013-11-05-1])#1814. 18--19 be λο CLMET dzǧ ([2014-04-15-1])#3031. have λ be λ --- Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy ([2017-08-14-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Ƕ be λ have λΨ̻Ūܤ餫ˤ Smith (2012: 1537) ĴߤĤΤǡҲ𤷤Ƥ头Ȥ type ٤ token ٤Ψʤӳ١ˤƤʴȤʤäƤΤ Smith ̤2001ǯ "Role" ʸˡ
| Type | Token | |||
| Be | have | Be | have | |
| OE | 16% (11) | 84% (57) | 21% (18) | 79% (85) |
| EME | 11% (12) | 89% (92) | 24% (69) | 76% (214) |
| LME | 11% (9) | 89% (70) | 11% (12) | 89% (96) |
| EModE | 8% (10) | 92% (115) | 4% (13) | 96% (319) |
| 19th C | 3% (8) | 97% (311) | 4% (38) | 96% (839) |
Ѹ¸ʸ (existential_sentence) ȤСThere is/are . . . . ιʸפ⤫̤֡ be ư There ϷΥߡμȤȤ館졤̣ομ be ưθ̾롥μ줬ưθȤΤϡѸ̾θ˾Ȥ餻㳰ŪȤۤʤư˷餷ΤʤФʤʤȤѸΰŪ쵬§ϡߡ there ˤäƽ餵Ƥ롥ˤ衤̤ǤʤפιʸǤ뤳Ȥ餫
Moro (149--50) ˤȡJespersen (155) ϱѸޤ¿θĴ¸ʸפˤ¸ԡˤưθ뤳ȡŵŪʼ餷ʤȤŦ
Whether or not a word like there is used to introduce [existential sentences], the verb precedes the subject, and the latter is hardly treated grammatically like a real subject.
㤨СɥĸǤ Es gibt viele Kartoffeln "(lit.) it gives many potatoes; There are many potatoes" Τ褦ˡϷŪˤŪȤɽ蘆롥եǤ Il y a beaucoup de livres. "(lit.) it there has lots of books; There are many books" Τ褦ɽϤ꿿ŪȤɽ롥롼ޥ˥Ǥ Sunt probleme "(lit.) are problems; There are problems" Ȥʤꡤthere ΤϤʤϤ꿿ưθ֤롥Ǥ You gui "(lit.) you have ghosts; There are ghosts" Ȥʤ롥
Moro ϱѸ there is/are ¸ʸˤߤ֤ϡष be ưΥǥեȤŪħݻ̤ǤȤƤ롥̤ be ưʸμ졤㤨 John is in the garden ʤ John is a student John ϡʤư֤櫓Ūư˸֤ƤΤˤäƷ夲 (raising) 줿̤ǤȤΩȤäƤ뤳Ȥˤʤ롥;ư (impersonal_verb) ȤƤ be ưȤ˴ŤؿΤϡܤ Moro 3ϤȤ줿
¸ʸΤϡ#1565. existential there ε (1) ([2013-08-09-1]) ȡ#1566. existential there ε (2) ([2013-08-10-1]) ⻲Ȥ줿
Moro, Andrea. A Brief History of the Verb To Be. Trans. by Bonnie McClellan-Broussard. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT. P, 2017.
Jespersen, O. The Philosophy of Grammar. London: Allen and Unwin, 1924.
ŪʱѸ˵ҤˤȡűѸϡ5ȾФ˥͡͡塼ȿͤʤޥζƽ̱²ߤ˾ۤʤäȤƥ֥ƥϤäƤȤϤޤ롥ΡֱѸפϡ̱²ȤνҤäΤΤƤ褤θ塤űѸ˳Ϥ줾Ϥ˺դĤȯỴ̈Ǥϸˤޤ³ɽۤ
嵭θϡ5Ⱦа衤ߤˡʤޤäȤϤ鷺ȤˤۤɸäƤʤäȤȤƤ롥#2868. ˤƸűѸޤ줿 ([2017-03-04-1]) ǾҲ𤷤褦ˡűѸϤ⤽ܿ (dialect_contact) (dialect_mixture) λʪǤϤʤȤ⤢롥8θűѸˤϤޤʤθŪ¿ѻ뤬ϸŤ̤ܿƿؤޤѤݤŵŪˤߤ븽ݤȤΤǤϤʤ
Trudgill (2045--46) Nielsen ȤĤġ˵ȤߤűѸθŪ¿ζ3Ƥ롥
1) Old English had a remarkable number of different, alternative forms corresponding to Modern English 'first', and, crucially, more than any other continental Germanic language. This variability, moreover, would appear to be linked, although in some way that is not entirely clear, to variability and differentiation on the European mainland: ærest (cf. Old High German eristo); forma (cf. Old Frisian forma); formest (cf. Gothic frumists); and fyrst (cf. Old Norse fyrst).
2) Similarly, OE had two different paradigms for the present tense of the verb to be, one derived from Indo-European *-es- and apparently related to Old Norse and Gothic; and the other deriving from Indo-European *bheu and relating to Old Saxon and Old High German. The relevant singular forms in Table 130.1
Table 130.1: Singular forms of the present tense of the verb to be (Nielsen 1998: 80)
Gothic Old Norse Old English I Old English II Old Saxon Old High German 1SG im em eom beom bium bim 2SG is es eart bist bist bist 3SG ist es is bið is(t) ist
3) Old English also exhibited variability, in all regions, in the form of the interrogative pronoun meaning 'which of two'. This alternated between hwæðer which relates to Gothic hvaóar and W. Norse hvaðarr, on the other hand, and hweder which corresponds to O. Saxon hweðar, on the other.
嵭 1) "first" ηŪ¿ˤĤƤϡѸǤϤ뤬#1307. most mest ([2012-11-24-1]) ط롥2) be ư줬Ū佼ˡ (suppletion) ˤĤƤϡεˤ뤫⤷ʤȤƶϱԤ̤佼ˡλͻݤΥҥȤˤʤ
űѸˤϡʸŪˤʾ̤ʤȤͳѶŪˤΤͿΤΤȤƼƤޤȤ¿ʸΩĻˡפΤۤ¿ܿ礬äǽꤷƤߤȡʻƤ褦˻פ롥
ܿΰŪʲϡ#1671. dialect contact, dialect mixture, dialect levelling, koineization ([2013-11-23-1]) ɤ
Trudgill, Peter. "Varieties of English: Dialect Contact." Chapter 130 of English Historical Linguistics: An International Handbook. 2 vols. Ed. Alexander Bergs and Laurel J. Brinton. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2012. 2044--59.
Nielsen, Hans Frede. The Continental Backgrounds of English and its Insular Development until 1154. Odense: Odense UP, 1998.
ɸϳιͤȤʤ䤫⤷ޤago Ȥϡ?ˡפɽ魯λɽѤȤΤ褦˥ޥƤȻפޤäʤΰ̣ФΤȿ֤Ƥ⡤ʤʤʤΤǤϤʤǤ礦⤽ ago θ츻ϲʤΤǤ礦İ
ǤǤ礦ago ϡư go ˰̣Ƭ a- դΡƴññʤΤǤŪˤ "XXX is/are agone." XXXδ֤äפǤbe ưܲʬ agone ηǸߴλɽ路ƤΤǤ͡䤬 agone ϸҲ ago η֤˽̾Ƥޤθ塤ʸΰȤŪ˵ǽˡbe ưʬάޤXXX (being) ago Τ褦ʬ칽ʸȤƤ⤱äǤ
ΩͤȡI began to learn English many years ago. ϡäƤߤ I began to learn English --- many years (being) gone (by now). ȤäɽλȤȤǤˤĤơ⤦ܤΤꤿϡ#3643. many years ago ago Ȥϲ ([2019-04-18-1]) εɤ
褯ѤʵǤ̾θľˡˤǤ I was a bird. ʻĻäˤǤŪʲȤơ֤⤷䤬Ļäġפɽˤ̯ʲѤ If I WERE a bird . . . Ȥ뤳ȤˤʤäƤޤǶθǤ If I WAS a bird . . . Τ褦ʡ̾Ρǧ褦ˤʤäƤƤϤ褦ǤŪˤ If I WERE a bird . . . 侩Ƥޤ were ȤϡäʤΤǤ礦ʲβİ
ǤפϡŪˤưγѤ˴ؤľˡ³ˡʡŪˡֲˡפȤΤƤΡˤϡ2ĤΤ˰ۤʤΤȤƶ̤ƤȤȤǤŪʷ֤СľˡǤ I was, you were, he was, we were ʤɤȳѤƤޤ³ˡǤ I were, you were, he were, we were ʤɤȳѡʤष̵ѡˤƤΤǤʥåȤƱ褦ʷ֤ȤƤȤСΤˤΤ褦˸ΤǤ⤽ľˡ³ˡηϰۤʤäƤȤפǤ
be ưϡ¾ư٤˳ʤ˹٤ǤȤͳǡΡְۤʤפߤޤݻƤȤȤˤޤդˤС⤷ be ưʳưǤ⤽Τ褦ʡְۤʤפݻƤΤǤСIf I won a lottery . . . ʤ⤷СġˤʤɤȤɽˤơ won ⸽ԤȤϰۤʤ֤äƤǽ⤤ΤǤ
be ưϤüưȤơ̤˸ŷݻƤȤ櫓Ǥ If I WAS a bird . . . Ȥʤ褿Ƥޤä顤ʬ䤹ϤʤޤǸĤ꤬ǤӤƤΤ褦ǡäȼ䤷ʤȤ뤫⤷ޤϤɤͤǤ礦
Ϣ##2601,3812,3990,3991εåˤޤȤޤΤǡɤ
ε#4063. ʤ are ϤΥڥǡ֥פǤϤʤ֥פȯΤǤ ([2020-06-11-1]) ˰³Ǥwere ϡѸˡ§§äȯ here, mere, sphere ʤɤȵӱƧ [wɪə] Ȥʤ뤫뤤 ere, there, where ʤɤȵӱƧ [wɛə] դˤʤꤽǤºݤˤ [wəː] ʤɤȯޤϤʤǤ礦
ϡ are Ʊͤ were ޤĶ٤εǽȤƼ岽ȶ֤Ƥ̤ȤޤбűѸη֤ϡɸŪȤ West-Saxon wǣre wǣron Ǥcf. #2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1])ˡ줬Ѹˤ [wæːrə] [wɛːrə] [wɛːr] ȵ§ŪȯãޤޤǤ there where ʤɤƱϩɤäƤޤ
θ were ֤ʬޤĶ٤εǽȤƤʤˤǡ岽첻û [wɛr] Ȥʤޤ -er ¿θ¤ߤ·첻§Ūȯã[wə] Ȥʤޤߡ夯ȯȤȯ [wə] ǤȤ˿˶Ĺˤȯޤ졤ߤ̾ȯ [wəː] 夷Ȥ櫓Ǥ (Jespersen (130; 4.432))
ˤΤʳ were there where ֤ʬäȽҤ٤ޤ¤ɬ⤽ä櫓ǤϤޤ֤ʬȯãȤܤthere where ȵӱƧ [wɛə] ȯ⡤ޥʡȤϤߤǤԤʤƤ뤫ǤLPD Preference poll ˤȡȯϡꥹѸǶȤƻѤ6%ȤǤϤޤΤ˹ԤʤƤ뤳Ȥ狼ޤʢ⥤ꥹںˤȯ褯İޤˡ

εΥʬ were ˴ؤƷ֤Ȼפޤwere ϡĶ٤εǽǤ뤬椨ˡˤ̤Ƽ岽ȶβˤ餵Ƥޤ͡ʷ֤ƤϾäȤץ֤̤ȤơΤʤΤ줫η֤ɸѸˤޤӤƤȤȤˤʤޤˤäƤϡ¤ˡ֥פä⤷ʤΤǤʡ֥פϼºݤ6%θȯˡߤǤɸȯõƤߤС͡ʷ֤ĤäƤϤǤ
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
Wells, J C. ed. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education, 2008.
be ư are ϡѸˡ§§äȯ [ɛə] ȤʤϤǤƬ̤λҲʻˤäƤߤФ狼Ȥꡤbare, care, dare, fare, hare, mare, rare, ware ʤɤǤϤ [ɛə] ǵӱƧߤޤare Ķ٤ñǤꡤƤɤߴƤ⤤뤿ˡʤΥڥȯԵ§ˤϵŤޤ¤ϤбطˤʤäƤΤǤϤäƤߤޤ礦
are θ츻ϡűѸ Anglia ʣб be ưη aron (Old Northumbrian) earun (Old Mercian) ˤޤϸűѸɸŪȤ줿 West Saxon ʤɤǤѤʤäΤǡ#2600. űѸ be ưζޡ ([2016-06-09-1]) ζɽˤϸƤޤűѸ aron earun ϡѸ˸岽are Τ褦ʷ֤ؤȿʿƤޤ
ѸǤΤθȯϡĹ촴첻첻ۣ첻ȤƤĤäƤȻפޤĤޤꡤ/aːrə/ ۤɤȯǤθ塤⤷̾βȯã뤲ƤʤСcare [kaːrə] [kaːr] [kɛːr] [kɛər] [kɛə] ѲƤΤʿŪˡ[aːrə] [aːr] [ɛːr] [ɛər] [ɛə] ȤʤäƤϤǤ (cf. Minkova 279) are ˴ؤƤϤϤʤޤǤʤǤ礦
ˤ줿褦 are ĶٸǤꡤⵡǽǤ뤿Ǥbe ưޤư졤̾졤ֻʤɤεǽϡѤ뤿ᡤȯ긺äƼ岽Ǥޤ˼岽ƤѤޤΤǡռŪʶܤơȯäꤷΤ˺ޤθϡ˾ˤ˼岽ȶ֤Ƥޤcf. #3713. ǽζȼ岻 ([2019-06-27-1])#1198. ic I ([2012-08-07-1])#781. How d'ye do? ([2011-06-17-1])#2077. you ȯˡ ([2015-01-03-1])#2076. us ȯˡ ([2015-01-02-1])ˡ
δ are ȯȯãߤƤߤޤ礦ѸǤ [aːrə] [aːr] ޤǿʤߤޤθ塤촴첻μ岽äȶŪˤû[ar] Ȥʤޤû첻Ȥʤäʾ塤Ĺ첻Τߤ˺ѤѸˤƤ첻 (gvs) 뤳Ȥʤcare ʤɤȤ֤ʬʤ顤ѸǤ⤳ [ar] ݤ³ޤʤĹ첻ͳ褹֤ɸŪˤϻ¸ain't ߽ФȤƶ⤢ޤ (Jespersen (130; 4.432))ˡ
Ѹ [ar] Ϥ˼ޤäơ[a] [ə] Ȥʤꡤ줬 we're, they're Τ褦˥ݥȥեȼäάȤ֤ȯޤռŪʶФ֤Ȥơñ첻Ĺ [aːr] ȯãޤ줬ߤ̾ȯǤ [ɑə] [ɑː] ˽夷ޤ
are ϡĶ٤εǽǤ뤬椨ˡˤ̤Ƽ岽ȶβˤ餵Ƥޤ͡ʷ֤ƤϾäȤץ֤̤ȤơΤʤΤ줫η֤ɸѸˤޤӤƤȤȤˤʤޤˤäƤϡ¤ˡ֥פä⤷ʤΤǤߤǤɸȯõƤߤС͡ʷ֤ĤäƤϤǤ
Minkova, Donka. A Historical Phonology of English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UP, 2014.
Jespersen, Otto. A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles. Part 1. Sounds and Spellings. London: Allen and Unwin, 1909.
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